Heredity
Heredity
Heredity
& CHROMOSOMES
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
- is the genetic material of all organisms on Earth
from microbes to plants and human beings.
An organism’s complete set of DNAs, including all
of its genes is called genome.
A genome contains a complete set of information
which determines inherited physical
characteristics such as height, skin, eye and hair
color and many others.
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Every cell in a human body nearly has similar
DNA and in eukaryotic cells (cells that contain a
nucleus and organelles, and are enclosed by a
plasma membrane).
The DNA is a thin long molecule found in the
cell’s nucleus which is made up of nucleotides.
DNA belong to a type of molecules called nucleic
acids.
Nucleic acids are long chains of nucleotides.
The basic structure of nucleotides consists of
phosphate group/molecule, sugar and a
nitrogenous base.
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Nitrogenous base are molecules that contain
nitrogen and have the chemical properties of a
base.
Nitrogenous bases are Cytosine (C), Guanine
(G), Adenine (A) and Thymine (T).
These four nitrogenous base are paired as
Adenine-Thymine and Guanine-Cytosine into
billions to organize a double helix structure.
The complementary base pairs of the DNA are
held by hydrogen bonds.
Sugar molecule – a five-carbon sugar molecule –
deoxyribose, denoted as S.
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Phosphate molecules is denoted as P.
The backbone of the nucleotide chain (called
polynucleotide) are the sugar and phosphate
molecules.
Each sugar group is then linked to one of the four
nitrogenous bases.
Inside the cell is the nucleus, which is its control
center.
Inside the nucleus are chromosomes, thread-like
structures made up of DNA coiled around proteins
called histones.
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Genes are sequences of DNA that code for a
molecule that has a function.
Sometimes, genes code (act as instructions) to
make proteins.
Proteins are large, highly complex molecules
made in the ribosome and contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and sometimes
sulfur.
Proteins are present in all living things.
Proteins are essential to the human body as it
plays many important roles, determining the
structure and function of all cells.
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IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS
Hair & Nails
- A protein called alpha-keratin forms your hair and
fingernails, and also the major component of
feathers, wool, claws, scales, horns and hooves.
Muscles
- Muscle protein called actin and myosin enable all
muscular movement – from blinking to breathing to
rollerblading.
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Cellular messenger
- Receptor proteins stud the outside of your cells
and transmit signals to partner proteins on the
inside of the cells.
Antibodies
- Antibodies are proteins that help defend your bady
against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and
viruses.
Blood
- The hemoglobin protein carries oxygen in your
blood to every part of your body.
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Brain & Nerves
- ion channel proteins control brain signaling by
allowing molecules into and out of nerve cells.
Enzymes
- Enzymes in your saliva, stomach, and small
intestine are proteins that help you digest food.
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The major key players in DNA replication are the
enzymes helicase, primase, DNA polymerase
and ligase.
Helicase is the unzipping enzyme and unzips the
two strands of DNA in the double helix through the
hydrogen bond that holds the two base pairs
together.
Primase will initialize the process and directs the
DNA polymerase for it to figure out where it gets to
start.
- is the starting point for DNA synthesis.
- made up of RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
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- its major role is to act as messenger carrying
instructions from DNA for controlling the
synthesis of proteins.
DNA Polymerase is the builder enzyme which
replicates DNA molecules in order to build a new
strand of DNA.
- makes the new DNA strand by reading the
nucleotides on the template stand and binding
one nucleotide after the other to generate a
whole new complementary strand.
- helps in the proofreading and repairing the new
strand.
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- able to identify and back track any mis paired
nucleotides and corrects it immediately.
- The bases attached to each strand and then pair
up with the three nucleotides found in the
cytoplasm.
As the strand is created, the primer has to be
removed.
This is when DNA Polymerase I comes into the
picture to replace the RNA nucleotides from the
Primer with DNA nucleotides to make sure it is
DNA all the way.
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When DNA Polymerase III adds nucleotides to
the lagging strand and forms Okasaki fragments,
it leaves a gap or two between the fragments.
These gaps are filled by the enzyme ligase and
makes sure that everything else is connected.
Ligase is the gluer, which helps glue DNA
fragments together to form the new strand of
DNA.
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filled in all the remaining gaps between Okazaki
Fragments.
- this process gives us two identical copies oof
the original DNA molecule.
- This whole process is happening in billions of
cells in your body even at this very moment.
The original DNA is called the template DNA,
while the replicate DNA is called the complement
DNA, both templates identical.
This is important for DNA present in the nucleus
to be replicated so that every new cell receives the
appropriate number of chromosomes.
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Replication is necessary for cell repair and
growth and reproduction in living organisms.
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