UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FSS 840 : STATISTICAL RESEARCH METHODS FOR SOCIAL

& ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
(2020/2021 SESSION)

STATISTICAL METHODS:
OVERVIEW

Professor Alabi SONEYE

University of Lagos
 STATISTICS: DEFINITION
1. Statistics (or Statistical Theory)
Any unobstructive measures and methods of adopting laid down
procedures of:
i. Collecting data / evidence on a phenomenon or sets of phenomena
ii. Organizing the data sets
iii. Summarising large sets of data
iv. Analysing the data sets
v. presenting the results / findings on events
vi. drawing valid conclusion on them, and
vii. Predicting values based on futures scenarios

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 STATISTICS: BASICS
1. Purpose : Supports Scientific Reasoning across endeavours.

2. Usefulness : purposeful applications in every activities and

making objective decisions based on empirical resulty

3. Sources / Access of Data :

a. Social Surveys: Rumour, Polls, Interviews, Observations,
FGDs, Questionnairing.

b. Archival Sources: Govt Agencies, Reports, Publications

c. Survey : Enumeration & Measurement - Field & Laboratory

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 SOME STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND METHODS
1. Population (N):
Definition:
• Total membership or ‘universe’ (finite or infinite) of a defined
class of people, objects or events
• Set of individuals, items or data from which sample can be
taken
Types a) Target population: Objects on which information is
sought
b) Survey population: Objects on which information is
obtained
2. Sample (n):
• partial collection of observations in a population .
• necessary because it is not always possible or practicable to
cover entire population of events or phenomena
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS (Contd.)
3. Space (Spatial), Time (Temporal) and Spatio-Temporal Events:
• Occurrences with dimensions/qualities of space and time
• Latin ‘Spatio’ (Space / Spatial Arrangement) and ‘Tempus’ (Time)
• Used in different areas of endeavour.
4. Variables (X, Y, Y1, Y2, Y3, . . . . . . ):
• Definition: Any parameter that can change in relation to varied
factors over space and time
• Types: Independent (subject) / dependent (objects, often
multiple)
5. Constants: Parameters that do not change irrespective of space,
time or related events.
6. Elements (x1, x2, x3, . . .):
Each outcome or data point collected on a defined variable.
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 TYPES OF STATISTICAL DATA
1. Data (a.k.a. Figure):
• Any set of recorded observations or values/quantity of event in
a collection
• Statistical values (or Statistics) are aggregate of Data
2. Representation:
• Numeric: e.g. Arabic: 0, 1,2,3, . . .; Roman: i, ii, v, x, l, c, d, m.
• Alphabetic / Symbolic e.g. English Alphabets
• Alpha-numeric i.e. Mixture of alphabets (for continuous/non-
discrete data)
3. Quantitative and Qualitative Nature
4. Array of Data
• Arrangement (and re-arrangement) of non-Tabular Data in
Ascending / Descending for some analysis to be done easily
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 TABULAR DATA
1. Definition: A form of grouping (or arranging) raw data into such
a manageable form for them to be effectively analysed or used.

2. Types: Grouped or Ungrouped Tabular data

3. Classes : Grouping into convenient sets of more than one value.

• Can be close-ended (if discrete i.e. data are whole numbers) or
open-ended (if continuous i.e. data have decimals or fractions.

4. Frequency Distribution (f):

• Variability / number of occurrences of values in a Tabular class.
• The number of points falling into each class is entered in a Tally
• Frequency table is used to generate some descriptive and
prescriptive statistical parameters e.g. central limits, graphical
illustrations and hypothesis tests
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 TABULAR DATA (Contd)
5. Class Limits & Range:
• Upper Limit : the highest value of the data sets that fall within a
class

• Lower Limit : represents the smallest value

• Intervals: created based on data spread/objectives

• May not be uniform on a table (e.g. Logarithmic Data)

• Range is the difference between the two limits

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 CHARTS (GRAPHICAL METHOD/ILLUSTRATION)
1. Definition:
• Used to summarize large amount of data in visual and more
easily interpretable form.
• Show each data category in their frequencies and variations.
• Display relative numbers / proportions of multiple variables
thereby allowing for comparison at a glance.
• Are aesthetic and values are easier to read than tables.
• Support faster and accurate estimation, sometimes at a glance.
2. Application Areas: Preparation of reports, performance
display, prediction, filling data holidays, revealing salient
parameters, etc.
3. Drawing Surfaces:
• Normal Graphs: grids spaced out uniformly e.g. 1mm by 1mm.
• Logarithmic Graphs: Some grids are "crowded" due to wide
diversity between the minimum and Alabi
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) .
maximum data values.
Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Graphical Surfaces

Normal Graphs

Logarithmic Graphs
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 CHARTS (Contd.):
4. Parts of a Chart:
• Coordinates (X, Y): the axes on which data are plotted.
• Ordinates: The values of X along its axis.
• Abscissas : values of Y along its axis.
• Representation of ordinates /abscissas: (1, 5), (-2, 3)

