Internet of Things (IoT)

By

Manisha Khurana

Department of Electronics
Acharya Narendra Dev College
University of Delhi
UNIT – I
Introduction to Internet of Things - Definition and Characteristics of IoT, Architectural overview (cellular, star,
mesh, ring)

Physical design of IoT: Things in IoT, IoT protocols in Link Layer, Network/Internet Layer, Transport Layer,
Application Layer (with specific reference to Communication protocols as MQTT, ZigBee, Bluetooth, CoAP, UDP,
TCP, WebSocket etc.,), Basics of Networking, Security aspects in IoT.

Logical design of IoT: Functional blocks, Communication Models, Communication APIs, Enabling Technologies, IoT
levels and deployment templates, Design principles IoT and M2M- Definitions, differences between M2M & IoT
systems, Software defined networks (SDN), network function virtualization (NFV), difference between SDN and NFV
for IoT, Basics of IoT System Management with SNMP, NETCONF -YANG
Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of interrelated, internet-connected objects which are
able to collect and transfer data over a wireless network without human intervention.

For example, smart fitness bands or watches, driverless cars or drones, smart homes that
can be unlocked through smartphones and smart cars, etc.
Internet of Things refers to the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other
items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity, allowing them to
collect and exchange data. The IoT enables these devices to interact with each other and with the
environment and enables the creation of smart systems and services.
 Examples of IoT

• Smart home devices such as thermostats, lighting systems, and security systems.
• Wearables such as fitness trackers and smartwatches.
• Healthcare devices such as patient monitoring systems and wearable medical
devices.
• Industrial systems such as predictive maintenance systems and supply chain
management systems.
• Transportation systems such as connected cars and autonomous vehicles.

The IoT is transforming various industries, from healthcare and manufacturing to transportation and
energy. IoT devices generate vast amounts of data, which can be analyzed to improve operations,
drive innovation, and create new business opportunities.
 IoT systems are typically composed of several components: including IoT devices,
communication networks, gateways, and cloud-based data processing and storage
systems.

 IoT devices use sensors and other technologies to collect data, and then send that data
to the cloud for analysis and storage. The cloud also provides a centralized platform
for managing and controlling IoT devices and networks.

 IoT development involves a wide range of technologies, including wireless

communication protocols, cloud computing, big data analytics, machine learning, and
security technologies.

According to the definition of IoT, It is the way to interconnect with the help of internet devices that can
be embedded to implement the functionality in everyday objects by enabling them to send and receive
data.
 Characteristics of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features:

1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT should be connected to the IoT
infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be guaranteed at all times. For example, the
connection between people through Internet devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets, also a connection
between Internet devices such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.
2. Intelligence and Identity
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For example, a sensor generates data, but
that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification
is helpful in tracking the equipment and at times for querying its status.
3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT setup should be
capable of handling the massive expansion. The data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be
handled appropriately.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)

IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and scenarios. Assume a camera
meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in different conditions and different light situations
(morning, afternoon, and night).

5. Architecture

IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturers „
products to function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when
multiple domains come together.

6. Safety

There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting compromised when all his/her devices
are connected to the internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major challenge.
Besides, the equipment involved is huge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment safety is also
critical.
7. Self Configuring

This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to upgrade their software in
accordance with requirements with a minimum of user participation. Additionally, they can set up the network,
allowing for the addition of new devices to an already-existing network.

8. Interoperability

IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can communicate with each other and
other systems. Interoperability refers to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to communicate and
exchange data with each other, regardless of the underlying technology or manufacturer.
Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual silos of data and devices, making it difficult
to share information and create new services and applications.
To achieve interoperability, IoT devices, and systems use standardized communication protocols and data formats.
These standards allow different devices to understand and process data in a consistent and reliable manner,
enabling data to be exchanged between devices and systems regardless of the technology used.
9. Embedded Sensors and Actuators
Embedded sensors and actuators are critical components of the Internet of Things (IoT). They allow IoT devices to
interact with their environment and collect and transmit data.
Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the environment, such as temperature, light, sound, or movement. In
IoT systems, sensors are embedded into devices, allowing them to collect data about the environment.
Actuators are devices that can interact with the environment, such as turning on lights, opening or closing doors, or
controlling the speed of a motor. In IoT systems, actuators are embedded into devices, allowing them to perform
actions based on data collected by sensors.
Together, sensors and actuators allow IoT devices to collect data about the environment, process that data, and take
action based on the results. This makes it possible to automate a wide range of processes and tasks, such as home
automation, energy management, and predictive maintenance.
In order to ensure that sensors and actuators can communicate with each other and with other devices and systems,
they use standardized communication protocols, such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Zigbee, or Wi-Fi.

