AC/DC Module

User’s Guide
AC/DC Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM020101

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the AC/DC Module 18

What Can the AC/DC Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
AC/DC Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
AC/DC Module Study Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 28
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 28

Overview of the User’s Guide 32

Chapter 2: Theory for the AC/DC Module

Fundamentals of Electromagnetics 36
Maxwell’s Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Reduced Potential PDE Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
The Quasistatic Approximation and the Lorentz Term . . . . . . . . 42
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Nonlinear Permanent Magnet Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . 45
Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . 46
The Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References for Electromagnetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Formulations, Methods, Technologies 50

The V Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Vm Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The A Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

CONTENTS |3
 The A–V Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The H Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The A–Vm Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Curl Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Covariant Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The Boundary Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Theory for the Electrostatics Interface 56

Charge Relaxation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Electrostatics Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
The Electrostatics Interface in Time Dependent or Frequency
Domain Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Ferroelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Debye Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . . 70
Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . . . . . 71
Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . . 72
Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures . . . . . 73
Archie’s Law Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Reference for Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Theory for the Electric Currents Interface 75

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Dynamic Electric Currents Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Theory for Electrical Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Theory for the Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface

80
Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Equations in Steady State . . . . . . 80
Dynamic Electric Currents Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface 81

Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface 82

Magnetostatics Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4 | CONTENTS
Frequency Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Transient Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Maxwell’s Equations (Quasistatic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Magnetic and Electric Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Selecting a Particular Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The Gauge and Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields . . . . . . . 86
Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Ungauged Formulations and Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . 87
Time-Harmonic Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface 89

Stationary Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Time Domain Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Frequency Domain Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Theory for the Magnetic Field Formulation Interface 91

Equation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Theory for the Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface 94

Electromagnetic Forces 95
Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air. . . . . . . . 97
Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Forces in Stationary Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Forces in a Moving Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Electromagnetic Energy, Coenergy and Virtual Work . . . . . . . . 104

CONTENTS |5
 Electromagnetic Quantities 108

References 110

Chapter 3: Modeling with the AC/DC Module

Preparing for Modeling 112

What Problems Can You Solve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Selecting the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry . . . . . . . 114
Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 117
Applying Electromagnetic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Selecting a Study Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Meshing and Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Modeling Coils 122

About the Coil Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
About the Coil Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Coil Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Coil Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Lumped Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
The Single-Turn Coil Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Using Coils in 3D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Accurate Coil Voltage Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Computing Forces and Torques 141

Computing Electromagnetic Forces and Torques. . . . . . . . . . 141
Model Examples — Electromagnetic Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Computing Losses 145

Modeling Electromagnetic Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Modeling Losses in the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Model Examples — Electromagnetic Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Computing Lumped Parameters 148

Calculating Lumped Parameters with Ohm’s Law. . . . . . . . . . 148

6 | CONTENTS
 Calculating Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method . . . . . . 150
Studying Lumped Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Lumped Parameter Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Stationary Source Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
About Lumped Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Lumped Port Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field . . . . . . . . 158
S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
S-Parameter Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export . . . . 160

Connecting to Electrical Circuits 161

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces . . . . . . 161
Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings . . . . . . 162
Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings . . . . . . 162
Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Postprocessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Part Libraries 165

Material Libraries 166

Chapter 4: Electric Field and Current Interfaces

The Electrostatics Interface 168

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electrostatics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Space Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Force Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Zero Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

CONTENTS |7
 External Surface Charge Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Electric Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Thin Low Permittivity Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Dielectric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Distributed Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Line Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Line Charge (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Line Charge (Out-of-Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Point Charge (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Change Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Electrostatic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Effective Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface 200

Domain, Boundary, and Edge Nodes for the Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Surface Charge Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Zero Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

The Electric Currents Interface 210

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric

8 | CONTENTS
 Currents Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
External Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Electric Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Boundary Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Normal Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Distributed Impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Electric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Contact Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Electrical Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Sector Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Line Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Line Current Source (on Axis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Point Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Point Current Source (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Piezoresistive Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

The Electric Currents in Shells Interface 236

Layer and Interface Selection Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Boundary and Edge Nodes for the Electric Currents in Shells
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Conductive Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Insulating Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Boundary Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Interface Current Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Interlayer Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Dielectric Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Piezoelectric Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Continuity (Layered Shell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . 248

CONTENTS |9
 The Electric Currents in Layered Shells Interface 249

The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface 250

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents,
Single Layer Shell Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Change Shell Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Normal Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Electric Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

The Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface 258

The Layer Selection Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Electrical Continuity in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface . . 264
Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Boundary and Edge Nodes for the Electric Currents, Layered Shell
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Interlayer Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Homogenized Shell Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Homogenized Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Varying Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Layer Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Interface Current Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 5: Magnetic Field Interfaces

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface 274

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields,
No Currents Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Magnetic Flux Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Magnetic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

10 | C O N T E N T S
Magnet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Magnetic Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic Field) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
External Magnetic Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Magnetic Scalar Potential Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Thin Low Permeability Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements

Interface 286
Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents,
Boundary Elements Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Magnetic Flux Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Magnetic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Magnetic Flux Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Magnetic Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

The Magnetic Fields Interface 295

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Ampère’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Ampère’s Law, Magnetostrictive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Ampère’s Law, Nonlinear Magnetostrictive . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
External Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Velocity (Lorentz Term) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Surface Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Surface Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic Flux Density) . . . . . . . . . . . 315

CONTENTS | 11
 Magnetic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Periodic Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Line Current (Out-of-Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Line Current (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Gauge Fixing for A-Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Magnet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Domain Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Passive Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Harmonic Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Coil Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
User Defined Coil Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Input (for User Defined Coil Geometry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Output (for User Defined Coil Geometry) . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Override Coil Inlet/Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Geometry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Input (for Geometry Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Output (for Geometry Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Electric Insulation (for Geometry Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Connected Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Single Conductor Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Gap Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Boundary Feed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Floating Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Domain Group/Boundary Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Reversed Current Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Loss Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Lumped Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Edge Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
External Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

12 | C O N T E N T S
Layered Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Layered Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Surface Current Density (Subnode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Thin Low Permeability Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Magnetic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Magnetic Point Dipole (on Axis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface 361

About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic
and Electric Fields Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Surface Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Magnetic Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Magnetic Continuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
RLC Coil Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface 377

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Field
Formulation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Magnetic Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Surface Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Magnetic Fields Formulation Magnetic Fields No Currents Coupling . . 384

The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface 386

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Exterior Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

CONTENTS | 13
 Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Terminal (Subnode) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
External Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Magnetic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Magnetic Continuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Passive Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface 392

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating
Machinery, Magnetic Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Electric Field Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Magnetic Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Mixed Formulation Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Arkkio Torque Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Arkkio Extra Circular Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Multiphase Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Reversed Current Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

Chapter 6: The Electrical Circuit Interface

The Electrical Circuit Interface 404

Ground Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Ampère Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Voltage-Controlled Current Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Current-Controlled Voltage Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Current-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

14 | C O N T E N T S
 Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Subcircuit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Subcircuit Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
NPN BJT and PNP BJT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
External I vs. U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
External U vs. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
External I-Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
SPICE Circuit Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
SPICE Circuit Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface 421

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models. . . . 421
Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
MOSFET Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 430

SPICE Import and Export 431

SPICE Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
SPICE Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

Chapter 7: Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

Overview of Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces 434

The Joule Heating Interface 435

Electromagnetic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

CONTENTS | 15
 The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface 440

The Induction Heating Interface 443

Electromagnetic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Overview of Electromagnetics-Structure Interaction Interfaces 448

Overview of Electromagnetics-Fluid Interaction Interfaces 451

The Magnetohydrodynamics Interface 452

Magnetohydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

Overview of Electromagnetics-Particle Interaction Interfaces 456

Overview of Multiphysics Couplings 457

Chapter 8: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 462

16 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the AC/DC Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics® designed to assist you to solve and model low-frequency
electromagnetics.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of the module including an

introduction to the modeling stages and some realistic and illustrative models. A
summary of the physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and
model examples is also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to
each chapter in this guide.

In this chapter:

• About the AC/DC Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

17
 About the AC/DC Module
In this section:

• What Can the AC/DC Module Do?

• AC/DC Module Physics Interface Guide
• AC/DC Module Study Availability
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

What Can the AC/DC Module Do?

The AC/DC Module provides a unique environment for simulation of AC/DC
electromagnetics in 2D and 3D. The module is a powerful tool for detailed analysis of
resistors, inductors, capacitors, and electrical machinery. With this module you can run
static, quasistatic, transient, and time-harmonic simulations in an easy-to-use graphical
user interface.

The available physics interfaces cover the following types of electromagnetics field
simulations:

• Electrostatics
• Electric currents
• Magnetostatics
• Low-frequency electromagnetics

Material properties include inhomogeneous and fully anisotropic materials, media with
gains or losses, and complex-valued material properties. Infinite element makes it
possible to model unbounded domains. In addition to the standard results and
visualization functionality, the module supports direct computation of lumped
parameters such as capacitances and inductances as well as electromagnetic forces.

Selected material data are provided with the module.

For detailed information about Materials including the AC/DC Material

Library and Nonlinear Magnetic Materials Library, see the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Like all COMSOL modules, there is a library of ready-to-run models that make it
quicker and easier to analyze discipline-specific problems. In addition, any model you
develop is described in terms of the underlying partial differential equations, offering
a unique way to see the underlying physical laws of a simulation.

The AC/DC interfaces are fully multiphysics enabled — couple them to any other
physics interface in COMSOL Multiphysics or other modules. The AC/DC Module
contains predefined multiphysics interfaces to facilitate easy setup of models with the
most commonly occurring couplings. For example, the Induction Heating
multiphysics interface combines all features from the Magnetic Fields interface in the
time-harmonic formulation with the Heat Transfer interface to model induction and
eddy current heating.

The AC/DC Module also provides interfaces for modeling electrical circuits.

• Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
• AC/DC Module Physics Interface Guide
• AC/DC Module Study Availability
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

AC/DC Module Physics Interface Guide

The interfaces in the AC/DC Module form a complete set of simulation tools for
electromagnetic field simulations. To select the right physics interface for describing
the real-life physics, the geometric properties and the time variations of the fields need
to be considered. The interfaces solve for these physical quantities — the electric
scalar potential V, the magnetic vector potential A, and the magnetic scalar
potential Vm.

Each physics interface has a tag which is of special importance when performing
multiphysics simulations. This tag helps distinguish between physics interfaces and the
variables defined by the physics interface have an underscore plus the physics interface
tag appended to their names.

The Model Wizard is an easy way to select the physics interface and study type when
creating a model for the first time, and physics interfaces can be added to an existing

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 19

 model at any time. Full instructions for selecting interfaces and setting up a model are
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In 2D, in-plane and out-of-plane variants are available for problems with a planar
symmetry as well as axisymmetric interfaces for problems with a cylindrical symmetry.

When using an axisymmetric physics interface it is important that the

horizontal axis represents the r direction and the vertical axis the z
direction, and that the geometry in the right half plane (that is, for
positive r only) must be created.

See What Problems Can You Solve? and Table 1-1 for information about the available
study types and variables. See also Overview of the User’s Guide for links to the
chapters in this guide.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

AC/DC

Electric Currents1 ec all dimensions stationary; stationary

source sweep; frequency
domain; time dependent;
small signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Electric Currents in Shells ecis 3D stationary; frequency
domain; time dependent;
eigenfrequency
Electric Currents in ecis 3D stationary; frequency
Layered Shells domain; time dependent;
eigenfrequency

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Electrical Circuit cir Not space stationary; frequency

dependent domain; time dependent;
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Electrostatics1 es all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
stationary source sweep;
eigenfrequency; frequency
domain; small signal
analysis, frequency domain
Electrostatics, Boundary esbe 3D, 2D stationary; stationary
Elements source sweep; frequency
domain; small signal
analysis, frequency domain
Magnetic Fields1 mf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; frequency
axisymmetric domain; time dependent;
small signal analysis,
frequency domain; coil
geometry analysis (3D
only); time to frequency
losses; eigenfrequency
Magnetic Field mfh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; frequency
Formulation axisymmetric domain; time dependent;
small signal analysis,
frequency domain; time to
frequency losses
Magnetic Fields, No mfnc 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; frequency
Currents axisymmetric domain; time dependent;
time to frequency losses
Magnetic Fields, No mfncbe 3D, 2D stationary
Currents, Boundary
Elements
Magnetic Fields, Currents mfco 3D stationary; stationary
Only source sweep with
initialization; frequency
domain source sweep with
initialization

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 21

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Magnetic and Electric mef 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; frequency

Fields axisymmetric domain; time dependent;
stationary source sweep;
frequency domain source
sweep; coil geometry
analysis (3D only)
Rotating Machinery, rmm 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent,
Magnetic coil geometry analysis (3D
only); frequency domain;
time to frequency losses
Magnetohydrodynamics — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency-stationary;
frequency-transient
Particle Tracing

Particle Field Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D bidirectionally coupled

Non-Relativistic4 axisymmetric particle tracing; time
dependent
Particle Field Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D bidirectionally coupled
Relativistic4 axisymmetric particle tracing; time
dependent
Charged Particle Tracing4 cpt 3D, 2D, 2D bidirectionally coupled
axisymmetric particle tracing; time
dependent
Heat Transfer

Electromagnetic Heating

Induction Heating2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric frequency-stationary;
frequency-transient;
frequency-stationary,
one-way electromagnetic
heating;
frequency-transient,
one-way electromagnetic
heating; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Joule Heating1,2 — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

frequency-transient;
small-signal analysis;
frequency domain;
frequency-stationary;
frequency-stationary,
one-way electromagnetic
heating;
frequency-transient,
one-way electromagnetic
heating
Structural Mechanics

Joule Heating and Thermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Expansion2,3 axisymmetric
Electromechanics3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency,
axisymmetric prestressed; time
dependent; frequency
domain, prestressed
Electromechanics, — 3D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency,
Boundary Elements3 prestressed; time
dependent; frequency
domain, prestressed
Piezoelectricity2 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric eigenfrequency,
prestressed; time
dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
frequency domain,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed,
modal; small-signal analysis,
frequency domain; linear
buckling
Piezoelectricity, Layered — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Shell2, time dependent; frequency
domain

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 23

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Magnetostriction2,3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;

axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Magnetomechanics2,3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Magnetomechanics, No — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Currents2,3 axisymmetric time dependent; frequency
domain; small-signal
analysis, frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Ferroelectroelasticity2, 3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency domain
Electrostriction2, 3 — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency domain
Piezoresistivity

Piezoresistivity, — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;

Domain Currents3 time dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Piezoresistivity, Shell,3 — 3D stationary; time dependent;

time dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
Piezoresistivity, — 3D stationary; eigenfrequency;
Boundary Currents3 time dependent; time
dependent, modal;
frequency domain;
frequency domain, modal;
small-signal analysis,
frequency domain;
eigenfrequency,
prestressed; frequency
domain, prestressed
1 This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
2
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.
3
Requires the addition of the Structural Mechanics Module or the MEMS Module.
4
Requires the addition of the Particle Tracing Module.

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 25

 AC/DC Module Study Availability

TABLE 1-1: AC/DC MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES, FIELD COMPONENTS, AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
2
PHYSICS INTERFACE TAG DEPENDENT FIELD PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES COMPONENTS
1

SWEEP W. INITIALIZATION

FREQUENCY-STATIONARY
SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS,

FREQUENCY-TRANSIENT
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

STATIONARY SOURCE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

TIME TO FREQUENCY
CURRENT DENSITY

EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
MAGNETIC FIELD

ELECTRIC FIELD

STATIONARY

LOSSES
Electrostatics es V x      
y
z
Electrostatics, esbe V x  
Boundary y
Elements z
Electric Currents ec V x x     
y y
z z
Electric Currents ecis V x x     
in Shells y y
z z
Electric Currents ecis V x x     
in Layered Shells y y
z z
Magnetic Fields mf A x x x x      
y y y y
z z z z
Magnetic Field mfh H x     
Formulation y
z
Magnetic and mef V, A x x x x      
Electric Fields y y y y
z z z z
Magnetic Fields, mfnc Vm x   
No Currents y
z

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-1: AC/DC MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES, FIELD COMPONENTS, AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY

PHYSICS INTERFACE TAG DEPENDENT FIELD PRESET STUDIES

2
1
VARIABLES COMPONENTS

SWEEP W. INITIALIZATION

FREQUENCY-STATIONARY
SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS,

FREQUENCY-TRANSIENT
MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

STATIONARY SOURCE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

TIME TO FREQUENCY
CURRENT DENSITY

EIGENFREQUENCY
TIME DEPENDENT
MAGNETIC FIELD

ELECTRIC FIELD

STATIONARY

LOSSES
Magnetic Fields, mfncbe Vm x 
No Currents, y
Boundary z
Elements
Magnetic Fields, mfco A x x x   
Currents Only y y y
z z z
Rotating rmm A, Vm x z z z   
Machinery, y
Magnetic
Electrical Circuit cir not    
applicable
Induction — A,T x x x x     
Heating3 y y y y
z z z z
1 These are the nonzero field components. For Cartesian coordinates, these are indexed by x, y, and z; for
cylindrical coordinates, r, , and z are used.
2 Custom studies (for example, Eigenvalue) are also available based on the physics interface.
3
It is a multiphysics interface that couples the Magnetic Fields interface and the Heat Transfer interface. Other
multiphysics interfaces related to the AC/DC Module are not shown in this table.

• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• What Can the AC/DC Module Do?
• AC/DC Module Physics Interface Guide
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 27

 Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 29

 THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

From the File menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File or Windows menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu,
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
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30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
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ABOUT THE AC/DC MODULE | 31

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The AC/DC Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how
to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

The Theory for the AC/DC Module chapter contains an overview of the theory
behind the AC/DC Module. It is intended for readers that want to understand what
goes on in the background when using the physics interfaces and — in addition to
giving the theory background for each of the physics interfaces — discusses the
Fundamentals of Electromagnetics, Electromagnetic Forces, and Electromagnetic
Quantities.

MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

The Modeling with the AC/DC Module chapter summarizes general procedures and
strategies for modeling low-frequencies electromagnetics. Topics include Preparing for
Modeling, Modeling Coils, Computing Forces and Torques, Computing Losses,
Computing Lumped Parameters, Connecting to Electrical Circuits.

ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

The Electric Field and Current Interfaces chapter describes the electric field and
current interfaces supported by the AC/DC Module:

• The Electrostatics Interface, which simulates electric fields in dielectric materials

with a fixed or slowly-varying charge distribution. Preset Stationary, Stationary
Source Sweep, Time Dependent, Frequency Domain, Small-Signal Analysis, and
Stationary Source Sweep study types are available.

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface, which simulates electric fields in
dielectric materials with a fixed charge distribution using the boundary element
method. Preset Stationary and Stationary Source Sweep study types are available.
• The Electric Currents Interface, which simulates the current in a conductive and
capacitive material under the influence of an electric field. Preset Stationary,
Stationary Source Sweep, Time Dependent, Frequency Domain, Small-Signal
Analysis, and Stationary Source Sweep study types are available.
• The Electric Currents in Shells Interface, computes electric fields, currents, and
potential distributions in thin conducting layered shells. It is used under conditions
where inductive effects are negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger
than the size of studied device. Preset Stationary, Time Dependent, and Frequency
Domain study types are available.
• The Electric Currents in Layered Shells Interface, which is very similar to The
Electric Currents in Shells Interface.

MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Magnetic Field Interfaces chapter describes the magnetic field interfaces
supported by the AC/DC Module:

• The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface, which handles magnetic fields without
currents. When no currents are present, the problem is easier to solve using the
magnetic scalar potential. Thus it is the primary choice for modeling permanent
magnets. Preset Stationary and Time Dependent study types are available.
• The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface, which handles
magnetic fields without currents using the boundary element method. It can be
combined with the Magnetic Fields or Magnetic Fields, No Currents interfaces for
easy modeling of open boundary conditions. The preset Stationary study type is
available.
• The Magnetic Fields Interface, which computes magnetic fields with source
currents by solving the magnetic vector potential. Preset Stationary, Time
Dependent, Frequency Domain, Small-Signal Analysis, and Time to Frequency
Losses study types are available. This is the recommended primary choice for
modeling magnetic fields involving source currents.
• The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface computes magnetic field and current
distributions when the exciting current is driven by an applied voltage. In most
cases, using the Magnetic Fields interface with its dedicated modeling features is the
preferred choice over using the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface. Preset
Stationary, Time Dependent, Frequency Domain study types are available.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 33

 • The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface has the equations, boundary conditions,
and currents for modeling magnetic fields, solving for the magnetic field
components. It is especially suitable for modeling involving nonlinear conductivity
effects, for example in superconductors. Preset Stationary, Time Dependent,
Frequency Domain, and Small-Signal Analysis study types are available.
• The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface, which handles magnetic fields with
currents only. It is especially suitable for computing the lumped matrix of an array
of conductors in free space. Preset Stationary and Stationary Source Sweep with
Initialization study types are available.
• The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface combines a Magnetic Fields
formulation (magnetic vector potential) and Magnetic Fields, No Currents
formulation (magnetic scalar potential) with a selection of predefined frames for
prescribed rotation or rotational velocity. Most of its features are taken either from
the Magnetic Fields or the Magnetic Fields, No Currents interfaces. Preset
Stationary and Time Dependent study types are available.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

The Electrical Circuit Interface chapter describes the physics interface, which has the
equations for modeling electrical circuits with or without connections to a distributed
fields model, solving for the voltages, currents, and charges associated with the circuit
elements. The underlying theory for the physics interface is also included. Preset
Stationary, Time Dependent and Frequency Domain study types are available.

MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter includes a detailed description for
the predefined multiphysics interfaces supported by the AC/DC Module, for example,
the Induction Heating interface. It also presents an overview of other predefined
multiphysics interfaces and the multiphysics coupling features related to the AC/DC
Module.

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Theory for the AC/DC Module

This chapter contains an overview of the theory behind the AC/DC Module. It is
intended for readers that want to understand what goes on in the background when
using the physics interfaces.