5. What must accompany a Chart:

• Title (at the Bottom),
• Labels of axes titles, ordinates /abscissas
• Key/Legend
• Any additional explanatory notes

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 TYPES OF CHARTS
1. Simple & Multiple Bar Graphs
• The simplest, commonest and most widely understood chart
• Bars drawn side by side vertically (Fig. 2) or horizontally (Fig. 1).
• Customary to use vertical form if showing time element (e.g.
Week days, Months of the year, Successive years etc.)
• Horizontal bars is better to set out names (and other texts) fairly
easier and to read without one straining his neck.
University
Educational Qualification

HSC/NCE/Technical College

Secondary School

Primary / Standard School

No Modern Education

0 10 20 30 40
Number of Employee
Fig. 1: Educational Qualification of Staff in the Workforce of an Organization, 2018
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 pH values

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Obadore
Egan
Kaka
Ayobo
Igando
Ipaja
Ogbomoso
Baruwa
Alagbado
Oke-Odo
Ejigbo
Egbeda
Dopemu
WHO min std.pH=(6.5)

Oko-Oba
Iju
Olushosun
Abatiwa
Odo-Onosa
Ota-Ikosi
Agbowa
Ketu
Dry Season

Temu

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) .

Epe
Odo-Mola
Eredo

Sampling Locations
Ibowon
Igbodu
Wet Season

Ilogbo
Okoron
TYPES OF CHARTS: Multiple Bar Chart

Ikoga-Zebbe
Iragbon
Odogunyan
Odo-Kekere
Maya
Isiu
Imota
Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

Gberigbe
Ijede
Egbin
Fig. 2: pH values of selected Lagos Borehole water, 2016

Elepe
Ikorodu
Selewu
Alausa
Shomolu
Shogunle
 TYPES OF CHARTS (Contd.):
2. Simple and Multiple Line Graphs (Frequency Curves or Ogives)
• Display rise and fall of events particularly those on time basis.
• Dots are corresponding f for each element are joined by a single line.
• Charts can be vertical or horizontal, similar to graphs (Fig 3 and Fig 4)
• Equations can be generated and plotted (e.g. Regression Line, Fig. 4)
9000
8000
7000
APAPA
6000 TIN CAN ASLAND
Cargoes Discharged (in '000 tonnes)

5000 POR HARCOURT

4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Year
Fig. 3: Through-puts at the Three main Nigeria
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) .
Ports, 1984 - 1993
Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
TYPES OF CHARTS: Simple/Multiple Line Graphs (Contd)

110000
105000
100000 Y = 89933 - 95.21X
95000
90000
85000
Rainfall (mm)

80000
75000
70000
65000
60000
1901
1906
1911
1916
1921
1926

1936
1941
1946

1956
1961
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
1931

1951

1996
Fig. 4: Mean Annual Rainfall Distribution of Baro, 1901 - 1999)
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Combined Line & Bar Graphs

Fig. 5: Average Precipitation and Temperature of Akasa, Bayelsa State

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Types of Charts (Contd.)
3. Divergent (Line & Bar) Graphs:
Same as Simple / multiple line But show variation around a datum
or value

Fig. 6: Rainfall Values around the Mean of a Synoptic Station in Nigeria

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Types of Charts - Divergent Graphs (Contd.)

Fig. 7: Opinions on Safety in Nigeria High Rise Buildings

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Types of Charts (Contd.)
4. Cumulative Line / Bar Graphs

Fig. 8: Ages of Selected Trees in a

Benin Forest Reserve

Fig. 9: Crime Rates in a Nigeria Community

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Types of Charts (Contd.)
4. Grouped / Stacked Bar Graphs

Fig. 10: Produce of a Plateau Community, 1991-1994

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 3-D Charts

25/09/2021 Fig. 11: Seasonal

University Mean Temperature
of Lagos FSS of an(Sept
840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye Egyptian
2021) City
 Types of Charts (Contd.)
6. Pie Chart (or Circular Percentage Graph):
shows values as sectors / division of a circle into their absolute
proportions of angles out of 360o or percentages out of 100%

Fig. 12: Main Causes of Research Data Loss in Unilag

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
6. Pie Chart (or Circular Percentage Graph): Contd.

Fig. 13: Favourite Movies in Nigeria Cinema Houses

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 TYPES OF CHARTS (Contd.)
8. Flow Diagram/Maps:
• Depict direction and
strength of movement of
events e.g. migrants,
passengers, goods,
services, materials,
• Direction is shown by
arrows and quantity by
thickness of lines as
derived proportionally
from the figures

Fig. 14: Volume on Non-Immigrants into USA, 2007

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 Merits & Demerits of Charts
1. Pie Chart
Merits:
• It creates a mental idea of the distribution of the data assuring
classes/objects
• It provides striking proportional effects
• If daily events, division of the degrees (= 360) coincides with the
natural 365 days.