10. Autonomous operation

Autonomous operation refers to the ability of IoT devices and systems to operate independently and make
decisions without human intervention. This is a crucial characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT) and enables a
wide range of new applications and services.
In IoT systems, devices and systems are equipped with sensors, actuators, and processing power, allowing them to
collect and process data about the environment, make decisions based on that data, and take action accordingly.
11. Data-driven
IoT devices and systems collect vast amounts of data from sensors and other sources, which can be analyzed and
used to make data-driven decisions.
In IoT systems, data is collected from embedded sensors, actuators, and other sources, such as cloud services,
databases, and mobile devices. This data is used to gain insights into the environment, improve operational
efficiency, and make informed decisions.

12. Security
As IoT devices and systems handle sensitive data and are connected to critical infrastructure. The increasing
number of connected devices and the amount of data being transmitted over the Internet make IoT systems a
prime target for cyberattacks.
To secure IoT systems, multiple layers of security are necessary, including physical security, network security,
and data security.
13. Ubiquity
Ubiquity refers to the widespread and pervasive presence of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices and
systems in our daily lives. The goal of IoT is to create a seamless and interconnected world where devices
and systems can communicate and share data seamlessly and transparently.
Ubiquity is achieved through the widespread deployment of IoT devices, as well as the development of
IoT networks and infrastructure to support communication and data exchange.
In a ubiquitous IoT environment, devices and systems can be accessed and controlled from anywhere, at
any time, using a variety of devices, such as smartphones, laptops, and other connected devices.

14. Context Awareness

Context awareness refers to the ability of Internet of Things (IoT) devices and systems to understand and
respond to the environment and context in which they are operating.
 Architecture of IoT

Internet of Things (IoT) technology has a wide variety of

applications and use of Internet of Things is growing so faster.

Depending upon different application areas of Internet of Things,

it works accordingly as per it has been designed/developed. But it
has not a standard defined architecture of working which is
strictly followed universally.

The architecture of IoT depends upon its functionality and

implementation in different sectors. Still, there is a basic process
flow based on which IoT is built. It has 4 stages:
1. Sensing Layer
2. Network Layer
3. Data Processing Layer
4. Application Layer
1. Sensing Layer

 The Sensing Layer serves as the foundation of IoT architecture.

 It is responsible for collecting data from different sources.
 It encompasses sensors and actuators strategically positioned in the environment to collect data
regarding physical conditions like temperature, humidity, light, sound, and more.
 These IoT devices (Things) are linked to the network layer using wired or wireless communication
methods.
2. Network Layer
 Within IoT architecture, the Network Layer plays a pivotal role in facilitating communication and
connectivity among devices.
 It ensures that IoT devices can connect, share data, and operate effectively within the broader internet
ecosystem, making it a critical component for the success of IoT solutions.
 This layer employs various communication protocols and technologies to establish connections
between devices and the broader internet.
 Common IoT network technologies include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks
like 4G and 5G.
 Gateways and routers serve as intermediaries between devices and the internet, and may also include
security features such as encryption (making data unreadable to anyone without the right key) and
authentication (ensures that devices are verified and prove they are who they claim to be) to protect
against unauthorized access.
3. Data Processing Layer

