Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00195-1

FULL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Studying sacrificial ice structure, as soluble support layers, in 3D

printing of polymers (FDM)
Abbas Moghanizadeh1 · Fakhreddin Ashrafizadeh1

Received: 27 March 2021 / Accepted: 2 June 2021 / Published online: 6 July 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
Additive manufacturing has the potential to fabricate complex structures and shapes using a simple layer-to-layer technique.
In additive manufacturing processes, support layers have been used extensively for overhanging surfaces, however, a difficult
procedure for design and a long-lasting process for eliminating support layers are required. Eliminating support layers often
involve time-consuming post-print processes and adding costs. One viable solution to make the 3D printing process more
streamlined is to use soluble sacrificial support materials. In this study, a novel technique based on employing ice structures
as sacrificial support layers in the FDM process is evaluated. In the proposed technique, the water layers are frozen by a
cryogenic tank and the ice layers play the role of supporting layers. Then, polymer layers are created on the ice support lay-
ers based on the CAD model. Lastly, the support layers made of ice are removed by freeze-drying or melting process. The
results confirm that objects requiring supporting layers can be printed on ice layers which are removed easily and quickly
by melting. However, the heat of the molten polymer laying down on the ice support layers affects the geometric tolerance
and surface roughness of the printed objects. In addition, unwanted placement of ice layers between the polymer layers also
reduces the tensile strength of the objects compared to the classical FDM. The main merit of the presented technique is that
it drastically reduces the post-processing required to remove support layers.

Keywords 3D printing · Support structure · Sacrificial support layers · Ice

1 Introduction Not only designing support layers but also removing them
is a significant challenge in 3D printing [8].
Additive manufacturing techniques have made a revolution In the majority of 3D printers, generally, support layers
in the manufacturing process [1]. Although most commercial are broken or cut away manually [9] or dissolved in a chemi-
3D printing techniques can build complex external shapes cal or water-based bath [7]. Removing support layers process
to satisfy the designers [2], there are some limitations, one is frequently manually, time-consuming, non-automatic pro-
of which is removing supporting layers [3]. Based on the cess, even leaves visually unpleasant surface objects [10].
CAD models, supporting structure is essential to protect In addition, sometimes it is not possible to remove support-
overhanging structures [4]. In objects with complex geom- ing materials [3]. Researchers try to develop 3D printing
etry, support layers are needed to prevent the layers from techniques removing supporting layers [7]. Soluble support
falling [5]. While by conventional technique the maximum materials enable the hands-free elimination of support layers
overhanging angle is around 25 to 40 degree [6], research- with minimal manual scrubbing [11]. In a study, sacrificial
ers employ robotic arms or complex processing approaches metal supports are used in the directed energy deposition
such as five-axis stages to overcome some current restric- (DED) process [12]. While the original object is printed by
tions [7], however, these techniques increase manufacturing stainless steel, support layers are printed by carbon steel act-
costs and make the design process more time-consuming. ing as sacrificial support, which is dissolved in a solution of
nitric acid and potassium chloride under mild electrochemi-
* Abbas Moghanizadeh cal bias [12]. In the FDM process, polymers with different
[email protected] solubilities are used, while an original object printed with
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and sacrificial support
1
Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University layers printed with the more soluble polylactic acid (PLA)
of Technology, 84156‑83111 Isfahan, Iran

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758 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763

which solve in a solution of isopropyl alcohol and potassium the two walls, causes the water to freeze. Moreover, the 3D
hydroxide [13]. Researchers have also developed new mate- printer nozzle place in a cryogenic chamber. To creating ice
rials containing acrylic copolymers that have good mechan- supporting layers, water flows from a valve on the surface
ical properties and dissolve easily in an alkaline aqueous of the tank, then due to the effect of the low temperature of
solution [1]. Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is employed as a liquid nitrogen between the walls, deposited water is cooled
support material that dissolves in water solvent [14]. How- and freeze rapidly to form an ice support layer (water layers
ever, all these methods involve post-process treatment and solidify). The molten polymer feeds on the ice layer and
hence labor and cost [4]. The downside of employing soluble creates a special model based on CAD design. Then the bed
polymers as scarified support layers is that post-processing moves down according to the thickness of the ice layer, and
is required to eliminate them [7]. In addition, soluble poly- water flows from the water reservoir on the surface of the
mers take time to solve and the more extensive and denser bed to create a new ice supporting layer and creates a new
the support material, the longer the process takes [7]. Fur- layer that binds to the previous layer. After that, the nozzle
thermore, chemical solvents are polluting the environment creates the desired pattern on the ice support layer and the
[8]. Therefore, development a new technique to eliminate process is repeated as shown in Fig. 1. Finally, the ice sup-
post-processing and the chemical solvent is strongly required port layer removes by melting at room temperature, or by
to reduce labor costs and make 3D printing more environ- sublimation of ice by a vacuum pump.
mentally friendly.
This research aims to evaluate the potential of ice struc-
ture as sacrificial support layers in the FDM process to facili- 2 Materials and methods
tate the removal process of support layers.
2.1 Equipment
1.1 The principle of 3D printing by employing
sacrificial ice support layers A commercial FDM, a 3D printer (CREASE CS30), is
modified for this research. A 2-L water tank is utilized to
The cool atmosphere is created by liquid nitrogen. A cryo- supply water. A double-walled chamber, 20 ­cm2 × 20 cm,
genic chamber is matched with a 3D printing bed. A res- is used, while the inner wall is made of stainless steel and
ervoir (tank) in which liquid nitrogen is located between the outer wall is insulated. The space between the two