In this chapter:

• Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
• Formulations, Methods, Technologies
• Theory for the Electrostatics Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Field Formulation Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface
• Electromagnetic Forces
• Electromagnetic Quantities
• References

35
 Fundamentals of Electromagnetics
In this section:

• Maxwell’s Equations
• Constitutive Relations
• Boundary Conditions
• Potentials
• Reduced Potential PDE Formulations
• Electromagnetic Energy
• The Quasistatic Approximation and the Lorentz Term
• Material Properties
• Phasors
• Nonlinear Permanent Magnet Constitutive Relations
• Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive Relations
• The Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model
• References for Electromagnetic Theory

Maxwell’s Equations
The problem of electromagnetic analysis on a macroscopic level is that of solving
Maxwell’s equations subject to certain boundary conditions. Maxwell’s equations are
a set of equations, written in differential or integral form, stating the relationships
between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These quantities are:

• Electric field intensity E

• Electric displacement field D
• Magnetic field intensity H
• Magnetic flux density B
• Current density J
• Electric charge density 

For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations in the differential form can be
written as

36 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 D =  Gauss law, electric
B
  E = – ------- Faradays law
t (2-1)
B = 0 Gauss law, magnetic
D
  H = J + ------- Maxwell-Ampères law
t

Another fundamental equation, derived from Maxwell’s equations, is the equation of

continuity:


J = – ------ (2-2)
t

Constitutive Relations
To obtain a closed system, the equations include constitutive relations that describe
the macroscopic properties of the medium. They are given as

D = 0 E + P
B = 0  H + M  (2-3)

J = E
where 0 and 0 are the permittivity and permeability of vacuum, and  is the electrical
conductivity. The constants 0 and 0 are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as
predefined physical constants. In the SI unit system, 0 has an approximate value of 1/
(36·109 F/m; 0 has an approximate value of 4·107 H/m.

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials can have a nonzero P when
there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, for instance,
have a nonzero M when there is no magnetic field present.

For linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field,
P  0 e E, where e is the electric susceptibility. Similarly in linear materials, the
magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, M  m H, where m is
the magnetic susceptibility. For such materials, the constitutive relations are:

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 37
 D =  0  1 +  e E =  0  r E = E
B =  0  1 +  m H =  0  r H = H

The parameter r is the relative permittivity and r is the relative permeability of the
material. Usually these are scalar properties but can, in the general case, be 3-by-3
tensors when the material is anisotropic. The properties  and  (without subscripts)
are the permittivity and permeability of the material, respectively.

GENERALIZED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

For nonlinear materials, a generalized form of the constitutive relationships is useful.
The relationship used for electric fields is D  orE + Dr, where Dr is the remanent
displacement, which is the displacement when no electric field is present.

Similarly, a generalized form of the constitutive relation for the magnetic field is

B = 0 r H + Br

where Br is the remanent magnetic flux density, which is the magnetic flux density
when no magnetic field is present.

For some materials, there is a nonlinear relationship between B and H such that

B = f H 

The relation defining the current density is generalized by introducing an externally

generated current Je. The resulting constitutive relation is J E + Je.

Boundary Conditions
To get a full description of an electromagnetics problem, boundary conditions must
be specified at material interfaces and physical boundaries. At interfaces between two
media, the boundary conditions can be expressed mathematically as

n2   D1 – D2  = s
n2   E1 – E2  = 0
(2-4)
n2   B1 – B2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = Js

38 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

where s and Js denote surface charge density and surface current density, respectively,
and n2 is the outward normal from medium two.

n2

Medium 1

Medium 2

The boundary condition for the current density, derived from Equation 2-4, is
expressed as

 s
n 2   J 1 – J 2  = – --------
t

INTERFACE BETWEEN A DIELECTRIC AND A PERFECT CONDUCTOR

A perfect conductor has infinite electrical conductivity and thus no internal electric
field. Otherwise, it would produce an infinite current density according to the third
fundamental constitutive relation. At an interface between a dielectric and a perfect
conductor, the boundary conditions for the E and D fields are simplified. Assume that
subscript 1 corresponds to a perfect conductor; then D1  0 and E1  0 in the
relationships just given. If it is a time-varying case, then B1  0 and H1  0 as well, as
a consequence of Maxwell’s equations. The result is the following set of boundary
conditions for the fields in the dielectric medium for the time-varying case:

–n2  D2 = s
–n2  E2 = 0
(2-5)
–n2  B2 = 0
–n2  H2 = Js

Potentials
Under certain circumstances, it can be helpful to formulate the problems in terms of
the electric scalar potential V and the magnetic vector potential A. They are given by
the equalities

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 39
 B = A
A
E = – V – -------
t

The defining equation for the magnetic vector potential is a direct consequence of the
magnetic Gauss’ law. The electric potential results from Faraday’s law. In the
magnetostatic case where there are no currents present, Maxwell–Ampère’s law
reduces to   H  0. When this holds, it is also possible to define a magnetic scalar
potential by the relation H Vm.

Reduced Potential PDE Formulations

The reduced potential option is useful for models involving a uniform or known
external background field, usually originating from distant sources that might be
expensive or inconvenient to include in the model geometry. A typical example is when
analyzing induced magnetization in ferromagnetic objects such as ships or vehicles due
to Earth’s magnetic field. The strategy is then to solve only for the induced fields
represented by the reduced vector potential Ared, introducing the substitution
A  Ared  Aext, where Aext represents the known background field, into Maxwell–
Ampère’s law:

–1 dD
  A  = J +
dt

DOMAIN EQUATIONS

Time-Harmonic
For time-harmonic quasistatic systems solving for an A formulation, the reduced
potential formulation results in the following PDE:

2 –1
 j –     A ext + A red  +    A ext + A red   = J e

Here it is possible to interpret the term   Aext as an additional remanent magnetic

flux density and the term (j  2Aext as an additional external current source.

Transient
Similarly to the time-harmonic formulation, in the transient formulation, the above
substitution results in the reduced equation

   A ext + A red  +    A ext + A red   = J e

–1
t

40 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Static
In static formulations, the induced current is zero. Maxwell–Ampère’s law reduces to

–1
   A ext + A red   = J e

In this case it is also possible to express the external field through a known external
magnetic flux density, Bext. The domain equation in reduced form then reads

–1
   A red + B ext   = J e

Electromagnetic Energy
The electric and magnetic energies are defined as

D T
 D
We =  0 E  dD dV = 
 0 E  ------- dt dV
V V t 
B T
B
Wm = V  0 H  dB dV = V  0 H  ------
t 
- dt dV

The time derivatives of these expressions are the electric and magnetic power:

D
Pe = V E  -------
t
dV

B
Pm = V H  ------
t
- dV

These quantities are related to the resistive and radiative energy, or energy loss,
through Poynting’s theorem (Ref. 1):

D B
– V  E  -------
t
+ H  ------- dV =  J  E dV +   E  H   n dS
t  V S
where V is the computation domain and S is the closed boundary of V.

The first term on the right-hand side represents the resistive losses,

Ph = V J  E dV
which result in heat dissipation in the material. (The current density J in this
expression is the one appearing in Maxwell–Ampère’s law.)

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 41
 The second term on the right-hand side of Poynting’s theorem represents the radiative
losses

Pr =
S  E  H   n dS
The quantity S  E × H is called the Poynting vector.

Under the assumption that the material is linear and isotropic, it holds that

D E
E  ------- = E  ------- =   --- E  E
1
t t  t 2 
B B
H  ------- = --- B  ------- =   ------- B  B
1 1
t  t  t  2 

By interchanging the order of differentiation and integration (justified by the fact that
the volume is constant and the assumption that the fields are continuous in time), the
result is


V  --2- E  E + ------
- B  B dV =
1 1
–
t 2  V J  E dV + S  E  H   n dS
The integrand of the left-hand side is the total electromagnetic energy density:

1 1
w = w e + w m = --- E  E + ------- B  B
2 2

The Quasistatic Approximation and the Lorentz Term

A consequence of Maxwell’s equations is that changes in time of currents and charges
are not synchronized with changes of the electromagnetic fields. The changes of the
fields are always delayed relative to the changes of the sources, reflecting the finite
speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves. Under the assumption that this effect
can be ignored, it is possible to obtain the electromagnetic fields by considering
stationary currents at every instant. This is called the quasistatic approximation. The
approximation is valid provided that the variations in time are small and that the
studied geometries are considerably smaller than the wavelength (Ref. 5).

The quasistatic approximation implies that the equation of continuity can be written
as Jand that the time derivative of the electric displacement Dt can be
disregarded in Maxwell–Ampère’s law.

42 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

There are also effects of the motion of the geometries. Consider a geometry moving
with velocity v relative to the reference system. The force per unit charge, Fq, is then
given by the Lorentz force equation:

F
---- = E + v  B
q

This means that to an observer traveling with the geometry, the force on a charged
particle can be interpreted as caused by an electric field E'  E  v × B. In a conductive
medium, the observer accordingly sees the current density

J =   E + v  B  + Je

where Je is an externally generated current density.

Maxwell–Ampère’s law for quasistatic systems is consequently extended to

  H =   E + v  B  + Je

whereas Faraday’s law remains unchanged.

Material Properties
Until now, there has only been a formal introduction of the constitutive relations.
These seemingly simple relations can be quite complicated at times. There are four
main groups of materials for which they require some consideration. A given material
can belong to one or more of these groups.

INHOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS
Inhomogeneous materials are the least complicated. An inhomogeneous medium is
one in which the constitutive parameters vary with the space coordinates so that
different field properties prevail at different parts of the material structure.

ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS
For anisotropic materials, the field relationships at any point differ for different
directions of propagation. This means that a 3-by-3 tensor is necessary to properly
define the constitutive relationships. If this tensor is symmetric, the material is often
referred to as reciprocal. In such cases, rotate the coordinate system such that a
diagonal matrix results. If two of the diagonal entries are equal, the material is
uniaxially anisotropic. If none of the elements have the same value, the material is
biaxially anisotropic (Ref. 2). Anisotropic parameters are needed, for example, to

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 43
 examine permittivity in crystals (Ref. 2) and when working with conductivity in
solenoids.

NONLINEAR MATERIALS
Nonlinearity is the effect of variations in permittivity or permeability with the intensity
of the electromagnetic field. Nonlinearity also includes hysteresis effects where not
only the current field intensities influence the physical properties of the material, but
also the history of the field distribution.

DISPERSIVE MATERIALS
Dispersion describes changes in a wave’s velocity with wavelength. In the frequency
domain, dispersion is expressed with a frequency dependence of the constitutive
relations.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND THE MATERIAL BROWSER

All interfaces in the AC/DC Module support the use of the COMSOL Multiphysics
material libraries. The typical electromagnetic material properties that can be stored
are:

• The electrical conductivity

• The relative permittivity
• The relative permeability
The physics-specific domain material properties are by default taken from the material
specification. The material properties are inputs to material laws or constitutive
relations that are defined on the feature level below the physics interface node in the
model tree. There is one editable default domain feature that initially represents a
linear isotropic material. Domains with different material laws are specified by adding
additional features. Some of the domain parameters can either be a scalar or a matrix
(tensor) depending on whether the material is isotropic or anisotropic.

In a similar way, boundary, edge, and point settings are specified by adding the
corresponding features. A certain feature might require one or several fields to be
specified, while others generate the conditions without user-specified fields.

For detailed information about Materials and Modeling Anisotropic

Materials, including the Electromagnetic Models, see the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

44 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Phasors
Whenever a problem is time-harmonic the fields can be written in the form

ˆ
E  r t  = E  r  cos  t +  

Instead of using a cosine function for the time dependence, it is more convenient to
use an exponential function, by writing the field as

ˆ ˆ j jt ˜ jt
E  r t  = E  r  cos  t +   = Re  E  r e e  = Re  E  r e 
˜
The field E  r  is a phasor, which contains amplitude and phase information of the
field but is independent of t. One thing that makes the use of phasors suitable is that
a time derivative corresponds to a multiplication by j:

------
E- ˜ jt
= Re  jE  r e 
t

If the fields satisfy a linear time-dependent equation, then the corresponding phasors
must satisfy a similar equation in which the time derivatives are replaced by a factor j.
All time-harmonic equations are expressed as equations for the phasors. (The tilde is
dropped from the variable denoting the phasor.)

The frequency domain formulation is only applicable for equations linear in the fields.
In particular, it cannot be used with materials whose properties depend on the fields
themselves (nonlinear materials). See Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive
Relations for a formulation that approximates nonlinear magnetic constitutive
relations in time-harmonic problems.

When analyzing the solution of a time-harmonic equation, it is important

to remember that the field that has been calculated is a phasor and not a
physical field.
˜
For example, all plot functions visualize Re  E  r   by default, which is E
at time t  0. To obtain the solution at a given time, specify a phase factor
in all results settings and in the corresponding functions.

Nonlinear Permanent Magnet Constitutive Relations

The BH nonlinear permanent magnet constitutive relation available in the Magnetic
Fields and Magnetic Fields, No Currents interfaces is intended for easy modeling of

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 45
 self-demagnetization of soft permanent magnets (for example, AlNiCo). It uses a
nonlinear BH-relation that is isotropic around a point in H space that is shifted by the
coercive field Hc. The shifted B-H curve that is specified in the associated material
node is thus supplied in the first quadrant; that is, it is shifted by Hc with respect to
the uniaxial curve. The AC/DC material library in the Add Material window contains an
example material, Nonlinear Permanent Magnet to be used with this constitutive
relation. It is a generic and approximate representation of AlNiCo 5.

Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive Relations

The effective constitutive relations can be used to approximate the behavior of a
nonlinear magnetic material, such as a saturable material, in a (linear) Frequency
Domain study.

The approach consists in replacing the nonlinear material with an inhomogeneous

linear material — a material described by a magnetic permeability constant in time but
which can be space dependent. The local magnetic permeability is chosen using an
approximation criterion, such as, for example, that the cycle-average energy stored
must be equal to the nonlinear case. As a consequence, the permeability may depend
on the amplitude of the magnetic field and the nonlinear solver is invoked during the
solution.

The formulation still uses the assumption of harmonic time dependency of the fields
(which are still described as phasors): the fields still oscillate at the given frequency;
higher-order harmonic effects, or other similar effects due to the nonlinearity, are not
accounted for.

Using this constitutive relation provides a better approximation of the behavior of a

nonlinear material in the frequency domain than linearizing the material properties,
still avoiding the computational cost of a full transient analysis.

The application Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Curves Calculator in the AC/DC

Module Application Library can be used to compute the effective B-H curve for a
material, starting from its B-H curve.

Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Curves Calculator: Application Library

path ACDC_Module/Applications/effective_nonlinear_magnetic_curves

46 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

The Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model
Magnetic hysteresis originates from the alignment of electron spins into magnetic
domains and the reorganization of such domains under the influence of an externally
applied magnetizing field. In the Jiles–Atherton model, for each domain there is a
reversible rotation and an irreversible rotation, which corresponds to a reversible and
irreversible magnetization. In a magnetic material without hysteresis losses, there is
only a reversible part of the magnetization, usually modeled with a relative
permeability or with a reversible B-H curve. The Jiles–Atherton hysteresis model
includes a nonlinear relationship between the change in magnetization M and the
change in the magnetizing field H. The magnetic flux density B follows from the
relation

B = 0  H + M 

The Jiles–Atherton model is a phenomenological model based on several parameters.

The version available in COMSOL Multiphysics is full vectorial and anisotropic (see
Ref. 4 and Ref. 5) and is based on the following five parameters:

• Magnetization reversibility: cr
• Saturation magnetization: Ms
• Domain wall density: a
• Pinning loss: kp
• Interdomain coupling

These quantities are second-order tensors, something that is not reflected by the
equation notation here and in the graphical user interface.

The interdomain coupling parameter is used for defining the effective magnetic field
He, which is the field that is assumed to affect the magnetic moments on a
microscopical level:

He = H +   M

The saturation magnetization and domain wall density determine the anhysteretic part
of the material behavior, which in this implementation follows the Langevin function,

L  x  = cot h  x  – 1  x

through the formula for anhysteretic magnetization Man:

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 47
 –1 He
M an = M s  L  a  H e  ----------
He

where Ms and a are available as diagonal matrices (Ref. 4). The use of the Langevin
function should be interpreted as applied component wise.

The magnetization reversibility, cr, affects the degree of anhysteretic versus hysteretic
behavior. If it is set to unity, the model is purely anhysteretic.

The remaining parameter, kp, controls the pinning and hysteresis of the magnetic
moments.

Given the parameters above, the key equation in the Jiles–Atherton model determines
the change in the total magnetization M caused by a change in the effective magnetic
field as


dM = max    dH e 0  ------ + c r dM an


where the auxiliary vector  is defined as

–1
 = kp   M an – M 

The Jiles–Atherton hysteresis model is mainly suitable for time-dependent studies, but
it also supports stationary parametric simulation. The latter is especially useful if the
material is starting from a magnetized configuration that is not the solution of a
previous transient study. In the user interface, it is possible to select the initial value of
magnetization, in which case the initial magnetic field is set accordingly.

It is implemented for the following physics interfaces: Magnetic Fields (based on

vector potential); Magnetic Fields, No Currents (based on scalar potential); and
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic (mixed vector and scalar potentials).

The internal state variables are discretized directly in the Gauss points, and an auxiliary
variable is added to the same domain also for aiding support to simulations with
moving domains.

The order of Gauss point discretization can be selected in the Discretization section
under the Magnetic Field section. For the Gauss point discretization order, the default
is Automatic. This default sets the Gauss points discretization order depending on the
order of the parent physics. If the parent physics variable has order n, the Gauss point
order is 2(n–1). It is good practice to test that the results do not change significantly
when using a Gauss point discretization of order 2n since a good discretization order

48 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

depends on the kind of magnetic potential, mesh element shape, and space dimension,
rather than the pure mesh size. For an example, see:

Vector Hysteresis Modeling: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Verifications/vector_hysteresis_modeling

References for Electromagnetic Theory

1. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Massachusetts, 1989.

2. J. Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1993.

3. B.D. Popovic, Introductory Engineering Electromagnetics, Addison-Wesley,

Reading, Massachusetts, 1971.

4. A.J. Bergqvist, “A Simple Vector Generalization of the Jiles–Atherton Model of

Hysteresis,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 4213–4215, 1996.

5. J.P.A. Bastos and N. Sadowski, Magnetic Materials and 3D Finite Element

Modeling, CRC Press 2014.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS | 49
 Formulations, Methods, Technologies
For specific electromagnetic problems, it is always convenient to solve subsets or
special cases of Maxwell’s equations, resulting in different electric, magnetic, or
electromagnetic formulations. Based on these formulations, COMSOL Multiphysics
has several electromagnetics modules (for instance, the AC/DC Module, RF Module,
and Wave Optics Module), as well as several different physics interfaces for each
module. A formulation is usually based on a vector field, a potential, or a combination
of them. The vector fields and potentials are the dependent variables required to solve.
Depending on specific cases, different numerical methods and technologies can also be
used, resulting in more variants of the physics interfaces. This section aims to provide
an overview of the main formulations, methods and technologies used by AC/DC
interfaces.

In this section:

• The V Formulation
• The Vm Formulation
• The A Formulation
• The A–V Formulation
• The H Formulation
• The A–Vm Formulation
• The Gauge
• The Curl Element
• The Covariant Formulation
• The Boundary Element Method
• The Layered Shell
• The Circuit Model

The V Formulation
In electrostatics where no magnetic field is present, Maxwell’s equations
(Equation 2-1) reduce to two equations: Gauss’ law and   E  0. By introducing
the electric potential V and defining E  V, the two equations are reduced to a
single equation since   V  0 always holds. Giving the constitutive relationship

50 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

D  0E  P between the electric displacement field D and the electric field E, Gauss’
law is rewritten as

–     0 V – P  =  (2-6)

where 0 is the permittivity of vacuum, P is the electric polarization vector, and  is the
space charge density. Equation 2-6 is the Poisson’s equation, which is easy to solve
from the numerical point of view. Compared to using direct representation of the field
components or a vector potential, the scalar potential reduces the number of
unknowns by a factor 3 and the computational load (for Direct solvers) up to an order
of magnitude. It is also attractive from a theoretical point of view, as it is generally
much easier to find analytical solutions to problems formulated using a scalar potential.

For general cases of static electric field and currents, Equation 2-6 has to be solved
together with the equation of continuity (Equation 2-2). The V formulation is used
by all electric field and current interfaces in the AC/DC Module. Depending on
specific situations, different physics interfaces together with different study types are
available. Deciding what specific physics interface and study type to use requires a basic
understanding of the Charge Relaxation Theory. See Theory for the Electrostatics
Interface and Theory for the Electric Currents Interface for more details.

The Vm Formulation
In magnetostatics where no electric currents are present, Maxwell’s equations
(Equation 2-1) reduce to two equations: magnetic Gauss’ law and   H = 0. By
introducing the magnetic scalar potential Vm and defining H = Vm, the two
equations are reduced to a single equation since   Vm  0 always holds. As it can
be seen, this is analogous to The V Formulation. Using the constitutive relation
B  0H  M between the magnetic flux density B and the magnetic field H, the
magnetic Gauss’ law becomes

–     0 V m –  0 M  = 0 (2-7)

where 0 is the permeability of vacuum, M is the magnetization vector. This

formulation, referred to as the Vm formulation, is used in the The Magnetic Fields, No
Currents Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements
Interface. The resulting Equation 2-7 is also a Poisson’s equation that is easy to solve.
Therefore, The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface is the primary choice for
modeling permanent magnets and domains without currents.

FORMULATIONS, METHODS, TECHNOLOGIES | 51

 The A Formulation
As can be seen, in The V Formulation and The Vm Formulation, introducing a scalar
potential makes it possible to formulate Maxwell’s equations into a single Poisson’s
equation. Maxwell’s equations can also be formulated with vector potentials. For
example, by introducing the magnetic vector potential A and defining B =   A, the
magnetic form of Gauss’ law (  B  ) is inherently satisfied since     A  
always holds.

The A formulation is used by The Magnetic Fields Interface and The Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface in the AC/DC Module. Depending on specific cases (static,
quasistatic, transient and time harmonic), different study types in different dimensions
of The Magnetic Fields Interface are available. For more details, see the Theory for the
Magnetic Fields Interface. The A formulation is the most popular formulation used in
low-frequencies electromagnetics. Therefore, The Magnetic Fields Interface is the
recommended primary choice for modeling magnetic fields involving source currents.
However, other formulations are also possible and are useful for specific circumstances.