 The IoT architecture's data processing layer encompasses both software and hardware
components responsible for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data originating from
IoT devices.
 Its primary function involves receiving raw data, processing it, and making it accessible
for subsequent analysis or action.
 This layer incorporates an array of technologies and tools, including data management
systems, analytics platforms, and machine learning algorithms.
 These resources are essential for extracting meaningful insights from the data and
facilitating decision-making processes based on this information.
 In the realm of IoT architecture, the Data Processing Layer plays an indispensable role in
refining, analyzing, and optimizing data, ultimately rendering it valuable for decision-
making and actionable insights.
 Its contributions extend to improving the efficiency, scalability, and security of IoT
solutions across diverse industries and applications.
 An illustrative example of a technology employed in the data processing layer is a data
lake a centralized repository designed for the storage of raw data generated by IoT
devices.
4. Application Layer

 The uppermost tier within the IoT architecture is the application layer, which directly engages with
end-users.
 Its primary duty involves offering user-friendly interfaces and features that empower users to
access and manage IoT devices effortlessly.
 Within this layer, we find various software applications, such as mobile apps, web portals, and
diverse user interfaces, all crafted to interact with the underlying IoT infrastructure.
 It also encompasses middleware services that facilitate seamless communication and data sharing
among different IoT devices and systems.
 Furthermore, the application layer boasts analytics and processing capabilities, enabling data to
undergo analysis and transformation into meaningful insights.
 These capabilities encompass advanced tools like machine learning algorithms, data visualization
applications, and other sophisticated analytical functions.
 The Application Layer bridges the gap between IoT technology and end-users, enabling them to
interact, control, and derive value from IoT devices and data.
 It enhances user experience, customization, and accessibility, making it a critical component for
the success of IoT solutions in various industries and applications.
 IoT Protocols
IoT protocols and standards are typically categorized in two main ways:
• Data protocols
• Network protocols

Data Protocols
Data protocols are responsible for the application and presentation layers of IoT technology.
These standards and protocols are responsible for connecting low-power IoT devices. They provide
communication with hardware on the user-side without the need for an Internet connection.
IoT data protocols typically achieve connectivity via a wired or cellular network. The most
commonly used data protocols are:
• Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
• Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
•Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)
Network Protocols
Network protocols are used for connecting IoT devices over a network. Typically, these
protocols and standards are used over the Internet. The most popular IoT network protocols are:
• Wi-Fi
• Bluetooth
•ZigBee
•Web Socket
MQTT is a standards-based messaging protocol, or set of rules, used for machine-to-machine
communication.
 Smart sensors, wearables, and other Internet of Things (IoT) devices typically have to transmit and
receive data over a resource-constrained network with limited bandwidth.
 These IoT devices use MQTT for data transmission, as it is easy to implement and can
communicate IoT data efficiently.
 MQTT supports messaging between devices to the cloud and the cloud to the device.
 It is lightweight and Efficient

Introduced by IBM in 1999

What are MQTT components?
MQTT implements the publish/subscribe model by defining clients and brokers as below.

MQTT client
An MQTT client is any device from a server to a microcontroller that runs an MQTT library. If
the client is sending messages, it acts as a publisher, and if it is receiving messages, it acts as a
receiver. Basically, any device that communicates using MQTT over a network can be called
an MQTT client device.

MQTT broker
The MQTT broker is the backend system which coordinates messages between the different
clients. Responsibilities of the broker include receiving and filtering messages, identifying
clients subscribed to each message, and sending them the messages. It is also responsible for
other tasks such as:
• Authorizing and authenticating MQTT clients
• Passing messages to other systems for further analysis
• Handling missed messages and client sessions
 How does MQTT work?

An overview of how MQTT works is given below.

1. An MQTT client establishes a connection with the MQTT broker.
2. Once connected, the client can either publish messages, subscribe to specific
messages, or do both.
3. When the MQTT broker receives a message, it forwards it to subscribers who are
interested.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communications protocol for time-sensitive applications like
gaming, playing videos, or Domain Name System (DNS) lookups.
UDP results in speedier communication because it does not spend time forming a firm connection
with the destination before transferring the data. Because establishing the connection takes time,
eliminating this step results in faster data transfer speeds.