Fig. 1  Schematic of the process

(while PLA extrudes from the
nozzle and creates a layer, water
is transferred from a reservoir to
deposit on the previous solidi-
fied ice surface)

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763 759

walls is 5 cm. As mentioned above, the space between the 3 Results and discussion
walls is filled with liquid nitrogen. The experiments are
performed with two classic polymers, Polylactide (PLA) The experiments indicate that sacrifice ice layers have the
and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), while extru- unique potential to employ as supporting layers in the FDM
sion temperatures are around 190 °C and 2450 °C, respec- process. Figure 3 shows an object, with a complex geometry
tively. While PLA and ABS extrude from the nozzle and similar to a heart stent, is printed using the presented tech-
create a layer with a mass-flow rate of around 5 g/10 min nique. Ice layers can play the role of the support layer, and
and a diameter of 0.4 mm, water is pumped from a tank to molten polymer layers are well laid down on it. Eventually,
deposit on the previous solidified ice surface. The samples after printing the object, ice support layers are easily melted
are printed separately and the printing conditions are the at ambient temperature and removed from the printed object
same for all samples. without any damage to the printed object.
To start growing ice crystals, the temperature has to be
well below zero degrees Celsius [17]. At the wall of the
2.2 Experimental setting freezer chamber which is in contact with water, the tem-
perature is cold enough to form new ice crystals. Once
To evaluate the potential of the sacrificial ice support these nuclei are formed these will continue to grow into
technique, several 3D objects have been printed, includ- larger crystals, while at the same time new nuclei can also
ing a complex geometric shape similar to a heart stent and be formed [18]. A layer of ice crystals forms on the wall
a T-shape (the two wings are printed on the ice support with properties depending on freezer operation. As next the
layers). Tensile strength test is conducted to evaluate the water layer touches a subzero surface (pervious ice surface),
mechanical properties of classical FDM and ice support with a delay, it begins to freeze and adhere to the previous
layers objects. The tension tests are performed on objects ice surface. Ice formation on a surface includes two steps of
following ASTM D638 Standard Test Methods for Tensile ice nucleation and further ice growth [19]. The final result
Properties of Plastics [15]. The geometry of the specimen is a distribution of small crystals which cover the surface of
used for tensile testing is shown in Fig. 2A [16]. Tensile the previous layer and create a new layer of ice [20]. Study-
testing of the FDM objects is conducted on an MTS 858, ing the mechanical properties and surface roughness of the
Mini Bionix II, load frame with an MTS 25 kN load cell. printed objects on ice can help to evaluate this technique
The MTS wedge grips are displaced at a rate of 2 mm/min more accurately.
with data. Five specimens are tested at each polymer in
this study. Surface roughness (Ra) is measured by Elcom-
eter 7061 MarSurf PS1 with a resolution of 32 nm. The 3.1 Morphology and roughness of the surface
surface roughness (Ra) is measured on the ice layer and
the surface of polymer laying down on the ice (ice sur- In the classic FDM process, a layer of polymer is placed on
face roughness is measured at 0 °C) as shown in Fig. 2B. top of the support layer, so the surface roughness of the sup-
Each test is repeated three times. Coordinate-measuring port layer, and how to separate, affects the surface roughness
machine (CMM), Renishaw TP8 with the precision of of the polymer layer created on it. However, in the scarified
0.023 mm, is employed to evaluate the flatness tolerance ice layer technique, the molten polymer is placed on the ice
of the surface printing on the ice. The tests are performed layer and the interaction between the molten polymer and
three times at a room temperature of about 293 K. the ice layer affects the surface roughness of the polymer

Fig. 2  A The geometry of the specimen (similar heart stent) is used for tensile testing. B Surface roughness measurement (top of ice layer and
bottom of a polymer layer on ice layer)

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760 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763

Fig. 3  The image of a 3D printing object (a heart stent). A 3D printing by conventional FDM. B 3D printing using an ice layer. C the object after
melting ice support layer