The A–V Formulation

The A Formulation can be combined with The V Formulation to take into account
static electric fields. This formulation, referred to as the A–V formulation, is used by
The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface. The A–V formulation solves two
dependent variables — A and V in a fully coupled way. For more details, see the Theory
for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

The H Formulation
For some specific cases, the vector field formulation can be useful. One example is the
modeling of superconducting materials that have highly nonlinear electric
conductivity. In this case, it is convenient to use the magnetic field formulation since
the nonlinear constitutive relation between the electric field E and the current density
J can be included naturally. This formulation, referred to as the H formulation, is used
by The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface. Different from The A Formulation
which solves Ampère’s law, The H Formulation solves Faraday’s law. For more
details, see the Theory for the Magnetic Field Formulation Interface.

52 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

The A–Vm Formulation
Mixed formulations are also used in computational electromagnetics. These
formulations use different formulations that are more suitable for specific computation
domains. One of the most famous mixed formulations is the A–Vm formulation, which
is a combination of The A Formulation and The Vm Formulation. In this mixed
formulation, The A Formulation is used to model current-carrying domains, and The
Vm Formulation is used to model the air gap and other nonconducting domains. The
two formulations are coupled on their common interfacing boundaries. The A–Vm
formulation is used by The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface.

The Gauge
The electromagnetic fields have unique solutions as determined by Maxwell’s
equations. However, when substituting the scalar and vector potentials into Maxwell’s
equations, those potentials typically have an infinite number of solutions — unless
additional equations or conditions are applied. For example, in The V Formulation, V
is not uniquely defined as V’ = V + C (C is a constant) yields the same electrostatic
field; in The A Formulation, A also has infinite solutions since A’ = A + f (f is a scalar
field) yields the same magnetic flux density; in The A–V Formulation, A and V have
infinite solutions due to Gauge Transformations. Therefore, potentials based
formulations of Maxwell’s equations are preliminarily ungauged. An ungauged
formulation can only be solved with an iterative solver as the assembled matrix is
singular.

In order to have a unique solution for potentials and be solved with a direct solver, a
gauge has to be applied. In The V Formulation, V needs at least one additional
condition fixing its general level. Most often, this is provided as a boundary condition
(ground or applied potential). In The A Formulation and The A–V Formulation,
additional constraint on the divergence of A is required. A common choice is the
Coulomb gauge   A  .

The Curl Element

Whenever solving for more than a single vector component, it is generally not possible
to use Lagrange elements for electromagnetic modeling. The reason is that they force
the fields to be continuous everywhere. This implies that the physics interface
conditions, which specify that the normal components of the electric fields and the
tangential components of the magnetic fields are discontinuous across interior

FORMULATIONS, METHODS, TECHNOLOGIES | 53

 boundaries between media with different permittivity and permeability, cannot be
fulfilled. To overcome this problem, the The A Formulation, The A–V Formulation,
and The A–Vm Formulation based interfaces use the curl element, which does not
have this limitation. The curl element is also named as vector element or edge element.

The solution obtained when using curl elements also better fulfills the divergence
conditions  · D   and  · B  0 than when using Lagrange elements.

For more information about the curl element, read the blog post:
www.comsol.com/blogs/what-is-the-curl-element-and-why-is-it-used/

The Covariant Formulation

In 2D axisymmetric formulation using vector field such as the magnetic vector
potential, it is beneficial to formulate the out-of-plane dependent variable as  = rA,
referred to as the covariant formulation. The covariant formulation has better
performance in terms of numerical stability and accuracy. Moreover, the covariant
dependent variable usually has a physical meaning, for instance, the difference 
between two magnetic surfaces is equal to the poloidal magnetic flux per radian.

One of the advantages of  formulation is that for linear discretization it gives more
accurate results than that with The A Formulation. However, using linear
discretization is not recommended since the magnetic field is zero at the axis. Always
perform a mesh adaptation study to make sure the results are not mesh dependent
when linear discretization is used.

The Boundary Element Method

The boundary element method is complementary to the finite element method, which
most of AC/DC interfaces are solved with. The boundary element method is
sometimes more efficient than other methods, including finite elements, in terms of
computational resources for problems where there is a small surface-to-volume ratio.
Physics interfaces based on the boundary element method differ from those based on
the finite element method in that they only use mesh elements on the boundaries of
the modeled regions (curves in 2D and surfaces in 3D). For a detailed discussion, see
Theory for the Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

54 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

In the AC/DC Module, The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface and The
Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface use the boundary
element method.

The Layered Shell

The layered shell is a technology that models a 3D geometry using a surface (2D)
geometry and an extra dimension (1D) geometry in the through-thickness (or normal)
direction. The layered shell technology is sometimes more efficient in terms of
computational resources when modeling thin structures such as PCB coils. In a layered
shell, the surface geometry is a physical geometry and supposed to be created in the
model whereas the extra dimension geometry is a virtual geometry created by the
Layered Material and similar nodes. For more details, see the Layered Material in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In the AC/DC Module, The Electric Currents in Shells Interface and The Electric
Currents in Layered Shells Interface as well as some physics features use the layered
shell technology.

The Circuit Model

The AC/DC Module provides The Electrical Circuit Interface to solve circuit models.
This interface is very useful when a physics field model is coupled with an electrical
circuit. For more details, see Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface.

Use the Circuit Extractor add-in, available in Add-in Library->AC/DC

Module, to extract circuit models from physics models.

FORMULATIONS, METHODS, TECHNOLOGIES | 55

 Theory for the Electrostatics
Interface
The Electrostatics Interface is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
components. Applications with electrostatic equations include high-voltage apparatus,
electronic devices, and capacitors. The term “statics” is not to be interpreted literally
— it is the observation time, or time scale at which the applied excitation changes, that
is short compared to the charge relaxation time; also, the electromagnetic wavelength
and skin depth are very large compared to the size of the domain of interest.

If you do not know whether to use the Electric Currents or the Electrostatics interface,
which both solve for the scalar electric potential V, consider using an explicit charge
transport model. See Charge Relaxation Theory.

In this section:

• Electrostatics Equations
• The Electrostatics Interface in Time Dependent or Frequency Domain Studies
• Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures
• Ferroelectricity
• Debye Dispersion
• Archie’s Law Theory

For a discussion about the boundary element method used with The
Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface, see Theory for the
Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Charge Relaxation Theory

COMSOL Multiphysics includes physics interfaces for the modeling of static electric
fields and currents. Deciding what specific physics interface and study type to select for

56 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

a particular modeling situation requires a basic understanding of the charge dynamics
in conductors.

The different physics interfaces involving only the scalar electric potential can be
interpreted in terms of the charge relaxation process. The fundamental equations
involved are Ohm’s law for the conduction current density

J c = E

the equation of continuity

-----
-
+   Jc = 0
t

and Gauss’ law

   E  = 

By combining these, one can deduce the following differential equation for the space
charge density in a homogeneous medium

-----
- 
+ ---  = 0
t 

This equation has the solution

–t  
  t  = 0 e

where


 = ---


is called the charge relaxation time. For a good conductor like copper,  is of the order
of 1019 s, whereas for a good insulator like silica glass, it is of the order of 103 s. For
a pure insulator, it becomes infinite.

When modeling real-world devices, there is not only the intrinsic time scale of the
charge relaxation time but also an external time scale t at which a device is energized
or the observation time. It is the relation between the external time scale and the

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 57

 charge relaxation time that determines what physics interface and study type to use.
The results are summarized in Table 2-1 below,
TABLE 2-1: SUITABLE PHYSICS INTERFACE AND STUDY TYPE FOR DIFFERENT TIME-SCALE REGIMES.

CASE PHYSICS INTERFACE STUDY TYPE

>>t Electrostatics Stationary

<<t Electric Currents Stationary
~ t Electric Currents Time Dependent or Frequency Domain

FIRST CASE:  >> T

If the external time scale is short compared to the charge relaxation time, the charges
do not have time to redistribute to any significant degree. Thus the charge distribution
can be considered as a given model input. The best approach is to solve the
Electrostatics formulation using the electric potential V.

By combining the definition of the potential with Gauss’ law, you can derive the
classical Poisson’s equation. Under static conditions, the electric potential V is defined
by the equivalence E  V. Using this together with the constitutive relation D0E
P between D and E, you can rewrite Gauss’ law as a variant of Poisson’s equation

–     0 V – P  = 

This equation is used in the Electrostatics interface. It is worth noting that Gauss’ law
does not require the charge distribution to be static. Thus, provided dynamics are slow
enough that induced electric fields can be neglected and hence a scalar electric
potential is justified, the formulation can be used also in the Time Dependent study
type. That typically involves either prescribing the charge dynamics or coupling a
separate formulation for this.

Such separate charge transport formulations can be found in the Plasma

Module, the Semiconductor Module, and the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module.

SECOND CASE:  <<T

If the external time scale is long compared to the charge relaxation time, the stationary
solution to the equation of continuity has been reached. In a stationary coordinate
system, a slightly more general form of Ohm’s law than above states that

J c = E + J e

58 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

where Je is an externally generated current density. The static form of the equation of
continuity then reads

  J c = –     V – J e  = 0

To handle current sources, the equation can be generalized to

–     V – J e  = Q j

This equation is used in the static study type for the Electric Currents interface.

GENERAL CASE: CHARGE DYNAMICS

If the charge relaxation time is comparable to the external time scale, the Time
Dependent or Frequency Domain study types for the Electric Currents interface must
be used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

  Jc =    E + J e  = –j

with the equation ( D) yields the following equation for the frequency domain
study type:

–      + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = 0

For the Time Dependent study type, use the transient equation of continuity


  J c =    E + J e  = –
t

and the resulting equation becomes

–      0 V + P  –    V – J e  = 0
t

These dynamic formulations are valid as long as induced electric fields can be ignored
and hence the electric field is essentially curl free. This condition is fulfilled provided
that skin effect and wave propagation effects can be ignored. The skin depth must be
much larger than the geometrical dimensions of the modeled device and so must the
wavelength. Note also that these formulations can be used to model dielectric regions
of capacitive/resistive devices even though the interior of electrodes sometimes does
not meet the large skin depth condition. In that case, the electrodes must only be
represented as boundary conditions (fixed or floating potential). The interior, metallic

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 59

 domains are not included in the analysis. Obviously, this is only a valid approach for
devices where metallic electrodes do not entirely bypass (short circuit) the capacitive/
resistive layers. If metallic electrodes short circuit the capacitive/resistive layers, the
time evolution of the current is determined by inductive and resistive effects with very
little influence from the capacitive layers. Then the Magnetic Fields interface is the
appropriate modeling tool.

Electrostatics Equations
Under static conditions, the electric potential, V, is defined by the relationship:

E = – V

Combining this equation with the constitutive relationship D  0E  P between the
electric displacement D and the electric field E, it is possible to represent Gauss’ law
as the following equation:

–     0 V – P  = 

In this equation, the physical constant, 0 (SI unit: F/m) is the permittivity of vacuum,
P (SI unit: C/m2) is the electric polarization vector, and  (SI unit: C/m3) is a space
charge density. This equation describes the electrostatic field in dielectric materials.

For in-plane 2D modeling, the Electrostatics interface assumes a symmetry where the
electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the z direction.
This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. With this symmetry,
the same equation is solved as in the 3D case. The physics interface solves the following
equation where d is the thickness in the z direction:

–   d   0 V – P  = 

The axisymmetric version of the physics interface considers the situation where the
fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case, the electric potential is constant
in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the rz-plane.

The Electrostatics Interface in Time Dependent or Frequency Domain

Studies
The Electrostatics Interface can also be solved in a dynamic study (Time Dependent
or Frequency Domain). The equation system solved, however, is typically always the
one presented in the previous section for the stationary case, in which no transient

60 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

electromagnetic effects are taken into account. The difference is that the sources of the
problem (charge densities, electric potential) are assumed to be time-varying (in a
Time Dependent study) or time-harmonic (in a Frequency Domain study).

Users that have a license supporting the piezoelectric material model can
also include conduction losses in the frequency domain.

The support for dynamic studies simplifies the coupling of the Electrostatics interface
with other physics interfaces. Using the physics interface in a dynamic study is a valid
approximation only if the time-scale (or the frequency) of the study is so slow that
transient electromagnetic effects can be neglected; for example, in acoustic or
structural problems.

Most of the features in the Electrostatics interface have the same behavior in all study
types, with the important exception of the Terminal node.

The Electrostatics interface also supports the small-signal analysis study sequence,
which can be used when a time-harmonic perturbation is superposed on a static bias
charge or voltage.

Ferroelectricity
The ferroelectricity phenomenon is related to phase transitions in materials. In its
ferroelectric phase, the material exhibits spontaneous polarization, so that it is
constituted of domains with nonzero polarization even at zero applied field. This is
similar to permanent magnetism in ferromagnetics, which explains the name used for
such materials. Application of an electric field can rearrange the domains resulting into
the net polarization in the material. At very large electric fields, the polarization
saturates, as all ferroelectric domains in the material are aligned along the direction of
the applied field. Domain wall interactions can also lead to a significant hysteresis in
the polarization.

All domains are assumed to have polarization of the same magnitude Ps, but the
polarization can have different orientations. The applied electric field changes the
domain orientation, and the resulting net polarization in the ferroelectric material is
found from the following nonlinear implicit relation:

E eff
P = P s L  E eff  ------------- (2-8)
E eff

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 61

 The effective field in the material is given by

E eff = E + P

where the matrix  characterizes the interdomain coupling.

The polarization shape is characterized by the function L with the following

properties:

For weak effective fields, the polarization is nearly linear

P   0 E eff

and can be characterized by the initial electric susceptibility matrix 0.

For strong fields, the polarization magnitude approaches the saturation value

E eff
P  P s -------------
E eff

Three possible choices are the Langevin function

3 0 E eff Ps
L = coth  ------------------------ – ------------------------
Ps 3 0 E eff

and a hyperbolic tangent:

 0 H eff
L = tanh  ---------------------
 Ps 

HYSTERESIS MODELING
The Jiles–Atherton hysteresis model for ferroelectric materials is available COMSOL
Multiphysics. The model assumes that the total polarization can be represented as a
sum of reversible and irreversible parts

P = P rev + P irr

The polarization change can be computed from the following incremental equation:

dP = c r dP an +  I – c r dP irr

where the reversibility is characterized by the matrix cr, and the anhysteretic
polarization is found from a relation similar to Equation 2-8:

62 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 E eff
P an = P s L  E eff  -------------
E eff

The change of the irreversible polarization can be computed from


dP irr = max    dE eff 0  -----


–1
 = k p  P an – P irr 

where the pinning loss is characterized by the matrix kp.

REFERENCE
6. R.C. Smith and C.L. Hom, “A Domain Wall Model for Ferroelectric Hysteresis,”
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 195–213,
1999.

Debye Dispersion
Ampere’s law is written as

H = J (2-9)

The total current is given by

D
J = Ji + + Jp (2-10)
t

where

J i = E

is the induction current,

D = 0  E

is the electric displacement in the high frequency limit (in the sense that the excitation
duration is smaller than the shortest charge relaxation time).

The charge relaxation is modeled using the polarization current (Ref. 1)

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 63

 N

Jp =  Jm
m=1

where each term obeys an equation of the following form:

J m E
m + J m =  0  m (2-11)
t t

where m is the relaxation time, and m is the relative permittivity contribution. Note
that both quantities can be taken as diagonal matrices to cover the anisotropic case.

Introduce new variables, auxiliary electric field from

e m
J m =  0  m
t

Equation 2-11 can be integrated once with respect to time assuming zero initial fields

e m
m + em = E (2-12)
t

The polarization current can be expressed the as either

N

Jp =
t   0  m e m (2-13)
m=1

or


–1
Jp = 0  m  m  E – e m 
m=1

By applying the divergence operator, Equation 2-9 yields the current conservation
equation:

J = 0

Assume that the electric conductivity is small, so that the induction current can be
neglected. Using Equation 2-13, the current conservation equation can be written as

64 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 N
 
 E 
  0  +  0  m e m = 0

 t t 
 m=1 

which can be integrated once with respect to time assuming zero initial fields to give
the charge conservation equation

N
 
  0  m e m = 0
  0  E +
  
(2-14)
 m=1 

Equation 2-14 can be solved using the scalar electric potential V as a dependent
variable determine the electric field as E = – V , and it needs to be solved together
with N vector Equation 2-12 for N vector dependent variables em. In time domain,
these auxiliary field variables can be treated as the local state variables, and each of N
corresponding ODE equations can be integrated locally.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN
In frequency domain, Equation 2-13 for the auxiliary variables can be solved
analytically, so that Equation 2-14 gives

N
 
  0  m  I + j m  E = 0

–1
  0  E +
 
 m=1 

where  is the angular frequency. By separating the real and imaginary parts, the
equation can be further rewritten as

    0  ' – j'' E  = 0

where

N
2 –1
' =   +   m  I +   m  
m=1

and

N
2 –1
'' =   m  m  I +   m  
m=1

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 65

 Each term in the sum in the above equations represents a pole on the complex w plane.
Thus, the model is referred to as Multipole Debye Dispersion model. To determine
the number of poles needed to approximate the lossy material behavior can be a
difficult task. One possible approach is presented in Constant loss tangent section.

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDY
Direct use of the complex frequency-dependent permittivity would lead to a nonlinear
eigenvalue problem, for which the solution would depend on the eigenvalue
linearization point (transform point frequency, specified on the solver). The solution
would be accurate only for the eigenfrequency that is close to the transform point
frequency. Thus, the eigenfrequencies would need to be computed one by one using
iterative updates of the transform point frequency value.

Instead, one can solve N algebraic equations for the auxiliary variables em

j m e m + e m = E (2-15)

together with Equation 2-15. Even though this approach requires extra degrees of
freedom, it will produce frequency independent contributions to the damping and
stiffness matrices. The corresponding linear damped eigenvalue problem can be solved
using the default solver in a single run for any specified number of eigenfrequencies
which will be computed exactly.

In practice, an Eigenfrequency analysis makes sense only when the

Electrostatics interface is used together with some other physics that
defines a proper mass matrix. For example, a multiphysics model that
involves a Solid Mechanics (or other structural interfaces available in the
Structural Mechanics Module). Another possibilities is a coupling
between the Electrostatic Interface and electric circuits.

CONSTANT LOSS TANGENT

In frequency domain, the loss tangent is defined as

 = tan  = ''  ' (2-16)

and it is often used to characterize lossy materials based on experimental data.

In Ref. 2, a special parameterization was suggested for the multipole Debye model
based on the original result derived in Ref. 3 for equivalent electric circuits. It allows

66 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

to fit the model parameters for Multipole Debye Model so that the loss tangent is
nearly constant at a certain frequency range.

The input parameters are the loss tangent (fc) together with the center frequency fc,
at which is has been measured, and the model bandwidth nd that defines a frequency
interval (in decades) centered at fc, in which the loss tangent will be approximately
constant and equal to (fc).

The relaxation times are computed as  m = 1   m , where the corresponding

frequencies are equidistantly spaced in the logarithmic space as

 N + 1 – 2m   2
 m =  c 10

where N is the number of Debye poles, and  c = 2f c .

The corresponding relative permittivity contribution is given by

m–1
 m =    k – 1 k

where k > 1 is the spacing parameter. Note that the relative electric permittivity in the
N
low and high frequency limits are related simply as  r  f  0  =   k .

COMSOL Multiphysics software will automatically deduce the necessary number of

poles N together with the values of the relaxation times tm and relative permittivity
contributions m, which will be used in computations to maintain the requested
bandwidth and accuracy.

The accuracy can be selected as normal to give

  f  =   f c   6%

for

–nd  2 nd  2
10  f  f c  10
2  
which requires N = n d + 3 poles, and the spacing parameter k = 10 with the
loss angle d computed from (fc).

Alternatively, the accuracy can be selected as high to get

  f  =   f c   2%

in the same interval, which will require N = 3n d  2 + 5 poles, and the spacing
4  3
parameter k = 10 .

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 67

 Thus computed parameters will be used automatically in a Time Dependent study
using Equation 2-12, and in an Eigenfrequency study using Equation 2-16.

In Eigenfrequency study and Time Dependent study, each pole will

require one extra vector degree of freedom (domain variable) to represent
the corresponding contribution to the polarization. Thus, using many
poles in the relaxation data, or choosing high accuracy n case of a constant
loss tangent, can lead to significant computation costs for larger models.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
For many dielectric materials such as polymers, the charge relaxation properties have a
strong dependence on the temperature. A common assumption is that a change in the
temperature can be transformed directly into a change in the time scale. The reduced
time is defined as

t
dt'
tr =  ------------------------
T  T  t'  
0

where T(T) is a temperature-dependent shift function.

The implication is that the problem can be solved using the original material data,
provided that the time is transformed into the reduced time. Think of the shift
function T(T) as a multiplier to the relaxation time in Equation 2-12 and
Equation 2-16.

Vogel-Fulcher Shift
The shift function is given by

Q
log   T  = --------------------------
R  T – T0 

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), and R is
the universal gas constant. Temperature T0 is the temperature at which the relaxation
time would becomes infinite.

Arrhenius Shift
The shift function is assumed to follow an Arrhenius law

log   T  = ----  ---- – ---------

Q 1 1
R  T T ref

68 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), and R is
the universal gas constant.

Williams–Landel–Ferry Shift
One commonly used shift function is defined by the WLF (Williams–Landel–Ferry)
equation:

– C 1  T – T ref 
log   T  = --------------------------------------
C 2 +  T – T ref 

where a base-10 logarithm is used. This shift is only valid over a certain temperature
range, typically around the glass transition temperature.

The first step to compute the shift function T(T) consists of building a master curve
based on experimental data. To do this, the curves of the dielectric properties versus
time or frequency are measured at a reference temperature Tref. Then, the same
properties are measured at different temperatures.

The shift value of each curve, with respect to the master curve obtained at the
temperature Tref, defines the shift factor T(T). The constants C1 and C2 are material
dependent and are calculated after plotting log(T) versus T  Tref.

The shift factor at the reference temperature equals T(Tref) = 1, so that

Tref is the temperature at which the master curve is given. If the
temperature T drops below Tref  C2, the WLF equation is no longer
valid.