 In comparison to other networking protocols, the process behind UDP is fairly simple. A target
computer is identified and the data packets, called “datagrams,” are sent to it.
 There is nothing in place to indicate the order in which the packets should arrive.
 There is also no process for checking if the datagrams reached the destination.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite.
It lies between the Application and Network Layers which are used in providing reliable delivery
services.
 It is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps in the exchange of messages
between different devices over a network.
 The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique for sending data packets between
computers, works with TCP.
 Factor TCP UDP
Connection type Requires an established No connection is needed
connection before transmitting to start and end a data
data transfer
Can sequence data (send in a Cannot sequence or
Data sequence
specific order) arrange data
No data retransmitting.
Can retransmit data if packets
Data retransmission Lost data can‟t be
fail to arrive
retrieved
Delivery is not
Delivery Delivery is guaranteed
guaranteed
Thorough error-checking Minimal error-checking
Check for errors guarantees data arrives in its covers the basics but may
intended state not prevent all errors
Broadcasting Not supported Supported
Slow, but complete data Fast, but at risk of
Speed
delivery incomplete data delivery
Where TCP is Used?
• Sending Emails
• Transferring Files
• Web Browsing

Where UDP is Used?

• Gaming
• Video Streaming
• Online Video Chats
 Websocket

 Websocket protocol allows full duplex communication over a single socket connections for sending
message between client and server.
 Websocket is based on TCP and Allows streams of messages to be sent back and forth between the client
and server while keeping the TCP connection open.
 The client can be a browser, a mobile application and IoT device
 ZigBee
 It is a similar technology to bluetooth, it presents lower power consumption, high security,
low data-range, and it has a longer range of communication compared to bluetooth (200
meters, while bluetooth allows 100 meters).

 This IoT protocol is easy to set up and can be implemented with ease in products or devices
that have small requirements, for instance, sensors and microcontrollers can use this protocol.

 Zigbee is based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standards
Association's 802.15 specification.

 Zigbee is built for control and sensor networks on the IEEE 802.15.4 wireless standard
for wireless personal area networks (WPANs).

 The Zigbee WPANs operate on 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz and 868 MHz frequencies.
 Bluetooth Technology in IoT Applications

 Bluetooth is a personal area wireless networking protocol designed for communicating over
short distances.

 It was originally created to replace the wiring needed to connect devices like computers and
cell phones to their peripherals, such as headphones, keyboards and mice.

 It employs UHF (Ultra High Frequency) radio waves in the ISM bands (Industrial,
Scientific and Medial), from 2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz.
 Constraint application protocol (CoAP)
 The CoAP is an application layer and web-based protocol designed for constrained
devices like sensors.

 Sensors have a small memory and limited processing power. The CoAP is similar to
the HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) protocol.

 CoAP is used to move the data, which is collected by a sensor node, to the other
networking devices. The CoAP uses two sublayers called the Request/Response Layer
and Messaging Layer.
 Logical Design of IoT

 Logical design of an IoT

system refers to an abstract
representation of the entities and
processes without going into the
low-level specifics of the
implementation.
 An IoT system comprises of a
number of functional blocks that
provide the system the capabilities
for identification, sensing,
actuation, communication, and
management.
 IoT Fundamental Blocks
The Internet of Things (IoT) has several functional blocks. These blocks collectively
contribute to its operation. These blocks contain the device, communication, services,
application, management, & security components

Application
An application is an interface that facilitates users in accessing and analyzing the status of a
system. It serves as a control system allowing users to monitor and evaluate system operations.

Management
The management functional block encompasses a range of functions designed to oversee an IoT
system. These functions enable effective administration and coordination of various system
components.

Services
The services functional block offers a set of capabilities, including device monitoring and control,
data publication and deletion, as well as system restoration. These services enhance the
functionality and utility of the IoT system.
Communication
The communication block plays a crucial role. It helps with facilitating communication
between the client & the cloud−based server. It provides seamless data transmission &
reception by employing proper protocols.

Security
The security block is instrumental in defending an IoT system through several defensive
measures implementation. These criteria encompass authorization mechanisms, data
security protocols, authentication processes, & additional security elements such as
two−step verification.

