CONDITION FOR PARAMETRIC TEST

Parametric tests are used when certain assumptions about the data are met. The key assumptions include:
1. Normality: The data should be approximately normally distributed.
2. Homogeneity of Variance: Variances of the groups being compared should be approximately equal.
3. Interval or Ratio Data: The data should be at the interval or ratio level.
4. Independence: Observations should be independent of each other.
5. Random Sampling: Data should be collected through random sampling.
If these assumptions are met, parametric tests such as t-tests or analysis of variance (ANOVA) can be
appropriate. If assumptions are violated, non-parametric tests may be more suitable.

CONDITION FOR NON- PARAMETRIC TEST

Non-parametric tests are less restrictive and can be used when assumptions for parametric tests are not
met. They are often employed with ordinal or categorical data. Here are some conditions for choosing non-
parametric tests:
1. Data Type: Non-parametric tests are suitable for ordinal, nominal, or categorical data.
2. Non-Normality: They can be used when the assumption of normal distribution is violated.
3. Unequal Variances: Non-parametric tests are less sensitive to unequal variances.
4. Small Sample Sizes: They may be preferred when dealing with small sample sizes.
5. Outliers: Non-parametric tests can be robust in the presence of outliers.
Common non-parametric tests include the Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Kruskal-Wallis
test, and others. Choosing the right test depends on the nature of your data and the specific research
question.

TYPE OF DATA IN RESEARCH METHODS WITH EXAMPLE

In research methods, data can be broadly classified into two main types: qualitative and quantitative. These
types of data differ in terms of the nature of the information they provide and the methods used for analysis.
1. Qualitative Data:
• Definition: Qualitative data is non-numerical and is used to describe qualities or
characteristics.
• Examples:
• Interview Transcripts: Verbal responses from participants in an open-ended
interview.
• Observations: Descriptions of behaviors or events recorded during observations.
• Textual Data: Written or spoken words, such as open-ended survey responses or
written documents.
2. Quantitative Data:
• Definition: Quantitative data is numerical and is used to quantify the observations or
measurements.
• Examples:
• Height and Weight Measurements: Numerical values representing the height and
weight of individuals.
• Test Scores: Numerical scores obtained from exams or assessments.
• Income Levels: Numerical values indicating the income of participants in a study.
• Number of Events: Count data, such as the number of occurrences of a specific event.
Within quantitative data, there are two subtypes:
 • Discrete Data: Consists of distinct, separate values. Examples include the number of cars in a
parking lot or the count of customer complaints.
• Continuous Data: Can take on any value within a given range. Examples include height, weight, or
temperature.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

variables are characteristics or attributes that can vary or take on different values. Variables can be
classified into different types based on their nature and the level of measurement. The main types of
variables are:
1. Independent Variable:
• Definition: The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher. It is the variable
believed to cause an effect on the dependent variable.
• Example: In an experiment investigating the effect of different fertilizer types on plant
growth, the independent variable is the type of fertilizer.
2. Dependent Variable:
• Definition: The variable that is observed or measured to assess the effect of the independent
variable. It is the outcome variable.
• Example: In the plant growth experiment, the dependent variable is the height of the plants.
3. Categorical Variable:
• Definition: A variable that represents categories or groups. It can be nominal or ordinal.
• Example: Gender (male/female) or Educational Level (high school, college, graduate).
4. Continuous Variable:
• Definition: A variable that can take on any value within a given range. It is measured, not
counted.
• Example: Height, weight, temperature.
5. Discrete Variable:
• Definition: A variable that can only take on specific, distinct values. It is often counted.
• Example: Number of employees, number of cars in a parking lot.
6. Nominal Variable:
• Definition: A categorical variable with no inherent order or ranking among the categories.
• Example: Eye color (blue, brown, green).
7. Ordinal Variable:
• Definition: A categorical variable with a meaningful order or ranking among the categories,
but the intervals between them are not uniform.
• Example: Educational attainment (high school diploma, some college, bachelor's degree).
8. Ratio Variable:
• Definition: A type of continuous variable with a true zero point, meaning that zero indicates
the absence of the variable.
• Example: Income, age, height.
9. Interval Variable:
• Definition: A type of continuous variable without a true zero point, where zero does not
indicate the absence of the variable.
• Example: Temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.