Since the master curve is measured at an arbitrary reference temperature Tref, the shift
factor T(T) can be derived with respect to any temperature, and it is commonly taken
as the shift with respect to the glass transition temperature.

Tool–Narayanaswamy–Moynihan Shift
Charge relaxation in glass can be modeled using the so-called Tool–Narayanaswamy–
Moynihan shift factor which is given as

Q  1–
log   T  = ----  ---- + ------------ – ---------
1
RT Tf T ref

here, a base-e logarithm is used, Q is the activation energy (SI unit: J/mol), R is the
universal gas constant, T is the current temperature, Tref is a reference temperature, 

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 69

 is a dimensionless activation energy fraction, and Tf is the so-called fictive temperature.
The fictive temperature is given as the weighted average of partial fictive temperatures.

 wi Tfi  wi
Tf = with = 1
i i

Here, wi are the weights and Tfi are the partial fictive temperatures. The partial fictive
temperatures are determined from a system of coupled ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) which follow Tool’s equation

d T – T fi
T fi = -----------------
dt  T  0i

here, 0i is a relaxation time parameter.

REFERENCES FOR DEBYE DISPERSION

1. N.S. Stoykov, T.A. Kuiken, M.M. Lowery, and A. Taflove, “Finite-element
time-domain algorithms for modeling linear Debye and Lorentz dielectric dispersions
at low frequencies,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, vol. 50, no. 9,
pp. 1100–1107, 2003.

2. A.E. Engin, I. Ndip, K. Lang, and J. Aguirre, “Closed-Form Multipole Debye

Model for Time-Domain Modeling of Lossy Dielectrics,” IEEE Trans. on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 966–968, 2019.

3. R. Morrison, “RC constant-argument driving-point admittances,” IRE Trans.

Circuit Theory, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 310–317, 1959.

4. J.A. Diego, J. Sellares, A. Aragoneses, M. Mudarra, J.C. Canadas, and J. Belana,

“TSDC study of the glass transition: correlation with calorimetric data,” Journal of
Physics D: Applied Physics, vol. 40, pp. 138–1145, 2007.

Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures

One way of dealing with effective media or mixtures of solids in electromagnetic
models is to replace them with an homogenized medium. The electric and magnetic
properties of this medium are computed from the properties of each phase by means
of an averaging formula.

There are several possible approaches to compute an average material property starting
from the material properties and the volume fraction of each material.

70 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

The following sections illustrate the different formulas available to compute the
effective electrical conductivity, the effective relative permittivity, and the effective
relative permeability of a homogenized medium. In the following, volume fractions
of the materials are indicated with i, where i is the material index, and they are
assumed to be fractional (between 0 and 1). Up to five different materials can be
specified as phases of the mixture. Typically, their volume fractions should add up to 1.

Effective Conductivity in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, CONDUCTIVITY

If the electric conductivities of the two materials are not so different from each other,
a simple form of averaging can be used, such as a volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the conductivity of the material i. This is equivalent to a “parallel” system

of resistivities.

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors (such as for anisotropic
materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RESISTIVITY

A similar expression for the effective conductivity can be used, which mimics a “series”
connection of resistivities. Equivalently, the effective conductivity is obtained from

n
i 1 2
--1- =
  -----i = ------ + ------ + 
1 2
i=0

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors, the inverse of the tensors are
used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent conductivity:

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 71

 n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

The effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Conductivity is the upper

bound, the effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Resistivity is the
lower bound, and the Power Law average is somewhere between these two.

Effective Relative Permittivity in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMITTIVITY

If the relative permittivity of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permittivity r is calculated by simple volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permittivity is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RECIPROCAL PERMITTIVITY

The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permittivities:

n
1 i 1 2
--- =
  ----i = ----- + ----- + 
1 2
i=0

If the permittivity is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permittivity:

n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

72 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

The effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Permittivity is the upper
bound, the effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal
Permittivity is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
between these two.

Effective Relative Permeability in Effective Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMEABILITY

If the relative permeability of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permeability r is calculated by simple volume average:

 =  i i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 
i=1

where i is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permeability is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VOLUME AVERAGE, RECIPROCAL PERMEABILITY

The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permeabilities:

n
i 1 2
--1- =
  -----i = ------ + ------ + 
1 2
i=0

If the permeability is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permeability:

n
i  
 =  i =  11  22 
i=0

The effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Permeability is the upper

bound, the effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal

THEORY FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 73

 Permeability is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
between these two.

Archie’s Law Theory

The electrical conductivity of the materials composing saturated rocks and soils can
vary over many orders of magnitude. For instance, in the petroleum reservoirs, normal
sea water (or brine) has a typical conductivity of around 3 S/m, whereas hydrocarbons
are typically much more resistive and have conductivities in the range 0.10.01 S/m.

The porous rocks and sediments can have even lower conductivities. In variably
saturated soils, the conductivity of air is roughly ten orders of magnitude lower than
the ground water. A simple volume average (of either conductivity or resistivity) in
rocks or soils might give different results compared to experimental data.

Since most crustal rocks, sedimentary rocks, and soils are formed by nonconducting
materials, Archie (Ref. 1) assumed that electric current are mainly caused by ion fluxes
through the pore network. Originally, Archie’s law is an empirical law for the effective
conductivity of a fully saturated rock or soil, but it can be extended to variably
saturated porous media.

Archie’s law relates the effective conductivity to the fluid conductivity L, fluid
saturation sL, and porosity p:

n m
 = sL p L

here, m is the cementation exponent, a parameter that describes the connectivity of the
pores. The cementation exponent normally varies between 1.3 and 2.5 for most
sedimentary rocks and is close to 2 for sandstones. The lower limit m   represents a
volume average of the conductivities of a fully saturated, insulating (zero conductivity)
porous matrix, and a conducting fluid. The saturation coefficient n is normally close
to 2. The ratio F  Lis called the formation factor.

Archie’s law does not take care of the relative permittivity of either fluids or solids, so
the effective relative permittivity of the porous medium is normally consider as r  .

Reference for Archie’s Law

1. G.E. Archie, “The Electric Resistivity as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics,” Trans. Am. Inst. Metal. Eng., vol. 146, pp. 54–62, 1942.

74 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Theory for the Electric Currents
Interface
The Electric Currents Interface solves a current conservation problem for the scalar
electric potential V and is available for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
components. Electrolysis, conductors and the computation of resistances of grounding
plates are examples that involve conductive media with electrical conductivities and
electric currents. If you are uncertain of whether to use the Electric Currents or the
Electrostatics interface, which both solve for the scalar electric potential V, refer to the
section on Charge Relaxation Theory.

The Electric Currents Interface assumes that there is only one type of charge carrier.
When there are multiple charge carriers, it is often necessary to solve the transport
equation for each charge carrier as well as the Poisson’s equation with Electrostatics
interface.

In this section:

• Electric Currents Equations in Steady State

• Dynamic Electric Currents Equations
• Theory for Electrical Contact

Electric Currents Equations in Steady State

When handling stationary electric currents in conductive media you must consider the
stationary equation of continuity. In a stationary coordinate system, the point form of
Ohm’s law states that:

J = E + J e

where  is the electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m), and Je is an externally generated
current density (SI unit: A/m2). The static form of the equation of continuity then
states:

  J = –     V – J e  = 0

To handle current sources, you can generalize the equation to:

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 75

 –     V – J e  = Q j

In planar 2D the Electric Currents interface assumes that the model has a symmetry
where the electric potential varies only in the x and y directions and is constant in the
z direction. This implies that the electric field, E, is tangential to the xy-plane. The
Electric Currents interface then solves the following equation, where d is the thickness
in the z direction:

–   d   V – J e  = dQ j (2-17)

In 2D axisymmetry, the Electric Currents interface considers the situation where the
fields and geometry are axially symmetric. In this case, the electric potential is constant
in the  direction, which implies that the electric field is tangential to the rz-plane.

Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

In the Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study types dynamic formulations
accounting for both conduction currents and displacement currents are used.

Combining the time-harmonic equation of continuity

   E + J e  + j = 0

with the equation

D = 

and generalized to handle current sources yields the following equation:

–      + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = Q j

For the transient case, using the transient equation of continuity


   E + J e  + = 0
t

and generalized to handle current sources the resulting equation becomes:

–      0 V – P  –    V – J e  = Q j (2-18)
t

In planar 2D the dynamic formulations also involves the thickness d in the z direction:

–   d    + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = dQ j

76 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 
–   d (  0 V – P  –   d  V – J e ) = dQ j
t

Theory for Electrical Contact

The Electrical Contact feature node has correlations to evaluate the joint conductance
at two contacting surfaces.

The current densities at the upside and downside boundaries depend on the potential
difference according to the relations:

n  J1 = –hc  V1 – V2 

n  J2 = –hc  V2 – V1 

At a microscopic level, contact is made at a finite number of spots as in Figure 2-1.

masp,u asp,u
Y

Figure 2-1: Contacting surfaces at the microscopic level.

SURFACE ASPERITIES
The microscopic surface asperities are characterized by the average height u asp and
d asp and the average slope mu asp and md asp. The RMS values asp and masp are
(4.16 in Ref. 1):

 asp =  u2 asp +  d2 asp m asp = m u2 asp + m d2 asp

CONSTRICTION CONDUCTANCE

Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) Correlation

The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces
and has been formulated using a model assuming plastic deformation of the surface
asperities. However, this model does not compute nor store the plastic deformations
of the asperities. It means that, despite that a plastic deformation of the asperities is

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 77

 assumed, this contact model has no memory. For example, if a load is applied twice the
electrical contact is identical in both cases. The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY)
correlation relates hc to the asperities and pressure load at the contact interface:

m asp p 0.95
h c = 1.25 contact -------------  -------
 asp H c

Here, Hc is the microhardness of the softer material, p is the contact pressure, and
contact is the harmonic mean of the contacting surface conductivities:

2 u  d
 contact = -------------------
u + d

When u (resp. d) is not isotropic, it is replaced by its normal

conductivity nTun (resp. nTdn).

The relative pressure p Hc can be evaluated by specifying Hc directly or using the
following relation (4.16.1 in Ref. 1) for the relative pressure using c1 and c2, the
Vickers correlation coefficient and size index:

  -----------------------------------
1
   1 + 0.071c2 
p-  p 
------ =  ------------------------------------------------
Hc    asp   c2
 c 1  1.62 -------------------- 
  m asp  0 

The coefficients c1 and c2 are the Vickers correlation coefficient and size index,
respectively, and 0 is equal to 1 µm. For materials with Brinell hardness between 1.30
and 7.60 GPa, c1 and c2 are given by the correlation below (4.16.1 in Ref. 1):

c1 HB HB 2 HB 3
------- = 4.0 – 5.77 -------- + 4.0  -------- – 0.61  --------
H0 H0 H0 H0

HB
c 2 = – 0.37 + 0.442 --------
c1

The Brinell hardness is denoted by HB, and H0 is equal to 3.178 GPa.

78 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Mikic Elastic Correlation
The Mikic correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces and assumes elastic
deformations of surface asperities. It gives hc by the following relation:

m asp 0.94
h c = 1.54 contact -------------  ------------------------
2p
 asp mE contact

Here, Econtact is an effective Young’s modulus for the contact interface, satisfying
(4.16.3 in Ref. 1):

1 - 1 –  u2 1 –  d2
------------------ = --------------- + ---------------
E contact Eu Ed

where Eu and Ed are the Young’s moduli of the two contacting surfaces and u and d
are the Poisson’s ratios.

Electrical Contact

REFERENCE
1. M.M. Yovanovich and E.E. Marotta, “Thermal Spreading and Contact Resistance,”
Heat Transfer Handbook, A. Bejan and A.D. Kraus, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 79

 Theory for the Electric Currents,
Single Layer Shell Interface
The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface in 3D to model thin shells of
conductive media. This physics interface is similar to the 2D Electric Currents
interface, solving for the electric potential on 2D surfaces in a 3D geometry. The
difference is that the shell does not have to be flat as they obviously are when using the
2D Electric Currents interface. The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell interface is
also available on boundaries in 2D geometries.

In this section:

• Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Equations in Steady State

• Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Equations in Steady State

In the static study type, the physics interface solves the following equation where d is
the thickness (SI unit: m) of the shell:

–  t  d   t V – J e  = dQ j

 is the electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m), Je is an externally generated current

density (SI unit: A/m2), and Qj is an external current source (SI unit: A/m3). The
operator t represents the tangential derivative along the shell.

Dynamic Electric Currents Equations

In the Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study types dynamic formulations
accounting for both conduction currents and displacement currents are used:

–  t  d    + j 0  t V –  J e + jP   = dQ j

For the transient case, the resulting equation becomes


–  t  d (  0  t V – P  –  t  d   t V – J e ) = dQ j
t

80 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents Interface
In magnetostatic problems where no electric currents are present, it is possible to
formulate and solve the problem using a scalar magnetic potential. In a current-free
region you have  H = 0. This implies that the magnetic scalar potential Vm can be
defined from the relation H = Vm, which is analogous to the definition of the
electric potential for static electric fields.

Using the constitutive relation B  0H  M, the equation B0 becomes

–     0 V m –  0 M  = 0 (2-19)

The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface uses this equation for modeling of
magnetostatics in the absence of electric currents.

In planar 2D the dynamic formulations also involves the thickness d in the z direction:

–   d   0 V m –  0 M  = 0

For a discussion about the boundary element method used with The
Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface, see Theory
for the Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 81

 Theory for the Magnetic Fields
Interface
Simulation of magnetic fields is of interest when studying magnets, motors,
transformers, and conductors carrying static or alternating currents.

The Magnetic Fields Interface is used for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D axisymmetric
components. Unless you have a license for the AC/DC Module, only 2D components
involving out-of-plane currents and axisymmetric components involving azimuthal
currents are supported.

In this section:

• Magnetostatics Equation
• Frequency Domain Equation
• Transient Equation
• Maxwell’s Equations (Quasistatic)
• Magnetic and Electric Potentials
• Gauge Transformations
• Selecting a Particular Gauge
• The Gauge and Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields
• Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence Constraint
• Ungauged Formulations and Current Conservation
• Time-Harmonic Magnetic Fields

Magnetostatics Equation
To derive the magnetostatic equation, start with Ampère’s law for static cases
  H  J. The current is

J = v  B + J e

where Je is an externally generated current density, and v is the velocity of the

conductor.

82 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Using the definitions of magnetic potential, B    A and the constitutive
relationship, B  0 (H  M), rewrite Ampère’s law as

–1
    0   A – M  – v     A  = J e

which is the equation used in magnetostatics.

The term involving the velocity only applies in the 2D and 2D axisymmetric
formulations.

Frequency Domain Equation

To derive the time harmonic equation this physics interface solves, start with Ampère’s
law including displacement currents (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s law), as these do
not involve any extra computational cost in the frequency domain,

D D
  H = J + ------- = E + v  B + J e + -------
t t

Now assume time-harmonic fields and use the definitions of the fields,

B = A
E = – j A
and combine them with the constitutive relationships B  0(H  M) and D  0E to
rewrite Ampère’s law as

2 –1
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J e

The term involving the velocity only applies in the 2D and 2D axisymmetric
formulations.

Transient Equation
The transient equation this physics interface solves is Ampère’s law, illustrated here
with the constitutive relation B0(HM).

A –1
 +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J e
t

The term involving the velocity only applies in the 2D and 2D axisymmetric
formulations.

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 83

 Maxwell’s Equations (Quasistatic)
For cases where currents and electromagnetic fields vary slowly, the induced
displacement current can be ignored (Dt  0). This assumption, referred to as the
quasistatic approximation, is widely used in modeling low-frequencies
electromagnetics where the dimensions of the structure is small compared to the
wavelength. With this approximation, rewrite Maxwell’s equations (Equation 2-1) in
the following manner:

  H = J =   E + v  B  + Je

B
E = –
t
B = 0
D = 
J = 0

where Je is an externally generated current density and v is the velocity of the

conductor.

Magnetic and Electric Potentials

Using the definitions of the potentials,

B = A

E = – V –  A
t

and the constitutive relation B0(HM), Ampère’s law can be rewritten as

A –1
 +     0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J e (2-20)
t

The equation of continuity, which is obtained by taking the divergence of the above
equation, adds the following equation:

A
   –  ------- + v     A  –  V + J e = 0 (2-21)
t

Equation 2-20 and Equation 2-21 form a system of equations for the two potentials
A and V.

84 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Gauge Transformations
The electric and magnetic potentials are not uniquely defined from the electric and
magnetic fields through

A
E = – ------- – V
t
B = A

Introducing two new potentials

˜
A = A + 
˜ 
V = V – -------
t

gives the same electric and magnetic fields:

˜ ˜
A  A –   ˜  A ˜
E = – ------- – V = – --------------------------- –   V + ------- = – ------- – V
t t  t  t
˜ ˜
B =   A =    A –   =   A

The variable transformation of the potentials is called a gauge transformation. To

obtain a unique solution, choose the gauge — that is, put constraints on  that make
the solution unique. Another way of expressing this additional condition is to put a
constraint on  · A. A vector field is uniquely defined up to a constant if both  · A
and   A are given. This is called Helmholtz’s theorem.

One particular gauge is the Coulomb gauge given by the constraint: A

Selecting a Particular Gauge

It is important to observe that in the dynamic case, A and V are coupled via the
selected gauge. For a dynamic formulation, it is also possible to select a  such that the
scalar electric potential vanishes and only the magnetic vector potential has to be
considered. The dynamic formulations (Frequency Domain and Time Dependent
study types) of the Magnetic Fields interface are operated in this gauge as it involves
only A. The Magnetic and Electric Fields interface involves both A and V and is
inherently ungauged for all study types. In the static limit, A and V are not coupled via
the gauge selection and thus any gauge can be chosen for A when performing
magnetostatic modeling.

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 85

 The Gauge and Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields
After eliminating the electric potential by choosing the appropriate gauge and
disregarding the velocity term, the equation of continuity obtained by taking the
divergence of Ampère’s law reads:

A
   –  ------- + J e = 0
 t 

It is clear that unless the electrical conductivity is uniform, the particular gauge used
to eliminate V cannot be the Coulomb gauge as that would violate the equation of
continuity and would thereby also violate Ampère’s law.

Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence Constraint

The AC/DC Module has a gauge fixing feature that is imposed by adding an extra
scalar field variable  (not to be confused with used in the gauge transformation in
The Gauge and Equation of Continuity for Dynamic Fields). The field is used to
impose a divergence constraint. In the most simple case, that is for magnetostatics,
Ampère’s law for the magnetic vector potential reads:

–1
   0   A – M  = Je

The equation for  is used to impose the Coulomb gauge: AHowever, to get
a closed set of equations,  must be able to affect the first equation and this is obtained
by modifying the first equation to:

–1
    0   A – M  = J e + 

The variable  can be seen as a Lagrange multiplier that not only imposes the Coulomb
gauge but also eliminates any divergence in the externally generated current density,
Je and makes it comply with the current continuity inherent in Ampère’s law.

The gauge fixing feature similarly imposes the Coulomb gauge also for the dynamic
(frequency domain) study type in the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

For the dynamic (Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study) types for the
Magnetic Fields interface, the gauge is already determined so the gauge fixing feature
is not allowed to impose the Coulomb gauge but reduces to help imposing current
conservation. The first one is for the Frequency Domain study and the second one is
for the Time Dependent study type:

86 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 J = 0
   A  = 0

The main benefit of using this kind of divergence constraint is improved numerical
stability, especially when approaching the static limit when the inherent gauge
deteriorates.

Ungauged Formulations and Current Conservation

Current conservation is inherent in Ampère’s law and it is known that if current is
conserved, explicit gauge fixing is not necessary as iterative solvers converge toward a
valid solution. However, it is generally not sufficient for the source currents to be
divergence free in an analytical sense as when interpolated on the finite element
functional basis, this property is not conserved.

When using the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface the electric potential is used to
state current conservation so unless nonphysical current sources are specified inside the
computational domain current conservation is fulfilled.

When using the Magnetic Fields interface, current conservation is usually imposed
either by the solver (for magnetostatics) or in the transient or time harmonic case by
the induced current density. The explicit gauge or divergence constraint can also help
imposing current conservation as described in Explicit Gauge Fixing/Divergence
Constraint.

Time-Harmonic Magnetic Fields

In the time-harmonic case, there is no computational cost for including the
displacement current in Ampère’s law (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s law):

  H = J =   E + v  B  +  jD + J e 

In the transient case, the inclusion of this term leads to a second-order equation in
time, but in the harmonic case there are no such complications. Using the definition
of the electric and magnetic potentials, the system of equations becomes:

2
–     j –   0 A – v     A  +   + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = 0
2 –1
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V = J e + jP

The constitutive relation D  0E  P has been used for the electric field.

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 87

 To obtain a particular gauge that reduces the system of equation, choose   jV in
the gauge transformation. This gives:

˜ j ˜
A = A – ---- V V = 0

˜
When V vanishes from the equations, only the second one is needed,

2 ˜ –1 ˜ ˜
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  = J e + jP
˜
Working with A is often the best option when it is possible to specify all source
currents as external currents Je or as surface currents on boundaries.

88 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Theory for the Magnetic and Electric
Fi e lds I nte r f a ce
The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface can be used for modeling full coupling
between electric and magnetic fields. Use this physics interface for 3D, 2D, and 2D
axisymmetric components. For a deeper theoretical background to the magnetic vector
potential and electric scalar potential used below, see the Theory for the Magnetic
Fields Interface.

In this section:

• Stationary Equations
• Time Domain Equations
• Frequency Domain Equations

Stationary Equations
To derive the stationary equations, start with Ampère’s law for static cases:   H J.
Define the potentials,

B = A
E = – V
and the current

J = v  B –  V + J e

where Je is an externally generated current density, and v is the velocity of the

conductor.

Add the constitutive relationship, B  0 H  M, and rewrite Ampère’s law as

–1
    0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J e

The equation of continuity is obtained by taking the divergence of Ampère’s law. It is

the equation solved for the electric potential. Thus the following equations for V and
A apply:

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 89

 –    – v     A  + V – J e  = 0
–1
    0   A – M  – v     A  +  V = J e

Time Domain Equations

The time domain equations are based on Maxwell’s Equations (Quasistatic). The time
domain formulation is the same as the Stationary Equations, except that the electric
field is defined as

E = – V –  A
t

The time domain formulation is inherently ungauged, see Gauge Transformations.