Device
Devices within the IoT framework are responsible for sensing and monitoring functions,
gathering data from the surrounding environment. These devices enable the collection
of relevant information required for system operations.
 Communication Models

 Request-Response Model
 Publish-Subscribe Model
 Push-Pull Model
 Exclusive-Pair Model
Request-Response Model is communication model in which the client sends requests to the
server and the server responds to the requests. When the server receives a request, it decides how to
respond, fetches the data, retrieves resource representation, prepares the response, and then sends
the response to the client. Request-response is a stateless communication model and each request-
response pair is independent of others.

 HTTP works as a request-response protocol between a client and server. A web browser may be the
client, and an application on a computer that hosts a web site may be the server.
 Example: A client (browser) submits an HTTP request to the server; then the server returns a
response to the client. The response contains status information about the request and may also contain
the requested content.
Publish-Subscribe is a communication model that involves publishers, brokers and
consumers. Publishers are the source of data. Publishers send the data to the topics which
are managed by the broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers. Consumers
subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker. When the broker receive data for
a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the subscribed consumers.

Message
published
to Topic A

Message
published
to Topic B
Push-Pull is a communication model in which the data producers push the data to
queues and the consumers Pull the data from the Queues. Producers do not need to be
aware of the consumers. Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the
Producers and Consumers. Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations when
there is a mismatch between the rate at which the producers push data and the rate rate
at which the consumer pull data.
Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a
persistent connection between the client and server. Connection is setup it remains open until
the client sends a request to close the connection. Client and server can send messages to
each other after connection setup. Exclusive pair is stateful communication model and the
server is aware of all the open connections.
 An application programming interface is a way for two or
more computer programs or components to communicate
Communication APIs with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a
service to other pieces of software

Generally we used Two APIs For IoT Communication. These IoT Communication APIs are:
 REST-based Communication APIs
 WebSocket-based Communication APIs
REST-based Communication APIs
Representational state transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by which you can
design Web services the Web APIs that focus on systems‟s resources and how resource states
are addressed and transferred. REST APIs that follow the request response communication
model, the rest architectural constraint apply to the components, connector and data
elements, within a distributed hypermedia system. The rest architectural constraint are as
follows:
Client-server – The principle behind the client-server constraint is the separation of
concerns. for example clients should not be concerned with the storage of data which is
concern of the serve. Similarly the server should not be concerned about the user interface,
which is concern of the client. Separation allows client and server to be independently
developed and updated.
 Communication APIs

Stateless – Each request from client to server must contain all the information necessary to
understand the request, and cannot take advantage of any stored context on the server. The
session state is kept entirely on the client.
Cache-able – Cache constraints requires that the data within a response to a request be
implicitly or explicitly leveled as cache-able or non cache-able. If a response is cache-able,
then a client cache is given the right to reuse that repsonse data for later, equivalent requests.
caching can partially or completely eliminate some instructions and improve efficiency and
scalability.
Layered system – layered system constraints, constrains the behavior of components such
that each component cannot see beyond the immediate layer with they are interacting. For
example, the client cannot tell whether it is connected directly to the end server or two an
intermediary along the way. System scalability can be improved by allowing intermediaries
to respond to requests instead of the end server, without the client having to do anything
different.
 Communication APIs

Uniform interface – uniform interface constraints requires that the method of

communication between client and server must be uniform. Resources are identified in the
requests (by URIsin web based systems) and are themselves is separate from the
representations of the resources data returned to the client. When a client holds a
representation of resources it has all the information required to update or delete the resource
you (provided the client has required permissions). Each message includes enough
information to describe how to process the message.
Code on demand – Servers can provide executable code or scripts for clients to execute in
their context. this constraint is the only one that is optional.
 Communication APIs