Fig. 4  Surface roughness of

samples: the ice surface, PLA,
ABS

layer. In the presented technique, the surface roughness of the ice layer (Ra) is 0.025 ± 0.001 µm, the surface roughness
the polymer layers printed on ice is different from the sur- of PLA and ABS polymer which laid down on the ice layer
face roughness of the ice. While the surface roughness of (Ra) is 0.065 ± 0.003 µm and 0.173 ± 0.002 µm, respectively

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763 761

(Fig. 4). In fact, the heat generated by the molten polymer the printed objects. However, in a specimen (sample 2) that
melts the ice layer and causes the surface roughness of the is cared to prevent the deposit of ice between layers, the
polymer to be greater than the surface roughness of the ice. tensile strength is similar to that of a classic FDM (created
The roughness of the ABS layers laying down on the ice ice between layers is removed manually). However, in sam-
layer is greater than that of PLA. This may be related to ples 3 and 4, which are printed without more care, tensile
the extrusion temperature of ABS (245 °C) which is higher strength decline. A similar trend is observed for ABS poly-
than that of PLA (190 °C). In other words, while in classi- mer (Fig. 6).
cal FDM, there is a direct relationship between the surface
roughness of the support layer and the printed object layer, 3.3 Geometrical tolerance
however, in the presented technique, there is a relationship
between the melting temperature of the polymer and the sur- While the flatness tolerance of the ice surface is 0.01, it
face roughness. Therefore, using a polymer with a low melt- increases to 0.3 ± 0.02 and 0.9 ± 0.04 for PLA and ABS lay-
ing temperature improves the surface roughness of printed ers, respectively. It may relate to the fact that the molten
objects. layers of the polymer shrink when laid down on ice, and
the shrinkage can affect geometric tolerance. The shrinkage
3.2 Compare the mechanical properties of classical coefficient of ABS is around three times more than PLA
FDM and sacrificial ice approach [21], so when these two polymers are placed on ice, the
flatness tolerance of ABS is more than PLA. The difference
The effect of using ice support layers on the mechanical in the flatness tolerances of PLA and ABS can be attributed
strength of the 3D printed polymer object has been inves- to the difference in the shrinkage coefficient of these two
tigated. The tensile strength of the printed objects by ice polymers.
support layer technique and the classic FDM are different
as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. While in the case of classic FDM 3.4 Advantages of using sacrificial ice support
(PLA), the tensile stress of an object is about 61 MPa, in the technique
case of the ice supports technique, it fluctuates between 10
and 60 MPa. The difference between the tensile strength of Employing sacrifice ice layers as support layers does not
the presented technique and the classic FDM may be related require extensive human labor; therefore, it not only saves
to the unwanted presence of ice between the printed lay- time but extends the design freedom that reduces designer
ers. As the ice is brittle, it reduces the tensile strength of errors. In addition to facilitating the removal of the support

Fig. 5  Tensile strength testing

for PLA (sample 2 is printed
more accurately (the unwanted
created ice on the polymer layer
is removed manually, sample
3 and for 4 are printed without
extra attention)

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762 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2021) 6:757–763

Fig. 6  Tensile strength testing

for ABS (sample 2 is printed
more accurately (the unwanted
created ice on the polymer layer
is removed manually, sample
3 and for 4 are printed without
extra attention)

layer and saving time, it is possible to create special objects addition, as the physical properties of the sacrificial sup-
geometric such as hollow bubbles. Being environmentally port layer material can affect the results, the effect of cool-
friendly and free of any toxic substances is another signifi- ing temperature and cooling rate of water will be studied.
cant merit of this technique that makes it suitable for bio- Reducing the temperature of the ice, super-cold ice, will be
materials especially hydrogels printing which is the object studied as a mechanism for controlling the ice melting by
of future researches. This method can be adopted in other the heat of melted polymer. As melting super-cold ice is
3D printing deposition systems, such as Multi Jet Fusion. more difficult than ordinary ice [23], it can be expected that
the heat generated by the molten polymer may reduce the
3.5 Challenges and limitations amount of ice melting.

Despite its unique benefits, this technique faces challenges

that need to be addressed. Making large objects with this
method is challenging because making ice sheets in large 4 Conclusion
dimensions is time-consuming and another method must be
used to create ice layers in large dimensions. As mentioned This research proposes a novel technique for removing the
above, melting ice by melting polymers makes it difficult to support layer by employing ice structure as support layers.
employ polymers with high melting temperatures, so this The main merit of the presenting technique is to simplify
technique is limited to polymers with low melting tempera- the removing supporting layers by sublimation or melting
tures. Meanwhile, the formation of ice crystals may affect them. Despite the advantages such as simplicity and envi-
the appearance of the part and also slow down the process. ronmental friendliness, the heat generated by the molten
polymer affects the surface roughness and the placement of
3.6 Future study ice between the layers can reduce the mechanical strength
that should be addressed in future studies.
To avoid imperfections in bonding, the flow of water should
be controlled to not insert water between the layers. Employ-
ing hydrophobic polymers will be studied to solve this prob-
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