Frequency Domain Equations

To derive the time harmonic equation this physics interface solves, start with
Maxwell-Ampère’s law including displacement current (then called Maxwell-Ampère’s
law). Including this does not involve any extra computational cost in the frequency
domain. Assume time-harmonic fields

  H = J =   E + v  B  +  jD + J e 

and use the definitions of the fields,

B = A
E = –V –j A
and combine them with the constitutive relationships B  0H  M and D  0E  P
to rewrite Ampère’s law as

2 –1
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V – jP = J e

The equation of continuity is again obtained by taking the divergence of Ampère’s law.
It is the equation solved for the electric potential. Thus the following equations for V
and A apply:

2
–     j –   0 A – v     A  +   + j 0 V –  J e + jP   = 0
2 –1
 j –   0 A +     0   A – M  – v     A  +   + j 0 V – jP = J e

90 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Theory for the Magnetic Field
Fo r m ula ti o n In t erface
The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface is used for 3D, 2D in-plane, and 2D
axisymmetric components. The alternative formulation of the magnetic problem is
particularly suitable to model materials having a highly nonlinear electric conductivity,
such as superconductors. This section discusses the Equation System.

For a deeper theoretical background to the magnetic vector potential

used, see Maxwell’s Equations (Quasistatic).

Equation System
To derive the equation system in this physics interface, start with Faraday’s law:

B
  E = – -------
t

The electric field is computed from the current density, using an appropriate
constitutive relation:

E = Em  J – Je  + v  B

where Je is an externally generated current density, v is the relative velocity of the

domain in the physics interface’s or node’s frame, and Em(J) is a (possibly nonlinear)
relation sometimes called E-J characteristic, which describes the electric field in the
local (material) frame as a function of the current density. The total current density J
is finally obtained from Ampère’s Law:

H = J

Combining these equations give the first equation in the system applied by the
Magnetic Field Formulation interface:

B
   E m  J – J e  + v  B  + ------- = 0
t

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 91

 This equation must be modified in different studies and according to the chosen
constitutive relation. In stationary studies, the equation becomes:

   Em  J – Je  + v  B  = 0

while in frequency domain is:

   E m  J – J e  + v  B  + jB = 0

The term involving the velocity only applies in the 2D and 2D

axisymmetric formulations.

The second equation in the system is the magnetic Gauss’ law:

B = 0

This equation is added with two purposes:

• Make the problem numerically stable when using curl elements. The feature adding
this equation can only be applied when the magnetic field is discretized using curl
elements, that is, in 3D components, and 2D or 2D axisymmetric components when
the in-plane components are solved for.
• In magnetostatics, the magnetic flux density B does not appear in the first equation.
To allow modeling of magnetic materials and permanent magnets, it is necessary to
include B (with its constitutive relation) through the Magnetic Gauss’ Law node.

E-J CHARACTERISTIC FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD COMPUTATION

The Em(J) characteristic introduced in the previous section can be specified in
different ways in the Faraday’s Law node. The most common case is a linear relation
between Em and J. In magnetostatics and in time-dependent studies (in the quasistatic
approximation) this relation is specified by the resistivity or the electrical conductivity:

Em =  J
–1
Em =  J

 and  can be tensor quantities, in which case the inverse is intended as the inverse of
a tensor. In frequency-domain, the displacement current is included, giving the
following relations:

92 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 –1 –1
Em =     + j  0  r  J
–1
E m =   + j  0  r  J

If the E-J characteristic is nonlinear, such in the case of a superconductor, the function
can be expressed explicitly or as a material property.

Superconducting Wire: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Superconducting/superconducting_wire

THEORY FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 93

 Theory for the Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface
In the area of microelectronics, it is of interest to compute the lumped inductance
matrix of a group of coils or conductors. The geometry of the coils is usually ‘open’
and the modeling of a closed current loop is not of interest. In this case, the ability of
modeling non-divergence-free currents is desired. As a complement to the The
Magnetic Fields Interface, which can only be used to model divergence-free currents,
The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface is designed to support both
divergence-free and non-divergence-free currents. In free space it returns the value of
the Biot-Savart integral.

Start with Ampère’s law for static cases   H  J and assume an uniform permeability
in free space (B  0 H), the magnetostatic problem reads

  B = 0 J (2-22)

Using the definitions of magnetic potential, B    A, rewrite Equation 2-22 as

    A = 0 J (2-23)

Applying the Coulomb gauge  · A  0 and vector calculus identity

    A = 2A +  · AEquation 2-23 reduces to

2
– A = 0 J (2-24)

Equation 2-24 implies that The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface is a div-grad
formulation, different from The Magnetic Fields Interface which is a curl-curl
formulation. Taking the divergence of both sides of Equation 2-24, it is noticed that
the divergence of the current is not necessarily equal to zero. Therefore,
Equation 2-24 is able to model open coils or conductors.

Different from the The Magnetic Fields Interface which uses the Curl element as shape
functions in 3D, The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface employs the Lagrange
element as shape functions. In this way, The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface
is able to handle the continuity over nonconformal mesh elements.

94 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Electromagnetic Forces
There are several ways to compute electromagnetic forces in COMSOL Multiphysics®.
In the most general case, the calculation of electromagnetic forces involves the
computation of volume forces acting on a body, and of surface forces originating from
jumps in the electromagnetic fields on the boundaries. The volume and surface forces
are derived from a general stress tensor that includes electromagnetic terms.

The derivation of the expressions for the electromagnetic stress tensor utilizes
thermodynamic potential (energy) principles (Ref. 1 and Ref. 3). The distribution of
electromagnetic forces in a system depends on the material. Accordingly, the
techniques and expressions used when calculating electromagnetic forces are different
for different types of materials.

Another technique for calculating forces using the method of virtual work is described
in the section Electromagnetic Energy, Coenergy and Virtual Work.

In this section:

• Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics

• Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air
• Torque
• Forces in Stationary Fields
• Forces in a Moving Body
• Electromagnetic Energy, Coenergy and Virtual Work

Overview of Forces in Continuum Mechanics

Cauchy’s equation of continuum mechanics reads

2
d r
 2
=   T + f ext
dt

where  is the density, r denotes the coordinates of a material point, Tis the stress
tensor, and fext is an external volume force such as gravity (fext  g). This is the
equation solved in the structural mechanics interfaces for the special case of a linear
elastic material, neglecting the electromagnetic contributions.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 95
 In the stationary case there is no acceleration, and the equation representing the force
balance is

0 =   T + f ext

The stress tensor must be continuous across a stationary boundary between two
materials. This corresponds to the equation

n1  T2 – T1  = 0

where T1 and T2 represent the stress tensor in Materials 1 and 2, respectively, and n1
is the normal pointing out from the domain containing Material 1. This relation gives
rise to a surface force acting on the boundary between Material 1 and 2.

Material 2

n1

Material 1

In certain cases, the stress tensor T can be divided into one part that depends on the
electromagnetic field quantities and one part that is the mechanical stress tensor,

T = T EM +  M

For the special case of an elastic body, the mechanical stress tensor is proportional only
to the strain and the temperature gradient. The exact nature of this split of the stress
tensor into an electromagnetic and a mechanical part depends on the material model,
if it can be made at all.

For more information on the mechanical stress tensor for elastic materials,
see the documentation for the interfaces. For example, The Solid
Mechanics Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

It is sometimes convenient to use a volume force instead of the stress tensor. This force
is obtained from the relation

f em =   T EM

96 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

This changes the force balance equation to

0 =    M + f em + f ext

or, as stated in the structural mechanics interfaces,

–  M = f where f = f em + f ext

Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air

Consider a solid (Material 1) surrounded by vacuum (Material 2). It is natural to
associate the surface force on the boundary between the materials with the solid. In
many applications air can be approximated by vacuum.

In practice, the equation for the force balance also needs to include an external
boundary force gext. It is nonzero on those parts of the boundary where it is necessary
to compensate for the contributions to the stress tensor that you are not interested in
or do not have enough information on. These contributions come from the influence
of the adjacent domains. By approximating the surroundings by vacuum or air, the
influence of these boundaries and their adjacent domains (that are not part of our
model) on the electromagnetic fields are neglected.

On the boundary, the following equations apply:

˜
n1  T2 – T1  = 0
˜
n 1 T 2 = n 1 T 2 + g ext

The external boundary force gext can represent the reaction force from another body
that the solid is attached to.

The equations for the balance of forces on the solid now become

  T 1 + f ext = 0
n 1  T 2 – T 1  + g ext = 0

For calculating the total force F on the solid these equations need to be integrated over
the entire solid and the solid/vacuum boundary

    T1 + fext  dV +   n1  T2 – T1  + gext  dS = 0
 1  1

According to the divergence theorem:

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 97
    T1 dV –  n1 T1 dS = 0
1  1

this means that the external force

F ext =  fext dV +  gext dS

1  1

is needed to balance the term for the boundary integral of the stress tensor in the
surrounding vacuum

F =  n1 T2 dS

 1

to keep the solid stationary. That is Fext  F 0. If the external forces are suddenly
removed, the solid is no longer stationary, but F causes the solid to begin to move with
an initial acceleration according to

2
d r
ma =   ---------
dt
2
dV = F
1

where m is the total mass and a is the acceleration of the solid.

To summarize, the total force, F, is computed as a boundary integral of the stress

tensor in vacuum on the outside of the solid. To obtain this result, the contribution
from the air pressure gradient has been neglected. This is equivalent of assuming that
 · T2  0. A more detailed treatment shows that the pressure gradient contributes
with a lifting (buoyancy) force on the solid.

Torque
The torque in the case of Forces on an Elastic Solid Surrounded by Vacuum or Air is
given by

 =
  r – r0    n1 T2  dS
 1

where r0 is a point on the axis of rotation. This follows from a derivation similar to the
one made for forces.

98 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Forces in Stationary Fields
The electromagnetic fields are stationary if

B
= 0
t
D
= 0
t

that is, if the fields vary so slowly that the contributions from induced currents and
displacement currents can be neglected.

Also assume that the objects modeled are not moving v  0 so that there is no
contributions from Lorentz forces. These are treated later on.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC STRESS TENSOR

To apply the stress tensor in air to calculate the total force and torque on
a magnetizable rod close to a permanent magnet, see Permanent
Magnet: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Magnetostatics/permanent_magnet.

The expressions for the stress tensor in a general electromagnetic context stems from
a fusion of material theory, thermodynamics, continuum mechanics, and
electromagnetic field theory. With the introduction of thermodynamic potentials for
mechanical, thermal, and electromagnetic effects, explicit expressions for the stress
tensor can be derived in a convenient way by forming the formal derivatives with
respect to the different physical fields (Ref. 1 and Ref. 3). Alternative derivations can
be made for a vacuum (Ref. 4) but these cannot easily be generalized to polarized and
magnetized materials.

Air and Vacuum

For air, the stress tensor is

0
T 2 = – pI –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B I +  0 EE + ------ BB
1 T 1 T
2 2 0  0

where p is the air pressure, I is the identity 3-by-3 tensor (or matrix), and E and B are
3-by-1 vectors. In this expression of the stress tensor, air is considered to be
nonpolarizable and nonmagnetizable. When air is approximated by vacuum, p = 0.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 99
 This expression, with p = 0, of the stress tensor is also known as the Maxwell stress
tensor.

Using the fact that, for air, D = 0E and B = 0H the expression for the stress tensor
can be written as

T 2 = – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB
1 1 T T
2 2 

The equation for the balance of forces becomes

0 =    – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB  + f ext

1 1 T T
 2 2  

Maxwell’s equations in free space give that the contribution of the electromagnetic
part of the stress tensor is zero, and the resulting expression is

0 = – p + f ext

Thus, using the same terminology as earlier, fem  0 for air, with M  pI. In the
derivation of the total force on an elastic solid surrounded by vacuum or air, the
approximation p  0 has been used.

When operating with the divergence operator on the stress tensor, the relation

   EE – --- E  EI = E    E  – E     E 
T 1
2

is useful (and similarly for B). From the right-hand side it is clear (using Maxwell’s
equations) that this is zero for stationary fields in free space.

Consider again the case of a solid surrounded by air. To compute the total force, the
projection of the stress tensor on the outside of the solid surface is needed,

n 1 T 2 = – pn 1 –  --- E  D + --- H  B n 1 +  n 1  E D +  n 1  H B

1 1 T T
2 2

where n1 is the surface normal, a 1-by-3 vector, pointing out from the solid. This
expression can be used directly in the boundary integral of the stress tensor for
calculating the total force F on the solid.

100 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

Elastic Pure Conductor

For an example of how to compute the total force on two parallel wires
either by integrating the volume force or by integrating the stress tensor
on the surrounding surface, see Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel
Current-Carrying Wires: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Electromagnetic_Forces/parallel_wires.

A material that is nonpolarizable and nonmagnetizable (P  0 and M  0) is called a

pure conductor. This is not necessarily equivalent to a perfect conductor, for which
E  0, but merely a restriction on the dielectric and magnetic properties of the
material. The stress tensor becomes identical to the one for air, except for pI being
replaced by the purely mechanical stress tensor M:

T 1 =  M –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB
1 1 T T
2 2 

where D  0E and B  0H.

The situation is slightly different from the case of air because there can be currents and
volume charges in the conductor. The current density is

1
J =   H = ------   B
0

and the volume charge density

 =   D = 0   E

The equation for the balance of forces now becomes

0 =    M + E + J  B + f ext

and this means that

f em = E + J  B

General Elastic Material

For an elastic solid, in the general case of a material that is both dielectric and magnetic
(nonzero P and M), the stress tensor is given by the expression

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 101

 0
T 1 =   E B  –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B – M  B I
1
2 2 0
T 1 T T T
+  0 EE + ------ BB + EP – MB
0

where in (E, B) the dependence of E and B has not been separated out. Thus  is
not a purely mechanical stress tensor in this general case. Different material models
give different appearances of (E, B). The electromagnetic contributions to (E, B)
typically represent pyroelectric, pyromagnetic, piezoelectric, piezomagnetic, dielectric,
and magnetization effects. The expression for the stress tensor in vacuum, air, and pure
conductors can be derived from this general expression by setting M  P  0.

T1 must be symmetric. The terms EPT and MBT are symmetric in the case of a linear
dielectric and magnetic material because

P = 0 e E
M = B B

Here, the magnetic susceptibility B differs slightly from the classical m. The other
explicit terms are all symmetric, as is (E, B). In the general case this imposes
constraints on the properties of (E, B). For a nonlinear material (E, B) might need
to include terms such as EPT or +MBT to compensate for asymmetric EPT or
MBT.

To instantiate the stress tensor for the general elastic case, an explicit material model
including the magnetization and polarization effects is needed. Such material models
can easily be found for piezoelectric materials (Ref. 3).

Forces in a Moving Body

Calculating forces in moving objects is important, especially for electric motors and
other moving electromagnetic devices. When performing the computations in a
coordinate system that moves with the object, the electromagnetic fields are
transformed. The most well-known relation for moving objects is the one for the
electric field. The transformed quantity of the electric field is called the electromotive
intensity.

FIELD TRANSFORMATIONS AND GALILEI INVARIANTS

Assume that the object modeled is moving with a constant velocity, v = v0. The
equations now take on a slightly different form that includes the Galilei invariant

102 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

versions of the electromagnetic fields. The term Galilei invariant is used because they
remain unchanged after a coordinate transformation of the type

r' = r + v 0 t

In continuum mechanics, this transformation is commonly referred to as a Galilei

transformation.

The Galilei invariant fields of interest are

˜
E = E+vB (Electromotive intensity)
˜
J = J – v (Free conduction current density)
˜ ------
P-
P = + v    P  –    v  P  (Polarization flux derivative)
t
˜
M = M + v  P (Lorentz magnetization)
˜ B ˜
H = ------ –  0 v  E – M (Magnetomotive intensity)
0

The electromotive intensity is the most important of these invariants. The Lorentz
magnetization is significant only in materials for which neither the magnetization M
nor the polarization P is negligible. Such materials are rare in practical applications.
The same holds for the magnetization term of the magnetomotive intensity. Notice
that the term 0v × E is very small compared to B/0 except for cases when v and E
are both very large. Thus in many practical cases this term can be neglected.

Air and Vacuum

The stress tensor in the surrounding air or vacuum on the outside of a moving object is

T 2 = – pI –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB +  D  B v

1 1 T T T
2 2

There is an additional term in this expression compared to the stationary case.

Elastic Pure Conductor

The stress tensor in a moving elastic pure conductor is

T 1 =  M –  --- E  D + --- H  B I + ED + HB +  D  B v

1 1 T T T
2 2

where D  0E and B  0H.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 103

 To get the equation for the balance of forces the divergence of this expression needs
to be computed. This requires an introduction of an extra term in Cauchy’s equation
corresponding to an additional electromagnetic contribution to the linear momentum.
Cauchy’s equation with this extra term is

2
d r
 2
+ D  B =   T + f ext
dt

The extra term is canceled out by the additional term in the stress tensor, and the final
result is

2
d r ˜ ˜
 2
=    M + E + J  B + f ext
dt

For the case of no acceleration, with the explicit appearance of the transformed
quantities,

0 =    M +   E + v  B  +  J – v   B + f ext

The terms containing v × B cancel out, which yields the following equation:

0 =    M + E + J  B + f ext

which is the same expression as for the stationary case.

General Elastic Material

The stress tensor for a moving general elastic material is

˜ 0 ˜
T 1 =   E B  –  ----- E  E + --------- B  B – M  B I +
1
2 2 0
T 1 T ˜ T ˜ T T
+  0 EE + ------ BB + E P – M B +  0  E  B v
0

The magnetization M and the polarization P occur explicitly in this expression.

To instantiate the stress tensor for the general elastic case a material model explicitly
including the magnetization and polarization effects is needed.

Electromagnetic Energy, Coenergy and Virtual Work

Another technique to calculate forces is to derive the electromagnetic energy or
coenergy of the system and calculate the force by studying the effect of a small

104 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

displacement. This is known as the method of virtual work or the principle of virtual
displacement.

The method of virtual work is used for the electric energy and magnetic energy
separately for calculating the total electric or magnetic force as follows.

MAGNETIC ENERGY, COENERGY, FORCE, AND TORQUE

For nonlinear magnetic materials without hysteresis, the magnetic energy and
coenergy densities are, respectively,

B
dW m =  H  dB'
0
H
dW' m =  B  dH'
0

Knowing either of these, the other can be computed through the relation

dW m = H  B – dW' m

For the case of linear materials, the magnetic energy and coenergy densities are equal.

The method of virtual work utilizes that, under constant magnetic flux conditions
(Ref. 5), the total magnetic force on a system is computed as

F  = – W m

If the system is constrained to rotate about an axis the torque is computed as

W m
T = –


where  is the rotational angle about the axis.

Under the condition of constant currents and linear materials, the total force and
torque can be computed in the same way but with opposite signs,

F I = W m

W m
TI =


ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 105

 Under the condition of constant currents and nonlinear materials, the total force
and torque must be computed from the magnetic coenergy and with opposite signs,

F I = W' m

W' m
TI =


ELECTRIC ENERGY, COENERGY, FORCE, AND TORQUE

For nonlinear dielectric materials without hysteresis, the electric energy and coenergy
densities are, respectively,

D
dW e =  E  dD'
0
E
dW' e =  D  dE'
0

Knowing either of these, the other one can be computed through the relation

dW e = E  D – dW' e

For the case of linear materials, the electric energy and coenergy densities are equal.

Under the condition of constant charges, the total electric force and torque on a
system are computed as

F Q = – W e

W e
TQ = –


Under the condition of constant potentials and linear materials, the total electric
force and torque on a system can be computed as

F V = W e

W e
TV =


Under the condition of constant potentials and nonlinear materials, the total
electric force and torque on a system must be computed from the electric coenergy as

106 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 F V = W' e

W' e
TV =


The method of virtual work can be employed by using the features for
deformed mesh and sensitivity analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics.

See Deformed Geometry and Moving Mesh and Sensitivity Analysis in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES | 107

 Electromagnetic Quantities
The table below shows the symbol and SI unit for most of the physical quantities that
are included with the AC/DC Module.
TABLE 2-2: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL SI UNIT ABBREVIATION

Angular frequency  radian/second rad/s

Attenuation constant  meter-1 m-1
Capacitance C farad F
Charge q coulomb C
Charge density (surface) s coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Charge density (volume)  coulomb/meter3 C/m3
Current I ampere A
Current density (surface) Js ampere/meter A/m
Current density (volume) J ampere/meter2 A/m2
Electric displacement D coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Electric field E volt/meter V/m
Electric potential V volt V
Electric susceptibility e (dimensionless) -
Electrical conductivity  siemens/meter S/m
3
Energy density W joule/meter J/m3
Force F newton N
Frequency  hertz Hz
Imaginary unit j, i (dimensionless) -
Impedance Z,  ohm 
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic current density Jms volt/meter -
(surface)
Magnetic field H ampere/meter A/m
Magnetic flux  weber Wb
Magnetic flux density B tesla T
Magnetic potential (scalar) Vm ampere A
Magnetic potential (vector) A weber/meter Wb/m

108 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

TABLE 2-2: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL SI UNIT ABBREVIATION

Magnetic susceptibility m (dimensionless) -

Magnetization M ampere/meter A/m
Permeability  henry/meter H/m
Permittivity  farad/meter F/m
Polarization P coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Poynting vector S watt/meter2 W/m2
Propagation constant  radian/meter rad/m
Reactance X ohm 
Relative permeability r (dimensionless) -
Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) -
Resistance R ohm W
3
Resistive loss Q watt/meter W/m3
Torque T newton-meter N·m
Velocity v meter/second m/s
Wavelength  meter m
Wave number k radian/meter rad/m

ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES | 109

 References
1. A. Kovetz, The Principles of Electromagnetic Theory, Cambridge University Press,
1990.