WebSocket based communication API

WebSocket APIs allow bi-directional, full duplex communication between clients and
servers. Websocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model. Unlike request-
response model such as REST, the WebSocket APIs allow full duplex communication and do
not require new connection to be setup for each message to be sent. WebSocket
communication begins with a connection setup request sent by the client to the server. The
request (called websocket handshake) is sent over HTTP and the server interprets it is an
upgrade request. If the server supports websocket protocol, the server responds to the
websocket handshake response. After the connection setup client and server can send
data/messages to each other in full duplex mode. Websocket API reduce the network traffic
and latency as there is no overhead for connection setup and termination requests for each
message. Websocket suitable for IoT applications that have low latency or high throughput
requirements. So Web socket is most suitable IoT Communication APIs for IoT System.
IoT Enabling Technologies
 Wireless Sensors Network
A wireless sensor network comprises of distributed device with sensor which are used to monitor
the environmental and physical conditions. A WSN consists of a number of end-nodes, routers and
a coordinator.
 End Nodes have several sensors attached to them. End nodes can also act as routers. Routers are
responsible for routing the data packets from end-nodes to the coordinator.
 The coordinator collects the data from all the nodes. Coordinator also act as a gateway that
connects the WSN to the internet.

Some examples of WSNs used in IoT systems are described as follows:

• Weather monitoring system use WSNs in which the nodes collect temperature humidity and other
data which is aggregated and analyzed.
• Indoor air quality monitoring systems use WSNs to collect data on the indoor air quality and
concentration of various gases
• Soil moisture monitoring system use WSNs to monitor soil moisture at various locations.
• Surveillance system use WSNs for collecting Surveillance data (such as motion detection data)
• Smart grid use WSNs for monitoring the grid at various points.
• Structural health monitoring system use WSNs to monitor the health of structures (buildings,
bridges) by collecting vibration data from sensor nodes de deployed at various points in the
structure.
 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a transformative computing paradigm that involves delivering
applications and services over the Internet. Cloud computing involves provisioning of
computing, networking and storage resources on demand and providing these resources as
metered services to the users, in a “pay as you go” model. Cloud computing resources can
be provisioned on demand by the users, without requiring interactions with the cloud service
Provider. The process of provisioning resources is automated. Cloud computing resources
can be accessed over the network using standard access mechanisms that provide platform
independent access through the use of heterogeneous client platforms such as the
workstations, laptops, tablets and smart phones.
Cloud computing services are offered to users in different forms:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): IaaS provides the users the ability to provision
computing and storage resources.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): PaaS provides the users the ability to develop and deploy
application in the cloud using the development tools, application programming interface,
software libraries and services
Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS provides the user a complete software application or
the user interface
 Big Data Analytics
Big Data analytics is the process of collecting, organizing and analyzing large sets of data
(called Big Data) to discover patterns and other useful information. Big Data analytics can
help organizations to better understand the information contained within the data and will
also help identify the data that is most important to the business and future business
decisions. Analysts working with Big Data typically want the knowledge that comes from
analyzing the data.
Some examples of big data generated by IoT systems are described as follows:
 Sensor data generated by IoT system such as weather monitoring stations.
 Machine sensor data collected from sensors embedded in industrial and energy systems
for monitoring their health and detecting Failures.
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT devices such as wearable fitness bands
 Data generated by ioT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 Data generated by retail inventory monitoring systems
Characteristics
Big data can be described by the following characteristics:
Volume – The quantity of generated and stored data. The size of the data determines the
value and potential insight, and whether it can be considered big data or not.
Variety – The type and nature of the data. This helps people who analyze it to effectively
use the resulting insight. Big data draws from text, images, audio, video; plus it completes
missing pieces through data fusion.
Velocity – In this context, the speed at which the data is generated and processed to meet the
demands and challenges that lie in the path of growth and development. Big data is often
available in real-time. Compared to small data, big data are produced more continually. Two
kinds of velocity related to Big Data are the frequency of generation and the frequency of
handling, recording, and publishing.
Veracity – It is the extended definition for big data, which refers to the data quality and the
data value. The data quality of captured data can vary greatly, affecting the accurate analysis.
 Embedded System
Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. An embedded system can be
thought of as a computer hardware system having software embedded in it. An embedded
system can be an independent system or it can be a part of a large system. An embedded
system is a controller programmed and controlled by a real-time operating system (RTOS)
with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with real-
time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including
hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in common use
today. Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured to serve as embedded
system component.
An embedded system has three components −
 It has hardware.
 It has application software.
It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application software and
provide mechanism to let the processor run a process as per scheduling by following a plan
to control the latencies. RTOS defines the way the system works. It sets the rules during the
execution of application program. A small scale embedded system may not have RTOS.
 Communication Protocols