Demerits:
• Since data are shown in degrees (or %) of sectors, absolute
values are often difficult to read,
• It is difficult to draw values in degrees less than l
• It involves tedious mathematical calculation and geometric
construction
• It is difficult to draw small sectors particularly when there is
great variation in the data

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 Merits & Demerits of Charts (Contd):
Percentage Line graph
Advantages:
• Easy to draw.
• Clarifies patterns / trends over time better than most other graphs.
• Can be visually simpler than bar graphs or histograms.
• Summarises a large data set in visual form.
• Good at showing specific values of data, i.e. that given one variable
the other can easily be determined.
• Enables readers to make predictions of data not yet recorded.

Disadvantages:
1. Lines stop abruptly thereby giving wrong impression of discontinuity.
2. Fails to reveal key assumptions, norms, or causes in the data.
3. Often inadequate to get behaviours and other attributes of interest.
4. Can be easily manipulated to yield false impressions.
5. Fails to provide check of accuracy or reasonableness of calculations.
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 Merits & Demerits of Charts (Contd):
Divergent Bar Graph
Merits:
• Shows divergence between parameters.
• Shows variation around a datum. e.g. average of the entire data.
• As the scale passes through zero, positive and negative values
can be presented on one graph.
• Absolute values are obtainable from the graph scale.
• Easily understood.
• Shows relative magnitudes very effectively.

Dimerits:
• Can be complicated if too many multiple bars are included.
• drawing problems may occur if the vertical and horizontal scales
are not carefully chosen.
• Wrong drawing will lead to exaggerated reading and create
wrong impression.
University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)
 1.5 Importance of Statistics to Social and
Environmental Research
For Researches:
• Science without statistics bears no fruit, statistics without
science will have no root.

For Professional Endeavour :

Will vary from one field to the other e.g.
• Inventory of Facilities
• Survey of Consumer Tastes
• Service/Product Production
• Facility Planning, Accessibility. Management and Monitoring
• Quality Control in the Production Line
• Environmental Quality

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 DISTRUSTS OF STATISTICS
With Statistics, anything can be proved
e.g. Labour Matter, Political interest, policy opinion, etc

Depends on :
• Samples selection (demographic characteristics, knowledge,
interest, etc. ,
• Sample size / Choice of Selecting Cases / data points,
• Approximation/Rounding off of figures
• Misinterpretation of Association or Correlation due to Statistical
theory / method adopted, audience, etc.

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 DISTRUSTS OF STATISTICS (Contd.): Some Views
• Statistics can prove anything.
• Figures cannot lie.
• Statistics are like clay of which you can make a God or a Devil .
• Statistics only furnishes a tool though imperfect which is
dangerous in the hands of those who do not know its use and
deficiencies.

Statistics should not be used as a blind man uses lamp post for
support rather than for illumination.

University of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) . Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)

 Assignment 1
1. To be submitted by Candidates with Surnames starting with Letters A to N
The number of in-flights recorded per month in 60 selected local airports in Africa is given viz:
138 164 150 132 144 125 149 157 126 139
146 158 140 147 136 148 152 144 155 148
174 160 142 154 135 159 167 156 168 150
157 146 158 162 154 173 129 164 175 178
136 148 186 156 183 152 157 145 163 150
145 171 155 145 152 160 166 155 138 168
(a) Construct a frequency distribution of the data using intervals 118 - 122, 123 – 127, etc.
(b) From the table, (i) How many classes have frequencies greater than 3 and frequencies less than 6?
(ii) Determine the Lower and Upper Limits of 4rd and 5th classes
(c) Represent your data using a Simple Bar Chart. Justify why you would prefer the graph to a
Divergent line graph.
2. To be submitted by those with Surnames starting with Letters O to Z
The average spending on Election Campaigns by a randomly selected sample of 200 Contestants
during the 2019 Governorship Election in Nigeria is presented as follows (in million Naira):
4.6 53.9 21.0 16.4 76.7 9.0 78.9 114.7 19.4 72.0
6.9 85.0 22.0 24.4 100.0 27.2 92.6 9.1 18.1 32.7
10.9 104.4 35.0 56.0 45.8 68.7 109.1 19.5 9.2 7.7
15.3 32.9 75.7 84.1 18.4 84.8 107.7 29.2 1.3 11.6
21.4 69.1 88.6 93.6 15.2 95.5 28.8 3.0 7.0 27.6
a. Construct a frequency distribution table for the data with intervals 1.1 – 10.0, 10.1 – 20.0, etc.
b. From the table, find: (i) the Lower limit of the 2nd class (ii) the Upper limit of the 5th class.
c. Represent the Tabular data in a Divergent Bar Graph, assuming the approved spending is 50.0.
d. Justify why you University
would prefer this type of graphical illustration
of Lagos FSS 840 (2020/21) .
relative to pie chart.
Alabi Soneye (Sept 2021)