2. J. Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, 2nd ed., Wiley-IEEE Press,
2002.

3. O. Wilson, Introduction to Theory and Design of Sonar Transducers, Peninsula

Publishing, 1988.

4. R.K. Wangsness, Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1986.

5. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1991.

6. O.C. Zienkiewicz, C. Emson, and P. Bettess, “A Novel Boundary Infinite Element,”

Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 393–404, 1983.

7. G. Eriksson, “Efficient 3D simulation of thin conducting layers of arbitrary

thickness,” in 2007 IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 1–6. IEEE, 2007.

110 | CHAPTER 2: THEORY FOR THE AC/DC MODULE

 3

Modeling with the AC/DC Module

The goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the modeling procedure in the
AC/DC Module. It also provides you an insight on how to approach the modeling
of electromagnetics problems. A number of models available through the
Application Libraries also illustrate the different aspects of the simulation process.

In this chapter:

• Preparing for Modeling

• Modeling Coils
• Computing Forces and Torques
• Computing Losses
• Computing Lumped Parameters
• Connecting to Electrical Circuits
• Part Libraries
• Material Libraries

111
 Preparing for Modeling
This section is intended to guide you through some selection processes when modeling
with the AC/DC Module. General modeling approaches and strategies are covered.
Several topics about the art of modeling might not be found in ordinary textbooks on
electromagnetic theory. This section discusses these topics:

• What Problems Can You Solve? — Can I use the quasistatic physics interfaces or do
I need wave propagation?
• Selecting the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry — Is a 2D, 3D, or 2D
axisymmetric geometry best for my model?
• Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions — When do I need to
resolve the thickness of thin shells?
• Applying Electromagnetic Sources — What sources can I use to excite the fields?
• Selecting a Study Type — Is my problem suited for time-dependent or
time-harmonic (frequency domain) formulations?
• Meshing and Solving — What issues might arise with respect to meshing and
solving?

For general guidelines for effective modeling, see Building a COMSOL

Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

GENERAL TIPS
These general tips about modeling help you to decide what to include in a simulation
and what can be done to minimize the size of a problem. Before starting to model, try
to answer the following questions first:

• What is the purpose of the model?

• What information do you want to extract from the model?

Models never capture all the details of reality.

112 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Increasing the complexity of a model to make it more accurate usually makes it more
expensive to simulate. A complex model is also more difficult to manage and interpret
than a simple one.

It can be more accurate and efficient to use several simple models instead
of a single, complex one.

What Problems Can You Solve?

The AC/DC Module interfaces handle static, time-dependent, and time-harmonic
electromagnetics problems. See Table 1-1 in Overview of the User’s Guide for a list of
the preset study types available by physics interface.

Most of the time-dependent and time-harmonic formulations use a quasistatic

approximation. The approximation assumes that the currents and charges generating
the electromagnetic fields vary so slowly in time that the electromagnetic fields are
practically the same at every instant as if they had been generated by stationary sources.

One major difference between quasistatic and high-frequency modeling is that the
formulations depend on the electrical size of the structure. This dimensionless
measure is the ratio of the largest distance between two points in the structure to the
wavelength of the electromagnetic fields. The quasistatic physics interfaces in this
module are suitable for simulations of structures with an electrical size in the range up
to 1/10.

When the variations in time of the sources of the electromagnetic fields are more rapid,
it is necessary to solve the full Maxwell equations for high-frequency electromagnetic
waves. They are appropriate for structures of electrical size 1/100 and larger. Thus, an
overlapping range exists where both the quasistatic and the full Maxwell formulations
can be used.

Physics interfaces for high-frequency electromagnetic waves are available

in the RF Module.

Independent of the structure size, the AC/DC Module accommodates any case of
nonlinear, inhomogeneous, or anisotropic media. It also handles materials with
properties that vary as a function of time as well as frequency-dispersive materials.
Examples of applications that successfully simulate with this module include electric
motors, generators, permanent magnets, induction heating devices, and dielectric

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 113

 heating. For a more detailed description of some of these applications, refer to the
Application Libraries included with the module.

Selecting the Space Dimension for the Model Geometry

Most of the problems solved with COMSOL Multiphysics are three-dimensional (3D)
in the real world. In many cases, it is sufficient to solve a two-dimensional (2D)
problem that is close, or equivalent, to the real problem.

It is good practice to start a modeling project by building one or several

2D models before going to a 3D model.

This is because 2D models are easier to modify and faster to solve. Thus, modeling
mistakes are much easier to find when working in 2D. Once the 2D model is verified,
you are in a much better position to build a 3D model.

2D PROBLEMS

The following is a guide through some of the common approximations

made for 2D problems. Remember that modeling in 2D usually represents
some 3D geometry under the assumption that nothing changes in the
third dimension.

Cartesian Coordinates
In this case you view a cross section in the xy-plane of the actual 3D geometry. The
geometry is mathematically extended to infinity in both directions along the z-axis,
assuming no variation along that axis. All the total flows in and out of boundaries are
per unit length along the z-axis. A simplified way of looking at this is to assume that
the geometry is extruded one unit length from the cross section along the z-axis. The
total flow out of each boundary is then from the face created by the extruded boundary
(a boundary in 2D is a line).

114 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

There are usually two approaches that lead to a 2D cross-section view of a problem:

• When it is known that there is no variation of the solution in one particular

dimension.
• When there is a problem where the influence of the finite extension in the third
dimension can be neglected.

Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel Current-Carrying Wires:

Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Electromagnetic_Forces/parallel_wires

The geometry has a finite width but the model neglects the (end) effects from the faces
parallel to the cross section because the strongest forces are between the perpendicular
faces (those seen as lines in the cross section).

Figure 3-1: The cross sections and their real geometry for Cartesian coordinates (left) and
cylindrical coordinates (axial symmetry).

Axial Symmetry (Cylindrical Coordinates)

If the 3D geometry can be constructed by revolving a cross section about

an axis, and no variations in any variable occur when going around the axis
of revolution, an axisymmetric physics interface can be used.

The spatial coordinates are called r and z, where r is the radius. The flow at the
boundaries is given per unit length along the third dimension. Since this dimension is

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 115

 a revolution, you have to multiply all flows with r, where  is the revolution angle
(for example, 2 for a full turn).

High Voltage Insulator: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Capacitive/high_voltage_insulator

2D FIELD VARIABLES
When solving for a vector field in 2D, the physics interface has three options: to solve
for the out-of-plane vector, the in-plane vector, or the three-component vector.
Depending on the choice, the available source specification options on the domain,
boundary, edge, and point levels change accordingly.

3D PROBLEMS

This section discusses issues that should be addressed before starting to

implement a 3D model.

Although COMSOL Multiphysics fully supports arbitrary 3D geometries, it is

important to simplify the problem. This is because 3D problems easily get large and
require more computer power, memory, and time to solve. The extra time spent on
simplifying a problem is probably well spent when solving it.

Is it possible to solve the problem in 2D? Given that the necessary approximations are
small, the solution is more accurate in 2D because a much denser mesh can be used.
See 2D Problems if this is applicable.

Do you know the dependence in one direction so it can be replaced by an analytical

function? You can use this approach either to convert 3D to 2D or to convert a layer
to a boundary condition (see Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions).

Are there symmetries in the geometry and model? Many problems have planes where
the solution on either side of the plane looks the same. A good way to check this is to
flip the geometry around the plane, for example, by turning it upside down around the
horizontal plane. You can then remove the geometry below the plane if you do not see
any differences between the two cases regarding geometry, materials, and sources.

116 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Boundaries created by the cross section between the geometry and this plane need a
symmetry boundary condition, which is available in all 3D physics interfaces.

Eddy Currents: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Electromagnetics/eddy_currents

Simplifying the Geometry Using Boundary Conditions

An important technique to minimize the problem of size is to use efficient boundary
conditions. Truncating the geometry without introducing large errors is one of the
great challenges in modeling. Following are some ideas of how to do this in both 2D
and 3D problems.

Does the solution only undergo small changes? When a model extends to infinity, it
might have regions where the solution only undergoes small changes. This problem is
addressed in two related steps. First, truncate the geometry in a suitable position.
Second, apply a suitable boundary condition there. For static and quasistatic models,
it is often possible to assume zero fields at the open boundary, provided that this is at
a sufficient distance away from the sources.

Can you replace the thin layers with boundary conditions? There are several types of
boundary conditions in COMSOL Multiphysics suitable for such replacements. You
can, for example, replace materials with high conductivity with the shielding boundary
condition, which assumes a constant potential through the thickness of the layer. If you
have a magnetic material with a high relative permeability, you can also model it using
the shielding boundary condition.

One-Sided Magnet and Plate: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Magnetostatics/one_sided_magnet

Use boundary conditions for known solutions. A body with a high conductivity at high
frequency has the current density confined to a thin region beneath the surface of the

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 117

 wire. You can often replace the current in the body by either a surface current
boundary condition or an impedance boundary condition.

Eddy Currents: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Electromagnetics/eddy_currents

Applying Electromagnetic Sources

Electromagnetic sources can be applied in many different ways. The typical options are
volume sources, boundary sources, line sources, and point sources, where point
sources in 2D formulations are equivalent to line sources in 3D formulations. The way
sources are imposed can have an impact on what quantities can be computed from the
model. For example, a point source in an electrostatics model represents a singularity,
and the electric potential does not have a finite value at the position of the source.

In a COMSOL Multiphysics model, a point source has a finite but mesh-dependent

potential value. Thus, it does not make sense to compute a point-to-point capacitance,
because this is defined as the ratio of charge to voltage and for a point charge, the
potential is not well defined. In general, using volume or boundary sources is more
flexible than using line or point sources but the meshing of the source domains
becomes more expensive.

Selecting a Study Type

When variations in time are present there are two main approaches to how to represent
the time dependence. The most straightforward is to solve the problem in the time
domain by calculating the changes in the solution for each time step. This approach
can be time consuming if small time steps are necessary for the desired accuracy. It is
necessary to use this approach when the inputs are transients like turn-on and turn-off
sequences.

An efficient simplification is to assume that all variations in time occur as sinusoidal

signals. Then the problem is time-harmonic and it can be formulated as a stationary
problem in the frequency domain with complex-valued variables. The complex value
represents both the amplitude and the phase of the field, while the frequency is
specified as a predefined scalar input or for frequency sweeps, provided as a solver
parameter. This approach is useful because, combined with the Fourier analysis, it
applies to all periodic signals with the exception of nonlinear problems. Examples of

118 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

typical frequency domain simulations are quasistatic problems where the input
variables are sinusoidal signals.

For nonlinear problems, use a frequency domain study after a linearization of the
problem, which assumes that the distortion of the sinusoidal signal is small.

Specify a Time Dependent study when you think that the nonlinear influence is very
strong, or if you are interested in the harmonic distortion of a sinusoidal signal. It
might also be more efficient to use a Time Dependent study if there is a periodic input
with many harmonics, like a square-shaped signal.

There are some special predefined study types for the Induction Heating interface.
This physics interface is based on the assumption that the magnetic cycle time is short
compared to the thermal time scale (adiabatic assumption). Thus, it is associated with
four predefined study sequences.

• Frequency-Stationary
- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Stationary heat transfer

• Frequency-Transient
- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Transient heat transfer

• Frequency-Stationary, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating

- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Stationary heat transfer

• Frequency-Transient, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating

- Time-harmonic magnetic fields
- Transient heat transfer

The difference between the first two and the last two study sequences is that in the
Frequency-Stationary and the Frequency-Transient studies, the coupling between the
electromagnetic and the heat transfer problem is bidirectional. The electromagnetic
problem defines a heat source for the heat transfer problem and the material properties
in the electromagnetic problem are temperature dependent. For the
Frequency-Stationary, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating and Frequency-Transient,
One-Way Electromagnetic Heating study sequences, it is assumed that the material
properties for the electromagnetic problem is temperature independent, so a

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 119

 Frequency Domain study is added for the electromagnetic problem followed by a
Stationary or Time Dependent study for the heat transfer problem.

AC/DC Module Study Availability

Meshing and Solving

MESH RESOLUTION
The finite element method approximates the solution within each element, using some
elementary shape function that can be constant, linear, or of higher order. Depending
on the element order in the model, a finer or coarser mesh is required to resolve the
solution. In general, there are three problem-dependent factors that determine the
necessary mesh resolution:

Is the variation in the solution due to geometrical factors? The mesh generator
automatically generates a finer mesh where there is a lot of fine geometrical details. Try
to remove such details if they do not influence the solution because they produce a lot
of unnecessary mesh elements.

Is the skin effect or the field variation due to losses? It is easy to estimate the skin
depth from the conductivity, permeability, and frequency. You need at least two linear
elements per skin depth to capture the variation of the fields. If you do not study the
skin depth, you can replace regions with a small skin depth with a boundary condition,
thereby saving mesh elements.

What is the wavelength? To resolve a wave properly, it is necessary to use about 10

linear (or 5 2nd-order) elements per wavelength. Keep in mind that the wavelength
might be shorter in a dielectric medium.

SELECTING A SOLVER
In most cases the solver that COMSOL Multiphysics suggests can be used. The choice
of solver is optimized for the typical case for each physics interface and study type in
the AC/DC Module. However, in special cases the solver settings might need fine
tuning. This is especially important for 3D problems because they use a large amount
of memory. For large 3D problems, a 64-bit platform might be required.

120 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

It is of great importance to make sure the formulation defined by the physics interface
is compatible with the solver. For example, in the Electrostatics or the Electric
Currents interface, a ground boundary condition is usually required to make the
model be solved with a direct solver.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Meshing
• The Gauge
• Studies and Solvers

PREPARING FOR MODELING | 121

 Modeling Coils
In this section:

• About the Coil Features

• About the Coil Name
• Coil Excitation
• Coil Groups
• Lumped Parameter Calculations
• Using Coils in 3D Models
• Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis
• Accurate Coil Voltage Calculation

• The Magnetic Fields Interface

• The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface
• The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface

About the Coil Features

The coil features can be used to simplify the setup of magnetostatics and low-frequency
electromagnetic models. In many such applications, the magnetic field is generated by
electric currents flowing in conductive materials (for example, cables, wires, coils, or
solenoids). The coil features can be used to easily model these structures and to
translate lumped quantities (currents and voltages) into distributed quantities (current
densities and electric fields). This section describes the main Coil feature, which is
available in The Magnetic Fields Interface, The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic
Interface, and The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

The Coil is available both as a domain and as a boundary feature. The latter can be
used to model flat coils for which the thickness is negligible compared to the other two
dimensions.

122 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

The Coil feature supports two different Conductor model options, which differ by the
physical system represented and the modeling details.

• The Single conductor option models a single, solid region of a conducting material
(for example, metal) in which the current flows. The lumped voltage and current of
the coil correspond, respectively, to the integral of the electric field along the coil
length and to the integral of the current density on a cross section. Use this option
in a domain feature to model a single wire with a nonnegligible cross section; in a
boundary feature it can be used for a thin conductive layer whose thickness is
negligible (for example, in frequency domain, it is small with respect to the skin
depth).
• The Homogenized multiturn option implements a homogenized model of a coil
consisting of numerous tightly-wound conducting wires, separated by an electrical
insulator. The computation of the voltage and current of the coil is performed in a
similar way as for the Single conductor model, but it also takes into account
parameters such as the number of wires and the cross-section area. Use this feature
to model a coil containing a large number of wires without the need to model each
wire individually. The boundary feature can be used when the wires are arranged in
a thin region whose thickness is negligible. Note that capacitive coupling and skin
effect are neglected in the homogenized model.

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric geometries, the current applied by a Coil is

always in the out-of-plane direction. Thus capacitive (in-plane) coupling
is neglected.

For 3D model geometries, the direction of the current flow is not easily
determined. The coil domains have settings and subnodes to solve this
problem. See Using Coils in 3D Models for more information.

Selecting unconnected geometrical entities with a Coil connects them in

parallel.

MODELING COILS | 123

 For a examples of a Single conductor Coil, see:

• Inductive Heating of a Copper Cylinder: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Electromagnetic_Heating/inductive_heating
• Modeling of a 3D Inductor (described in detail in the Introduction to
the AC/DC Module manual): Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Devices,_Inductive/inductor_3d.

For examples of a Homogenized multiturn Coil see:

• Magnetic Field of a Helmholtz Coil: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Devices,_Inductive/helmholtz_coil
Inductor in an Amplifier Circuit: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Electromagnetics_and_Circuits/inductor_in_circuit

WHAT MATERIAL TO USE FOR THE COIL?

The Coil domain feature is based on Ampère’s Law and it requires material properties
to set up the appropriate constitutive relations. The boundary feature also requires the
electrical conductivity when the Single conductor model is used. What is the correct
choice of materials for the Coil domains or boundaries?

• When using the Single conductor option, the coil models a solid conductive domain
(typically a metal). The material properties of the metal (electric permitting,
magnetic permeability, and electrical conductivity) should be used in this case.
• When using the Homogenized multiturn option, the conduction current (induced
current) is assumed to flow only in the wires. To prevent induced current density
from flowing in the domain, the region’s electrical conductivity  is set to zero. The
material used in the domain, only specifies the constitutive relations for the electric
displacement field and the magnetic flux density. Therefore, choose or create a
material that provides constitutive relations representative of the entire coil domain,
not just of the material making up the metallic wires.

OTHER COIL FEATURES

Two coil features designed for special applications are available in the Magnetic and
Electric Fields interface in 2D and 2D axisymmetric components:

124 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

• The RLC Coil Group feature, that models coils for which capacitive effects between
coil turns and with other parts of the models are comparable with the inductive
effects.
• The Single Conductor Coil feature, to introduce an externally applied current or
voltage on domains where the Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation feature is
active. This feature is contributing, that is, it simply adds an external current density
to the domain model represented by Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation.

About the Coil Name

For all types of coil physics nodes, a coil name is entered to allow the identification of
the feature and the variables it creates. By default, this is set to a unique number, but
can be changed as long as it is unique between all the coil nodes in a model.

Coil Excitation
The current density flowing in the coil domain is computed from a lumped quantity
that constitutes the coil excitation. The choice of this quantity can be done by setting
the coil excitation parameter, while the value is specified in the associated text box. All
the coil features can be excited either with current excitation, voltage excitation or,
in certain cases, power excitation. The supplied value or expression is translated to a
current density or electric field applied to the domain according to the coil model used.
Coil features can also retrieve the value of the current or the voltage from a circuit
connection, if the parameter coil excitation is set to Circuit (current) or Circuit
(voltage), respectively.

Circuit (current) excitation works similarly to the Current excitation, but in

this case the inputs are provided by a circuit connection.

Circuit (voltage) excitation works similarly to the Voltage excitation, but in

this case the inputs are provided by a circuit connection.

CURRENT EXCITATION

Coil with Single Conductor model

When specifying a total current Icoil, the coil applies an external electric field in the
direction of the current flow, computed as:

MODELING COILS | 125

 V
E e = ---- (3-1)
L

where L is equal to the physics interface thickness d for 2D models, 2r for 2D axially
symmetric models, and the coil length in 3D models. V is an unknown applied
potential. The potential V is solved for using an additional equation, which constrains
the total integrated current to be equal to the current value Icoil specified, acting as a
controller.

Coil with Homogenized Multiturn Model

When specifying a total current Icoil, the coil applies an external current density in the
direction of the wires as in Equation 3-2 where N is the number of turns which are
specified and A is the total cross section area of the coil domain.

NI coil
J e = --------------- (3-2)
A

Coil Group Mode

When the Coil Group mode is activated, additional equations are added to the model
to enforce the equality of the current flowing in each domain or domain group.

Single-Turn Coil (in Magnetic and Electric Fields)

When specifying a total current Icoil, the out-of-plane component of the current
density is defined as:

V
J e = -------- (3-3)
L

where L is equal to the physics interface thickness d for 2D models and 2r for 2D
axially symmetric models, and V is an unknown applied potential. The potential V is
solved for using an additional algebraic equation, which constrains the total integrated
current to be equal to the current value Icoil specified.

VOLTAGE EXCITATION

Coil with Single Conductor model

When specifying a total voltage Vcoil, the externally applied electric field is computed
as:

V coil
E e = ----------- (3-4)
L

126 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

where Vcoil is the applied voltage specified, and L is equal to the physics interface’s
thickness d for 2D models, to 2r for 2D axially symmetric models, and the coil length
in 3D models.

Coil with Homogenized Multiturn model

When specifying a voltage Vcoil, the component of the current density in the direction
of the wires is defined as in Equation 3-5 and Equation 3-6.

N  V coil + V ind 
J e = --------------------------------------- (3-5)
AR coil

where Vcoil is the applied voltage which is specified, A is the total cross-sectional area
of the coil domain, N is the number of turns specified, Rcoil is the total resistance of
the coil calculated as

NL
R coil =  --------------------------
coil a coil A
- (3-6)
A

where L is equal to the physics interface’s thickness d for 2D models, 2r for 2D axially
symmetric models, and the coil length in 3D models. The expression coilacoil is the
product of the wire bulk conductivity and wire cross-section area. Vind is the induced
voltage calculated by integrating the electric field along the coil.

Coil Group Mode

When Coil Group mode is activated, additional conditions are added to the model to
constrain the sum of all the voltages in the domains or domains groups to be equal to
the specified voltage:

V coil =  Vi
i=1

where Vcoil is the user-defined voltage drop across the coil, Vi is the individual applied
potentials, and N is the number of turns in the coil group.

Single-Turn Coil (in Magnetic and Electric Fields)

When specifying a total voltage Vcoil, the coil applies an out-of-plane external current
density computed as:

V coil
J e = --------------- (3-7)
L

MODELING COILS | 127

 where Vcoil is the applied voltage specified, and L is equal to the physics interface’s
thickness d for 2D models and equal to 2r for 2D axially symmetric models.

POWER EXCITATION
In 2D and 2D axisymmetric models, Power is an option available for the coil excitation
parameter. When Power is selected, the physics interface sets up the equation as
specified in the Current Excitation section, plus a constraint between the coil current
and voltage:

V coil I coil = P coil

in stationary and time-dependent study steps, and

1
--- real  V coil I coil  = P coil
2

in frequency domain (cycle average). Select this option to specify the input power for
the coils. The problem becomes nonlinear with these settings.