Communication protocols form the backbone of IoT systems and enable network
connectivity and coupling to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to
exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a
single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together are known as a
protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
Internet communication protocols are published by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). The IEEE handles wired and wireless networking, and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) handles other types. The ITU-T handles
telecommunication protocols and formats for the public switched telephone network
(PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet converge, the standards are also being driven towards
convergence.
In IoT we used MQTT, COAP, AMQP etc. protocols.
 IoT Levels and Deployment Templates
IoT Level 1: IoT systems have a single device that performs sensing or actuation, stores
data, performs analyses and hosts the application, IoT system-level-l is the best example
for modeling low complexity and low-cost solution where the analysis requirement is not
comprehensive and the data involved is not big.

IoT Level 1 to IoT Level 6

IoT Level 2: A node performs sensing/actuation and local analysis. Data is stored in the
cloud. this level is facilitated where the data involved is big and the primary analysis is not
computationally intensive and can be done locally itself.
IoT Level 3: It has a single node. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud and application
is cloud based.
For Big data and analysis requirement are computationally intensive
IoT Level 4: Multiple nodes collect information and store it in the cloud. Local and rent
server nodes are used to grant and receive information collected in the cloud from various
devices.
IoT Level 5: In this level Nodes present locally are of two types end odes and coordinator
nodes End nodes collect data and perform sensing or actuation or both. Coordinator nodes
collect data from end nodes and send it to the cloud. Data is stored and analyzed in the
cloud. This level is best for WSN, where the data involved is big and the requirement
analysis is comprehensive.
IoT Level 6: At this level, the application is also cloud-based and data is stored in the
cloud-like of levels. Multiple independent end nodes perform sensing and actuation and
send d to the cloud. The analytics components analyze the data and store the results in the
cloud database. The results are visualized with a cloud-based application. The centralized
controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and sends control commands to the
nodes.
 IoT and M2M- Definitions
M2M: Machine to Machine

 Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication refers to direct communication between devices

using any communication channel, including wired and wireless networks.
IoT is the successor of M2M technology.
 M2M serves as the foundation for IoT and IoT takes the basic concepts of M2M and expands
them by creating large cloud networks of devices that communicate with one other on cloud
networking platforms.
 It allows machines to communicate with each other without human intervention.

Common examples of machine-to-machine technology :

controlling electrical devices like fans and bulbs using smartphone's Bluetooth. Here, the
smartphone and the electrical devices are the two interacting devices.
 Protocols in M2M: Zigbee, bluetooth, Modbus, M-Bus, wireless M-bus,
Power line communication, 6lowpan, IEEE 802.15.4, Z-wave etc

 Protocols in IoT: HTTP, COAP, Websockets, MQTT, XMPP, DDS,

AMQP etc.
The design principles of M2M systems are crucial for ensuring reliability, scalability,
security, and efficiency. Here are some key design principles for M2M systems:

Interoperability: Devices from different manufacturers and platforms should be able to

communicate seamlessly. Standardization of communication protocols, data formats, and
interfaces is essential for achieving interoperability.

Scalability: M2M systems should be able to accommodate a growing number of devices and
handle increasing data traffic efficiently. Scalability ensures that the system can handle a larger
number of devices without significant performance degradation.
Reliability: M2M systems often operate in mission-critical environments where reliability
is paramount. Reliable communication protocols, redundant infrastructure, and failover
mechanisms are necessary to ensure continuous operation even in the event of failures or
network outages.

Security: Security is a critical consideration in M2M systems to protect against

unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyber-attacks. Encryption, authentication, access
control, and secure bootstrapping are essential security measures to safeguard M2M
communications and data.