• The Power option is not available for 3D models due to the increased
complexity of the problem compared to 2D models.
• The Power option does not work with the Frequency Domain
Perturbation study.

This nonlinear system of equations requires special solver settings in order

to converge. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically adds these solver
settings when Power is selected.

Be aware that, in general, the values of the voltage and the current might
not uniquely be determined by this constraint. Particularly in the
frequency domain, the absolute phase of the quantities can be arbitrary.
This indeterminacy can have an impact on the solution process. See
Compile Equations in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
a possible solution to this problem.

• Coil
• Single Conductor Coil
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

128 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Coil Groups
The Coil nodes, in 2D and 2D axisymmetry, present an additional Coil Group check box
that allows to easily model one or more coil features connected in series. Each domain
in the coil feature selection is considered a separate turn of the coil. Use this feature in
2D and 2D axisymmetric models for coils that cross the modeling plane more than
once.

The Coil Group mode automatically sets up the relations between the variables
associated to each domain. Current and voltage variables for each domain (or turn) are
computed the same as for the base coil feature, while the total variables for the coil are
computed using the rules for series-connection — the total voltage is the sum of the
voltages, while the total current is equal to the current flowing in each domain.

Special subnodes can be added to the Coil nodes once the Coil Group check box has
been selected in order to better control the setup of the connections:

Domain Group
When the Coil Group mode is active, each domain in the selection will be considered
individually as a series-connected entity. The Domain Group subnode can be used to
mark a group of domains which should be treated as one domain for the purpose of
the coil set up. Multiple instances of this subnodes can be added to mark different
groups. Domains that do not belong to a group are connected individually in series.

Reversed Current Direction

Use this subnode to mark a geometrical entity where the current flows in the opposite
direction, that is antiparallel to the out-of-plane direction (z or azimuthal direction).
This feature can be applied to any entity in the coil’s selection, regardless of the group
(if any) it belongs to.

In COMSOL Multiphysics version 4.3a and earlier, a separate Coil Group

Domain node was available. This is replaced in the current version by a
Single-Turn Coil domain node with the Coil Group check box selected.

Lumped Parameter Calculations

All the types of coil domains define lumped variables during the solution. These
variables are defined in the global scope and have the template
<variable>Coil_<name>, where <variable> is the basic variable name (V for
voltage, Z for impedance, and so forth) and <name> is the string specified in the Coil

MODELING COILS | 129

 name field. These variables can be evaluated during the analysis phase or used in
expressions; in this case, the scope of the physics interface (for example, mf. for the
Magnetic Fields interface) must be added to the beginning of the variable name — for
example, mf.ICoil_1 is the total coil current flowing in the coil 1 in the physics
interface identified by the name mf. A brief description of each of the variables follows.

THE VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER VARIABLES

The coil nodes define the variables Vcoil, Icoil and Pcoil. The variable corresponding to
the quantity used for the coil excitation contains the input value, while the others have
values computed from the solution according to the coil model.

STATIONARY AND TIME DEPENDENT STUDIES

In Stationary and Time Dependent studies, the coil feature defines the coil resistance
variable, Rcoil, with the formula:

V coil
R coil = -----------
I coil

FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDIES

In frequency domain studies, the following lumped variables are defined.
TABLE 3-1: LUMPED VARIABLES FOR THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDIES

VARIABLE EQUATION

Impedance V coil
Z coil = -----------
I coil

Resistance R coil = real  Z coil 

Inductance imag  Z coil 

L coil = -------------------------------

Reactance X coil = imag  Z coil 

Admittance Y coil = Z coil -1

FREQUENCY DOMAIN, PERTURBATION STUDIES

In frequency domain perturbation studies (small-signal analysis), the parameters
defined are the same as in the frequency domain study, but the impedance is computed
using the harmonic voltage and current around the linearization point:

130 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

 lindev  V coil 
Z coil = -----------------------------------
lindev  I coil 

• lindev in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Coil
• Single Conductor Coil
• RLC Coil Group

The Single-Turn Coil Feature

The Single Conductor Coil feature models a single, solid region of a conducting
material (for example, metal) in which the current flows. The lumped voltage and
current of the coil correspond, respectively, to the integral of the electric field along
the coil length and to the integral of the current density on a cross section. Use the
Single-Turn Coil domain node to model a single wire with a nonnegligible cross
section; the Single-Turn Coil boundary node can be used for a thin conductive layer
whose thickness is negligible (for example, in frequency domain, it is small with respect
to the skin depth).

In COMSOL Multiphysics version 5.2 and earlier, the Single-Turn Coil was
available in The Magnetic Fields Interface and The Rotating Machinery,
Magnetic Interface. The functionality provided by this feature has been
incorporated in the Coil feature in the form of the Single conductor option.

To preserve backward compatibility, the Single-Turn Coil features present

in models created in version 5.2 and earlier will still be available when
opening the models in the current version, but it is recommended to
replace them with the new Coil feature.

Selecting unconnected geometrical entities with a Single-Turn Coil

connects them in parallel.

MODELING COILS | 131

 For a examples of a Single-Turn Coil, see:

• Inductive Heating of a Copper Cylinder: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Electromagnetic_Heating/inductive_heating
• Modeling of a 3D Inductor (described in detail in the Introduction to
the AC/DC Module manual): Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Devices,_Inductive/inductor_3d.

Using Coils in 3D Models

The Coil feature applies an external electric field or current density along the direction
of the coil. The nodes require additional settings in 3D models to determine the
geometry and the direction of the current flow.

COIL FEATURE
The options available in a Coil feature depend on the chosen Conductor model:

• When Single conductor is used, the coil direction is computed in the dedicated
preprocessing study step Coil Geometry Analysis.
• When Homogenized multiturn is used, the Coil type input determines how the
direction of the current flow is specified. The available alternatives are: Linear,
Circular, Numeric and User defined. The Numeric option computes the current flow
in the dedicated preprocessing study step Coil Geometry Analysis. The other three
options do not require any preprocessing.

• The Single conductor Conductor model and the Homogenized multiturn

Conductor model support the Stationary, Frequency Domain and Time
Dependent studies.
• For a detailed description about the usage of the Conductor model
together with the Coil Geometry Analysis study step, see Automatic Coil
Geometry Analysis.

In the Homogenized multiturn case, the coil type determines how the direction of the
wires constituting the coil is specified, as well as the method used to compute the
average length and the average cross-section area of the domain or boundary. The coil
length and coil area are used to compute lumped variables, such as the induced voltage
or the total resistance.

132 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

For models representing only a part of the geometry (due to symmetry), the total
length and cross-section area of the coil (referred to as coil length and coil area) are
computed by multiplying the domain or boundary length and area by the appropriate
multiplication factors specified under Symmetry specification in the subfeatures.

The following sections detail the possible options available for the Coil feature.

Homogenized Multiturn Model — Linear Coil Type

In a linear coil, the wires are straight and parallel. To specify the direction of the wires,
use the default Coil Geometry subnode to select a straight edge or a group of collinear
straight edges along the entire length of the coil. The coil direction is taken to be the
tangential vector to the edges (shown in the Graphics window with a red arrow), while
the length of the wires in the domain is the total length of the edges. If the length of
the edges does not correspond to the length of the domain, select the Override length
of the edges check box and specify the correct length. For domain features, the average
domain cross-section area is computed from the domain volume and the length. To
specify another cross-section area, select the Override domain area check box and
specify the correct area.

Homogenized Multiturn Model — Circular Coil Type

In a circular coil, the wires are wound in circles around a common axis. To specify the
direction of the wires, use the default a Coil Geometry subnode to select a group of
edges forming a circle or a part of a circle around the coil’s axis. From the selected
edges, the coil axis is computed and the direction of the wires is taken to be the
azimuthal direction around the axis, as marked by the red arrows. The coil length used
is computed as the coil volume divided by the coil cross sectional area, unless the Use
robust geometry analysis method box is checked. When the robust method is used, the
coil length is simply the length of the selected edges.

The geometry analysis algorithm can determine the axis and direction only if there is
a geometry in the model. If the model does not have a geometry, for example when
using imported meshes, use the alternative analysis method by selecting the Use robust
geometry analysis method check box. This method can be used even without a
geometry, but it requires that the selected edges form a complete circle to work
correctly. If neither the default method nor the alternative method work, an alternative
is to set the Coil type to User defined and manually specify the direction of the wires
using a Cylindrical System.

Homogenized Multiturn Model — Numeric Coil Type

In a numeric coil, the path of the wires in the coil is computed numerically in an
additional study step during the solution. This allows the modeling of coils with

MODELING COILS | 133

 complex shapes. To set up the numerical analysis computation of the current flow in a
coil, additional information on the coil geometry must be provided by means of the
default Geometry Analysis subnode and the boundary conditions under it.

By default, the Input (for Geometry Analysis) boundary condition is available under
the Geometry Analysis subnode. For open coils (whose ends are on exterior
boundaries), apply this condition on the input boundary, that is, the boundary at
which the wires enter the coil domain. Right-click the Geometry Analysis node, add
an Output (for Geometry Analysis) subnode, and apply it on the exterior boundary
where the wires exit the domain.

For closed-loop coils, apply the Input boundary condition on an interior boundary
orthogonal to the direction of the wires.

To complete the setup, add a Coil Geometry Analysis study step to the study, before the
main study step.

The Coil Geometry Analysis can process multiple coils in the same step.
In order to analyze only certain coils, select the Solve only specific coils
check box and enter the coil names as a comma-separated list.

134 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

 • Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis
• Coil Geometry Analysis in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Homogenized Multiturn Model — User-Defined Coil Type

In a user-defined coil, the current flow (the direction of the wires) can be entered as
an arbitrary vector field in the User-Defined Coil Geometry subnode. The vector field
entered can be an analytical expression or the solution of another physics (for instance,
the vector field computed by a Curvilinear Coordinates interface). In order for the
magnetic problem to have a solution, the vector field must be as much as possible
divergence-free, meaning that the current flow cannot have sources or sinks within the
simulation domain nor can it originate from interior boundaries. In practice, this
means that the current flow must either be terminated on exterior boundaries, or it
must be closed in a loop.

Since the coil feature does not have any information on the geometry, additional
settings are required:

• Enter the Domain length (for domain features) or the Boundary length (for boundary
feature), which should be the average length of the coil from the input to the output
— the average length of a wire, not accounting for symmetry nor the number of
turns.
• For domain features, use the subnodes to User Defined Coil Geometry — Input and
Output — to select the coil input and output boundaries, where the current flow
enters or leaves the simulation domain. If the coil is closed in a loop, no selection is
required.

Single Conductor Model

The setup of the Coil when using the Single conductor model is similar to the setup
required for the Homogenized Multiturn Model — Numeric Coil Type case, the only
difference being that the Coil Geometry Analysis study step will compute the physical
current flow, instead of the direction of the wires. Refer to that section for more
information.

SINGLE-TURN COIL
The 3D Single Conductor Coil feature was available in The Magnetic Fields Interface
in previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics. This feature is obsolete — the
recommended approach to model the same physical system is to use a Coil feature with
the Single conductor model, or The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

MODELING COILS | 135

 The feature is still available for backward compatibility when opening models created
in previous versions of the software.

This node represents a solid conducting domain, typically a wire or a coil, with a
nonnegligible cross section. The boundary node represents a conducting thin layer
whose thickness is small (also compared to the skin depth). To enforce the current
conservation in the domain, an additional dependent variable with the dimension of
an electric potential (SI unit: V) is added to the problem and the continuity equation
for the current is introduced in the system of equations. This variable is referred to as
the coil potential, but it is only loosely related to the electrostatic potential and it
should be considered a help variable rather than representing a tangible physical
quantity. In the Single-Turn Coil node, it is possible to specify the material properties
that are used in the continuity equation.

The excitation is applied by means of specialized subnodes: a Boundary Feed subnode

applies constraints on the coil potential to an external boundary, while a Ground
subnode enforces the coil potential to be zero on the selected boundaries.

To ensure that the current continuity equation has a physical solution,

terminate a coil domain on external boundaries only, or close it into a
loop.

A Gap Feed subnode models a thin gap in the conductive domain across which a
difference of potential or a current is applied. This feature should be applied on interior
boundaries to the conductive domain and is useful for modeling closed loops.

For the Single-Turn Coil feature, only one active feed feature can be used
at a time. That is, either a Boundary Feed or Gap Feed feature can be
used, not both.

The Gap Feed should be used with care in high frequency modeling as
there is a mesh dependent displacement current density flowing in the
elements just outside the bounding edges of the Gap Feed boundary. If
these elements have nonzero conductivity, this problem can appear even
at lower frequencies.

136 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis
In 3D models, it is possible to perform an automatic analysis of the geometry of a Coil
to determine the local direction of the current flow in the domain given the input and
output boundaries of the coil (or an interior boundary in the case of closed-loop coils).
The analysis is performed in a dedicated study step, Coil Geometry Analysis, which is
typically solved before the main study step.

The study step can be used to compute both the current flow when using the Single
conductor model and the direction of the wires when using the Homogenized multiturn
model.

In the case of a Single conductor coil, the study step solves a simple current conservation
problem to determine the flow of a current applied to the metallic domain. In this case,
the Coil Geometry Analysis uses the initial values for the conductivity. If the Coil
Geometry Analysis is followed by a study step that alters the conductivity, for instance,
the conductivity depends on the temperature, the path that the currents take may
deviate from what the Coil Geometry Analysis initially expected. This may cause the
direction of the electric fields used to excite the coil, and the direction used for
integrating the induced currents to become an approximation, rather than being
entirely consistent with the solution. In many cases this is a good approximation since
most conductors used in electromagnetic devices offer a single, straightforward
conduction path; and good electrical conductors are typically good thermal
conductors as well. Therefore, the temperature gradients inside the conductor are
small (note that a uniform change in conductivity will not affect the current direction).
However, in 3D, when the temperature gradients (and the resulting gradients in
conductivity) are large enough to cause a significant shift in the direction of the
currents, for example, when modeling sensors like thermistors, you can use the
Magnetic and Electric Fields physics interface instead. In case of doubt, use the Magnetic
and Electric Fields physics as a means of validation.

In the case of a Homogenized multiturn coil, the feature computes a vector field e which
represents the local wire density in the coil, as well as the length and average
cross-section of the wires. Note that the vector field e set by the Coil Geometry Analysis
will remain valid in the following study steps since the current direction is assumed to
be dictated by the direction of the wire bundle, not the local conductivity, which is
different from a Single conductor coil. The vector variable eCoil can be plotted (for

MODELING COILS | 137

 example, in a Streamline or Arrow Volume plot) to visualize the computed direction of
the wires.

The Coil Geometry Analysis study step must precede the main study step
(for example, a Stationary study step) in which the Coil is used.

The Coil Geometry Analysis study step analyzes simultaneously the

geometry of all coils in the physics that are active in the study — even if
they use different Conductor models. To analyze only specific coils, select
the Solve only specific coils check box in the study step and enter the names
of the desired coils in the Coil names input field as a comma-separated list.

The coil geometry analysis method tries to construct a coil wires density that is
plausible for an actual bundle of thin wires. The computed wire density is constant over
arbitrary cross section, without violating current conservation for the current flowing
in the wires. The density will depend on the local cross-section area of the coil (for
example, it will increase in choke points), and will remain approximately constant in
bends and curved regions as long as the cross-section area does not change. The
analysis method will compute a solution even in presence of sharp bends, but the
resultant wire density may not be constant. For best results, try to avoid sharp bends
in the coil geometry.

BACKWARD COMPATIBILITY WITH COIL CURRENT CALCULATION

The Coil Geometry Analysis replaces the Coil Current Calculation functionality available
in previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics. The new formulation is more robust
and has a larger applicability than the previous one, as well as a number of
improvements, such as support for solving multiple coils at once or for coils with
nonconstant cross section. When opening a model saved in an older version of
COMSOL Multiphysics, the Coil Current Calculation study steps are transparently
updated to use the new formulation. It may however be necessary to regenerate the
default solvers before proceeding with the solution.

ADVANCED SOLVER SETTINGS

Depending on the type of coils used in the model, the Coil Geometry Analysis may use
a Stationary solver with a Segregated node to perform the analysis. The default solver
settings should suffice in most cases, but they can be adjusted if the analysis fails to
provide a satisfying solution. The Number of iterations in the Segregated solver can be

138 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

used to tune the robustness of the method. Lower values improve the stability of the
solution, but the condition that the wire density must be constant is weakened.

The Segregated solver uses Geometric Multigrid to solve the linear system associated
with the analysis. If the Geometric Multigrid causes problems during the solution (for
example, in presence of very coarse meshes), the direct solver can be used instead.
Change the Linear solver in all Segregated Steps nodes to Direct.

• About the Coil Features

• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Accurate Coil Voltage Calculation

This functionality improves the accuracy of the computation of the lumped coil voltage
in time dependent and frequency domain studies, in 3D, when using the Homogenized
multiturn conductor model. Other lumped parameters computed from the voltage
using Ohm’s Law, such as the coil impedance, inductance, and power, also benefit
from the improved accuracy. The functionality is enabled by default in time dependent
and frequency domain studies, and can be manually controlled using the
corresponding check box in the Coil Settings window, Stabilization section. The
Stabilization section can be shown by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and
selecting Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box. It is only available when the
Conductor model is set to Homogenized multiturn.

For domain coils1, the Accurate coil voltage calculation functionality performs a
filtering of the external current density applied by the coil to obtain a current density
vector field that is numerically divergence free. The filtering is performed by
introducing an additional scalar degree of freedom Vf (the filtering variable) and
solving the equation

   V f – J u  = 0

in the coil domain, where Ju is the unfiltered external current density applied by the
Coil feature. The filtered current density

J e = V f – J u

1. For boundary coils, the filtering turns into a local in-plane 2D formulation. Apart from that, it is
mathematically equivalent to the domain coil case.

MODELING COILS | 139

 is then applied as right-hand side in the magnetic equations. This filtering reduces the
spurious electric fields in the solution, in turn improving the accuracy of the induced
voltage (which is computed by integrating the electric field in the coil domain).

The filtering equation requires appropriate boundary conditions for the filtering
variable, in particular, on the inlet and outlet boundaries of the coil, where the external
current density is orthogonal. The approach used to set up these boundary conditions
vary according to the coil geometry:

• For Linear and Circular coils, the geometry analysis algorithm automatically detects
the inlet/outlet boundaries from the geometry. If this detection fails, use the
Override Coil Inlet/Outlet subnode to manually select the inlet/outlet boundaries.
Right-click the Coil node to add this subnode.
• For Numeric coils, the subnodes of the Geometry Analysis node are used to identify
the inlet/outlet boundaries.
• For User defined coils, use the subfeatures of the User Defined Coil Geometry
subnode — Input and Output — to select the coil inlet/outlet boundaries.

140 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

C o m put i ng Forces an d Torq u es
In this section:

• Computing Electromagnetic Forces and Torques

• Model Examples — Electromagnetic Forces

Computing Electromagnetic Forces and Torques

Two methods are available to compute electromagnetic forces and torques:

• The most general method is to use the Maxwell stress tensor.

• Another method that works for the special case of computation of magnetic forces
on nonmagnetic, current-carrying domains uses a predefined physics interface
variable for the Lorentz force distribution in a magnetic flux density B.

MAXWELL STRESS TENSOR

In most AC/DC interfaces, the Force Calculation feature can be used to compute forces
and torques using Maxwell stress tensor. In electric field and current interfaces, the
force is calculated by integrating

1 T
n 1 T 2 = – --- n 1  E  D  +  n 1  E D (3-8)
2

on the surface of the object that the force acts on,

In magnetic field interfaces, the expression

1 T
n 1 T 2 = – --- n 1  H  B  +  n 1  H B (3-9)
2

is integrated on the surface to obtain the force.

In the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface, both expressions (Equation 3-8 and
Equation 3-9) are included. E is the electric field, D the electric displacement, H the
magnetic field, B the magnetic flux density, and n1 the outward normal from the
object (Material 1).

With the Maxwell stress tensor, the force is expressed as

F =  n1 T2 dS
 (3-10)
 1

COMPUTING FORCES AND TORQUES | 141

 where represents the domain boundary. The torque is computed as

 =
  r – r0    n1 T2  dS
 1
(3-11)

where r0 is a point on the axis of rotation. For a theoretical discussion about the stress
tensor, see Electromagnetic Forces.

LORENTZ FORCES
The Lorentz force is defined as F J  B. The Lorentz force is very accurate for
electromagnetic force calculations in electrically conducting domains. The Lorentz
force variables <name>.FLtz<component> are available both in domains and on
boundaries (in the case of surface currents).

For moving objects containing magnetic materials such as a magnetizable

armature, the Lorentz force is no longer the only force contribution. In
this case, the force contribution from the magnetic polarization might
need to be considered. This can be done by adding the Force Calculation
feature which computes the force using Maxwell stress tensor. Note that
the Force Calculation feature includes the force contribution not only from
magnetic polarization but also from the Lorentz force, that is, the total
electromagnetic force.

CYCLE-AVERAGED QUANTITIES
In Frequency Domain studies, the formulas presented above can be used to compute
the instantaneous force and torque by taking the real part of all the variables involved.
It is often more interesting to compute the average of these quantities over a cycle to,
for example, couple the electromagnetic forces to another physics. The cycle-averaged
Maxwell’s stress tensor (including both electric and magnetic forces) is computed as:

n 1 T av 2 = --- Re  – --- n 1  E  D  +  n 1  E D – --- n 1  H  B  +  n 1  H B 

1 1 T 1 T
2 2 2

ARKKIO’S METHOD
In the Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interface, in addition to the Force Calculation
feature, the Arkkio Torque Calculation feature based on Arkkio’s method is available.
Arkkio’s method is a variant of the Maxwell stress tensor method, specifically useful in
modeling rotating machines where the thin air gap separates rotating parts. In this

142 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

case, the normal n1 of the air gap can be defined as the radial outward unit vector.
Arkkio’s method computes the torque as

F rA

 = n sec ---------------------- dV
r out – r in

Br B (3-12)
F  = -------------
0
:  r in  r A  r out 

where F is the azimuthal force density; Br, B are the radial and azimuthal magnetic
flux density, respectively; rA is the distance from the rotation center; nsec is the number
of sectors. Different from surface integral Equation 3-11 used in Maxwell stress tensor
method, the torque expression for Arkkio’s method (Equation 3-12) is a volume
integral on the domain , yielding a less mesh-dependent result.