Low Power Consumption: Many M2M devices operate on battery power or have limited
power sources. Designing energy-efficient communication protocols and optimizing device
operation to minimize power consumption are crucial for extending device battery life and
reducing operational costs.
Quality of Service (QoS): M2M applications often have specific requirements for latency,
throughput, and reliability. QoS mechanisms ensure that these requirements are met by prioritizing
critical data traffic, managing network resources efficiently, and providing mechanisms for
congestion control.
Data Management and Analytics: M2M systems generate large volumes of data that need to be
collected, processed, and analyzed in real-time to derive actionable insights. Effective data
management strategies, including data aggregation, filtering, compression, and analytics, are
essential for extracting value from M2M data.
Adaptability and Flexibility: M2M systems should be adaptable to changes in network conditions,
device capabilities, and application requirements. Flexible architectures, modular design principles,
and over-the-air (OTA) updates enable M2M systems to evolve and adapt to changing circumstances
over time.
Compliance and Regulation: M2M systems must comply with relevant regulations, standards, and
industry guidelines governing privacy, data protection, and interoperability. Compliance with
regulatory requirements ensures that M2M deployments are legally and ethically sound.
Cost-effectiveness: M2M deployments often involve a large number of devices distributed over
wide geographic areas. Designing cost-effective solutions involves optimizing hardware, software,
and network resources while minimizing deployment and operational costs.
 Software-Defined Networking (SDN)

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is an approach to networking that uses software-

based controllers or application programming interfaces (APIs) to communicate with
underlying hardware infrastructure and direct traffic on a network.

This model differs from that of traditional networks, which use dedicated hardware devices
(i.e., routers and switches) to control network traffic. SDN can create and control a virtual
network – or control a traditional hardware – via software.
Data Plane:
Forwarding of packets.
Segmentation and reassembly of data.
Replication of packets for multicasting.

Control Plane:
Making routing tables.
Setting packet handling policies.
 Network Function Virtualization (NFV)

 Network functions virtualization (NFV) is an approach to network architecture that involves

replacing dedicated network hardware devices with software-based virtualized network functions
(VNFs) that run on standard servers, storage, and switches.

 In traditional networking, specialized hardware devices such as routers, firewalls, and load
balancers are used to perform specific network functions. With NFV, these functions are
virtualized and can be run as software on commodity hardware, leading to greater flexibility,
scalability, and cost-effectiveness.
 How does NFV work?

Network functions virtualization (NFV) works by virtualizing network functions that

were traditionally performed by specialized hardware devices, such as routers, switches,
firewalls, and load balancers. These network functions are abstracted from their
underlying hardware and implemented as software-based virtual network functions
(VNFs) that run on standard servers, storage, and switches.

Today, NFV is considered a key enabler of the emerging 5G network architecture

 NFV Architecture

Second Component

Third Component

First Component
 NFV Infrastructure (NFVI)

 The first layer of NFVI consists of hardware resources (CPU), storage resources (Hard disk), and
Network resources (Router, switch, and Firewalls)

The second layer of NFVI is the virtualization layer, which separates hardware and replaces it
with software.

The third layer of NFVI is virtualized resources such as virtual computers, virtual networks and
virtual storage.
 Virtualized Network Function (VNF)

 VNF is software implementation of a network function

 VNF is capable of running over the NFVI
 Example: vFirewalll, vRouter
 NFV Management and Orchestration (MANO)

Virtualized infrastructure Manager –It controls and Manages network functions with
NFVI resources and monitors the virtualization layer

VNF Manager: It manages the life cycle of VNF such as initialize, update, scale,
terminate etc.

Orchestrator: It manages the life cycle of Network services which includes policy,
management, performance, measurement and monitoring.
 Difference Between SDN and NFV

SDN NFV
Software Defined Networking Network Function Virtualization
Redefines Network Architecture Redefines Network Equipment Architecture
Separate Data and Control Layer Separate Hardware and Software
Programmatically Efficient Network Virtualize Network Services
Configuration
Open Networking Foundation (ONF) Standard European Telecommunication Standard Institute
(ETSI) standard