Model Examples — Electromagnetic Forces

There are a number of examples in the AC/DC Module Applications Libraries
showing how to calculate electromagnetic forces in different situations.

The Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel Current-Carrying Wires model uses both

Maxwell’s stress tensor and the Lorentz force method to compute magnetic forces. It
shows how to compute the total force on a device by integrating the volume force
J × B — the most important method for calculating forces in current-carrying devices.
For materials that can be described as pure conductors (see later on in this section) this
method gives the exact distribution of forces inside a device. The quantity J × B is the
Lorentz force and is available as a predefined variable on domains and boundaries. The
model also illustrates how to compute the force by integrating the Maxwell stress
tensor on boundaries.

The Permanent Magnet model demonstrates how to compute the total force on a
magnetizable rod close to a permanent magnet by integrating the Maxwell stress
tensor in the air on the outside of the rod. This is the most important method for
accurately calculating the total force on magnetic devices for which the exact
distribution of volume forces is not known. To retrieve the exact distribution of
volume forces requires a material that describes the interactions of the magnetizations
and strains. Such materials are not always available. Therefore you are often limited to

COMPUTING FORCES AND TORQUES | 143

 compute the total force by integrating the stress tensor or using the method of virtual
work.

None of these methods can be used to compute and visualize the force
distribution inside a domain, only to compute the total force and torque
in situations where the device is surrounded by a nonsolid medium (or
when this is a good approximation).

• Electromagnetic Forces on Parallel Current-Carrying Wires:

Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Electromagnetic_Forces/parallel_wires
• Permanent Magnet: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Magnetostatics/permanent_magnet

144 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Computing Losses
Computing electromagnetic losses are of significant importance in electromagnetics
modeling as the losses can generate heat that is either useful or harmful. This section
is devoted to present an overview of how low-frequencies electromagnetic losses are
modeled with the AC/DC Module.

In this section:

• Modeling Electromagnetic Losses

• Modeling Losses in the Frequency Domain
• Model Examples — Electromagnetic Losses

Modeling Electromagnetic Losses

In general, AC/DC interfaces compute electromagnetic losses by default. The
volumetric loss density is made available as a global scalar variable with name
<name>.Qh, where <name> is the Name of the physics interface. Depending on the
interface and study type, the expression for computing electromagnetic losses can be
different. Typical application scenarios and modeling approaches are:

• Use the The Joule Heating Interface ( ) to model resistive heating and heating
due to dielectric losses. This multiphysics interface adds an Electric Currents interface
and a Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the
electromagnetic power dissipation as a heat source, and the electromagnetic
material properties can depend on the temperature. Different dielectric and
conduction models are available in the Electric Currents interface.
• Use the The Induction Heating Interface ( ) to model induction and eddy
current heating. This multiphysics interface is based on the assumption that the
magnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time scale (adiabatic
assumption). Use this interface together with preset study types such as
Frequency-Transient to model a variety of electromagnetic heating problems.
• Use the Loss Calculation subfeature under the Ampère’s Law or domain Coil or
Faraday’s Law or Magnetic Flux Conservation feature to compute the copper loss due
to the resistive heating or the iron loss due to the Hysteresis, eddy current and other
effects. The feature is available with both Time Dependent and Frequency Domain
studies. For Time Dependent studies, the loss calculation has to be used in
combination with the Time to Frequency Losses study step.

COMPUTING LOSSES | 145

 Modeling Losses in the Frequency Domain

DIELECTRIC LOSSES
For conductors with high conductivity, the main loss is the ohmic loss. For
low-conductivity materials such as insulators, the dielectric losses are usually modeled
in the frequency domain. Difference dielectric loss models are available in the
Constitutive Relation D-E section of the interface. The frequency domain equations
model dielectric losses with the complex permittivity, which is expressed as

 c =  0  ' – j'' 

where ' is the real part of r, and all losses (dielectric and conduction losses) are given
by ''. The dielectric loss model can also single out the losses from finite conductivity
(so that '' only represents dielectric losses) resulting in:


 c =  0  ' – j  --------- + '' 
   0 

The complex permittivity can also be introduced as a loss tangent:

 c =  0 '  1 – j tan  

where tan is called the loss tangent.

When specifying losses through a complex permittivity or a loss tangent,

conductivity is not allowed as an input (set to zero).

MAGNETIC LOSSES
The frequency domain equations allow for magnetic losses to be introduced as a
complex relative permeability.

 r =  ' – j'' 

where ' is the real part of r, and all magnetic losses are given by the imaginary part ''.

146 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

The complex relative permeability model is available as one of the Magnetization
models in the Constitutive Relation B-H section.

Even though the electromagnetic losses are sometimes modeled in the

frequency domain, it does not prevent you from performing a stationary
or time dependent study later. Instead, there are many preset study types
that can be used in different situations. Read this blog post for more
information: https://www.comsol.com/blogs/
which-study-type-should-i-use-for-my-electrothermal-analysis/

Model Examples — Electromagnetic Losses

There are a number of examples in the AC/DC Module Applications Libraries
showing how to compute electromagnetic losses in different situations.

The Electrical Heating in a Busbar with Terminals model demonstrates the usage
of current terminal to compute the resistive heating of a busbar.

The Inductive Heating of a Copper Cylinder model demonstrates how to compute

the inductive heating caused by eddy current and then use it as a heating source in a
transient study of heat transfer.

The Permanent Magnet Motor in 3D model demonstrates how to compute

electromagnetic losses in the magnets of a motor with the Time to Frequency Losses
study.

• Electrical Heating in a Busbar with Terminals: Application Library

path ACDC_Module/Introductory_Electric_Currents/busbar_terminal
• Inductive Heating of a Copper Cylinder: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Electromagnetic_Heating/inductive_heating
• Permanent Magnet Motor in 3D: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/pm_motor_3d

COMPUTING LOSSES | 147

 Computing Lumped Parameters
Lumped parameters are matrices describing electromagnetic properties such as
resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In the time-harmonic case the lumped
parameter matrix is either an impedance matrix or an admittance matrix depending on
how the model is excited (current or voltage). In a static calculation only the resistive,
capacitive, or inductive part of the lumped parameter matrix is obtained. This section
will also discuss lumped ports and S-parameters.

In this section:

• Calculating Lumped Parameters with Ohm’s Law

• Calculating Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method
• Studying Lumped Parameters
• Lumped Parameter Conversion
• Stationary Source Sweep
• About Lumped Ports
• Lumped Port Parameters
• S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field
• S-Parameter Calculations
• S-Parameter Variables
• Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

Calculating Lumped Parameters with Ohm’s Law

To calculate the lumped parameters, there must be at least two electrodes in the
system, one of which must be grounded. Either a voltage or a current can be forced
on the electrodes. After the simulation, extract the other property or the energy and
use it when calculating the lumped parameter.

There are several available techniques to extract the lumped parameters. Which one to
use depends on the physics interface, the parameter of interest, and how the model is
solved. The overview of the techniques in this section use a 4-by-4 matrix example for

148 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

the lumped parameter matrix. This represents a system of at least five electrodes, where
four are used as terminals and the rest are grounded, as illustrated in Figure 3-2.

V1 V3

Ground

V2 V4

Figure 3-2: A five-electrode system with 4 terminals and one ground electrode.

If a system specifies that all electrodes are terminals, the results are redundant matrix
elements. This is better understood by considering a two-electrode system. If both
electrodes are declared as terminals, a 2-by-2 matrix is obtained for the system. This is
clearly too many elements because there is only one unique lumped parameter between
the terminals. If in addition one or more ground electrodes are declared, the system
has three unique electrodes and the lumped parameter matrix becomes a 2-by-2
matrix.

FORCED VOLTAGE
If voltages are applied to the terminals, the extracted currents represent elements in the
admittance matrix, Y. This matrix determines the relation between the applied voltages
and the corresponding currents with the formula

I1 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 Y 14 V 1
I2 Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 Y 24 V 2
=
I4 Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 Y 34 V 3
I4 Y 41 Y 42 Y 43 Y 44 V 4

so when V1 is nonzero and all other voltages are zero, the vector I is proportional to
the first column of Y.

In electrostatics the current is replaced with charge and the admittance matrix is
replaced with the capacitance matrix

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 149

 Q1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 V 1
Q2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 V 2
=
Q4 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 V 3
Q4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 V 4

FIXED CURRENT
It might be necessary to calculate the Z-matrix in a more direct way. Similar to the Y
calculation, the Z calculation can be done by forcing the current through one terminal
at the time to a nonzero value while the others are set to zero. Then, the columns of
the impedance matrix are proportional to the voltage values on all terminals:

V1 Z 11 Z 12 Z 13 Z 14 I 1
V2 Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 Z 24 I 2
=
V3 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 Z 34 I 3
V4 Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 I 4

In magnetostatics this option means that the energy method is used; see Calculating
Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method below.

FIXED CHARGE
The Electrostatics interface can use total charge instead of total current. This gives the
inverted capacitance matrix in a similar manner as the Z and Y matrices.

–1
V1 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 Q1
V2 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 Q2
=
V3 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 Q4
V4 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 Q4

Calculating Lumped Parameters Using the Energy Method

When using this method the potential or the current is nonzero on one or two
terminals at a time and the energy density is extracted and integrated over the whole
geometry. The following formulas show how to calculate the capacitance matrix from
the integral of the electric energy density.

150 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

 2  0 ji
Vi 

C ii = ------2- W e d Vj = 
 Vi j = i

0 k  i j
1 Vi Vj 
= ------------ W e d – ---  ------ C + ------ C jj
1
C ij
Vi Vj  2 V j ii V i
Vk =  Vi

k = i

 Vj k = j

Calculate the inductance matrix in the same way from the magnetic energy density:

2 0 ji
Ii 

L ii = ----2- W m d Ij = 
 Ii j = i

0 k  i j
1 Ii Ij 
L ij = -------- W m d – ---  ---- L + ---- L 
1
Ii Ij  2 I j ii I i jj
Ik =  Ii

k = i

 Ij k = j

This is the technique used when Fixed current is selected.

Studying Lumped Parameters

To study lumped parameters, use the terminal boundary or domain condition for each
electrode. This condition is available in the following interfaces and the methods
described in the previous section are used to calculate the lumped parameters:

• Electrostatics. Uses a stationary study and the energy method.

• Electric Currents. Uses a stationary or frequency domain study type using the
method based on Ohm’s law.
• Magnetic and Electric Fields (only available as boundary condition and only when
the electric potential is one of the dependent variables). For the stationary study the
energy method is used. For the Frequency Domain study type, the method based
on Ohm’s law is used.
• Magnetic Fields, Currents Only. Use the preset Stationary Source Sweep with
Initialization study to compute lumped inductance and resistance matrices.

The lumped parameters are defined as global variables. Evaluate these from the Derived
Values node under Results in the Model Builder or define 1D plot groups.

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 151

 SWEEP SETTINGS AND TOUCHSTONE EXPORT
In the main node of the physics interface, activate a sweep to loop the excitation over
the terminals in the model and calculate a lumped parameter matrix. For frequency
domain models there is also an inner loop with a frequency sweep for each terminal
and the lumped parameters are exported to a Touchstone file. The generated lumped
parameters are in the form of an impedance or admittance matrix depending on the
terminal settings. They must consistently be of either fixed voltage (for an admittance
matrix) or fixed current type (for an impedance matrix).

ACCURACY
Use reaction terms to be accurate when calculating the total current over the
boundary. This is necessary for the forced voltage input property. The reaction terms
(representing current or charge density) come from default information stored in the
solution, which gives an exact calculation of the total fluxes on boundaries with
constraints. They do not change the system of equations in any way — no special solver
settings are required. The reaction terms are also stored by default. It is recommended
to use forced voltage input property with reaction terms in the extraction of the
lumped parameters. Lumped parameter variables based on voltage excitation are only
available when reaction fluxes are included in the output. The optional current
excitation performs a coupling that guarantees that the total current is equal to the
specified value, although one cannot verify this without using reaction terms.

Lumped Parameter Conversion

When the impedance matrix, Z, or the admittance matrix, Y, is available it is possible
to calculate all other types of lumped parameter matrices from the relations below.

–1
S = G ref   E –  Z ref  Y     E + Z ref  Y   G ref ,
–1

–1 Im  Z  Im  Y 
Z = Y , L = ----------------- , C = ----------------- ,
 
R = Re  Z , G = Re  Y 

where L is the inductance, C is the capacitance, R is the resistance, and G is the

conductance. S is the S-parameter. The relations also include the following matrices

1 0 0 0
E = 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

152 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

 Z ref = E  Z 0
1
G ref = E  ------------------------------
2 Re  Z 0 

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance.

For capacitance matrix calculations special transformations are available to obtain the
mutual or SPICE capacitance matrix from the basic output from the solver. The latter
is, for voltage excitation the so called Maxwell capacitance matrix and, for charge
excitation the inverse Maxwell capacitance matrix. The Maxwell capacitance values,
terminal charges, and terminal voltages are linked by the following matrix relation:

Q1 C 11 C 12 C 13 V 1
Q 2 = C 21 C 22 C 23 V 2 (3-13)
Q3 C 31 C 32 C 33 V 3

where Q is charge, V is voltage, and C is the Maxwell capacitance matrix.

In order to analyze the response of a device, it is more common to use the form of a
mutual capacitance matrix. The mutual capacitance matrix can be converted from the
Maxwell capacitance matrix:

C m11 C m12 C m13

C m21 C m22 C m23 = (3-14)
C m31 C m32 C m33

C M11 + C M12 + C M13 – C M12 – C M13

– C M21 C M21 + C M22 + C M23 – C M23
– C M31 – C M32 C M31 + C M32 + C M33

where CMij are elements of the Maxwell capacitance matrix and Cmij are elements of
the mutual capacitance matrix.

The basic steps of this conversion are:

1 Set each diagonal element of the mutual capacitance matrix to the sum of the
corresponding row elements of the Maxwell capacitance matrix (that is, to get Cm11,
sum CM1j for all j).
2 Reverse the sign of all of the off-diagonal elements in the Maxwell capacitance
matrix to get the corresponding mutual capacitance matrix elements.

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 153

 This conversion can also be used to transform resistance and conductance matrices
obtained from the Electric Currents physics. In that context the output resistance matrix
corresponds to the inverse Maxwell capacitance matrix, electrode currents correspond
to charges and the mutual or SPICE conductance matrix corresponds to the mutual or
SPICE capacitance matrix.

You can compute conversions between the various matrices (Z, Y, S, CMax, Cmut) in a
results table using the Settings window for the Global Matrix Evaluation node, which you
can add under Results>Derived Values.

Global Matrix Evaluation in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Stationary Source Sweep

For the Electrostatics, the Electrostatics, Boundary Elements and the Electric Currents
interfaces there is a special study step for efficient calculation of capacitance and
resistance matrices respectively. The Stationary Source Sweep ( ) identifies all
terminals (domain or boundary) in the model and excites them one at a time using a
fixed charge or current (overriding the settings on the Terminal features). While one
Terminal is excited, the others will be floating with zero net charge/current.

To get a proper matrix definition, at least one Ground node should be

specified in the model. This is particularly important as the Stationary
Source Sweep does not add any constraint on the electric potential.

Matrix Output
The resulting potential values at the terminals are used to extract one of the lumped
matrices according to the following table.

PHYSICS BASE LUMPED PARAMETER MATRIX

Electrostatics & Inverse Maxwell capacitance matrix

Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Electric Currents Resistance matrix

During postprocessing, other matrices can be produced via the Global Matrix
Evaluation. The settings for Global Matrix Evaluation has a Transformation section that

154 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

allows for the output of the Maxwell capacitance matrix or the mutual capacitance
matrix.

If the Generate default plots check box on the Study node is enabled,
default Global Matrix Evaluation nodes for matrix output are generated.

Solver Selection
The Stationary Source Sweep is optimized for solution speed. It works best with a
direct solver as the LU decomposition has to be performed only once, followed by
back substitution for the multiple source excitations (multiple right-hand sides). For
3D models, the Stationary Source Sweep generates both an iterative and a direct solver.
The former will be selected if the model is having a large number of elements; that is,
a number that is above a built-in threshold. For hardware with sufficiently large RAM,
it is recommended to manually switch to the direct solver.

For 3D models involving the Electrostatics, Boundary Elements physics,

direct solvers scale poorly with problem size so some caution is
recommended.

Voltage Output
With unit charge feeding the absolute value of the electric potential is difficult to
predict. For this reason there is an auxiliary global variable — for example,
es.VexcTerm — that represents the value of potential of the excited terminal. The
default potential plots will typically show the electric potential scaled by this value.

Compatibility with Other Study Types

Combining the Stationary Source Sweep with the Parametric Sweep study node should
only be done after careful consideration. If you need to perform more general
parameter sweeps, it is often more appropriate to activate the manual terminal sweep
in the settings of the main physics node and set up Parametric Sweeps manually. Other
study nodes will work with Stationary Source Sweep as it was a standard Stationary
(parametric) study. In particular, this is valid also for Optimization and Sensitivity
studies.

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 155

 About Lumped Ports
Lumped ports are used to model a connecting transmission line or as a voltage or
current source applied between electrodes. For example, apply a lumped port directly
to a printed circuit board or to the transmission line feed of a device. The lumped port
must be applied between two metallic objects separated by a distance much smaller
than the wavelength, that is a local quasi-static approximation must be justified. This
is because the concept of port or gap voltage breaks down unless the gap is much
smaller than the local wavelength.

A lumped port specified as an input port calculates the impedance, Zport, and S11
S-parameter for that port. The parameters are directly given by the relations

V port
Z port = -------------
I port
V port – V in
S 11 = ----------------------------
V in

where Vport is the extracted voltage for the port given by the electric field line integral
between the terminals averaged over the entire port. The current Iport is the averaged
total current over all cross sections parallel to the terminals. Ports not specified as input
ports only return the extracted voltage and current.

Lumped Port Parameters

Lumped Port Parameters

In transmission line theory voltages and currents are dealt with rather than electric and
magnetic fields, so the lumped port provides an interface between them. The
requirement on a lumped port is that the feed point must be similar to a transmission
line feed, so its gap must be much less than the wavelength. It is then possible to define
the electric field from the voltage as

V =  E  dl =   E  ah  dl
h h

156 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

where h is a line between the terminals at the beginning of the transmission line, and
the integration is going from positive (phase) V to ground. The current is positive
going into the terminal at positive V.

I
+V
Js E h
Ground

n
Lumped port boundary

The transmission line current can be represented with a surface current at the lumped
port boundary directed opposite to the electric field.

The impedance of a transmission line is defined as

V
Z = ----
I

and in analogy to this an equivalent surface impedance is defined at the lumped port
boundary

E  ah
 = -------------------------
Js   –ah 

To calculate the surface current density from the current, integrate along the width, w,
of the transmission line

I =   n  Js   dl = –   Js  ah  dl
w w

where the integration is taken in the direction of ah × n. This gives the following
relation between the transmission line impedance and the surface impedance


 E  a h  dl   E  a h  dl
V h
Z = ---- = ----------------------------------- =  ------------------------------   ---- 
h h
I w

–  J s  a h  dl   E  a h  dl
w w
w
 = Z ----
h

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 157

 where the last approximation assumed that the electric field is constant over the
integrations. A similar relationship can be derived for coaxial cables

2
 = Z ----------
b
ln ---
a

The transfer equations above are used in an impedance type boundary condition,
relating surface current density to tangential electric field via the surface impedance.

1 1
n   H 1 – H 2  + --- n   E  n  = 2 --- n   E 0  n 
 

where E is the total field and E0 the incident field, corresponding to the total voltage,
V, and incident voltage, V0, at the port.

When using the lumped port as a circuit port, the port voltage is fed as
input to the circuit and the current computed by the circuit is applied as
a uniform current density, that is as a surface current condition. Thus, an
open (unconnected) circuit port is just a continuity condition.

S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field

Scattering parameters (or S-parameters) are complex-valued, frequency dependent
matrices describing the transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves at
different ports of devices like filters, antennas, waveguide transitions, and transmission
lines. S-parameters originate from transmission-line theory and are defined in terms of
transmitted and reflected voltage waves. All ports are assumed to be connected to
matched loads/feeds, that is, there is no reflection directly at a port.

For a device with n ports, the S-parameters are

S 11 S 12 . . S 1n
S 21 S 22 . . .
S = . . . . .
. . . . .
S n1 . . . S nn

158 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

where S11 is the voltage reflection coefficient at port 1, S21 is the voltage transmission
coefficient from port 1 to port 2, and so on. The time average power reflection/
transmission coefficients are obtained as |Sij |2.

Now, for high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is

necessary to define the scattering parameters in terms of the electric field.

For details on how COMSOL Multiphysics calculates the S-parameters,

see S-Parameter Calculations.

S-Parameter Calculations
The AC/DC interfaces have built-in support for S-parameter calculations. For
connecting transmission lines and other lumped feeds, use a lumped port that
approximates a connecting transmission lines or a voltage source with a known internal
impedance. The lumped port should only be used when the port width is much smaller
than the wavelength. In the Electric Currents and Electrostatics interfaces, use the
terminal feature with the terminated setting to approximate a connecting
transmission line or a voltage source with a known internal impedance. For a terminal
the voltage measurement is always with respect to ground so at least one ground
feature is also required in the model.

• For more details about lumped ports, see About Lumped Ports.
• See Lumped Port for instructions to set up a model.

S-Parameter Variables
This module automatically generates variables for the S-parameters. The port names
(use numbers for sweeps to work correctly) determine the variable names. If, for
example, there are two lumped ports with the numbers 1 and 2 and Lumped Port 1 is
the inport, the software generates the variables S11 and S21. S11 is the S-parameter
for the reflected wave and S21 is the S-parameter for the transmitted wave. For
convenience, two variables for the S-parameters on a dB scale, S11dB and S21dB, are
also defined using the following relation:

S 11dB = 20 log 10  S 11 

COMPUTING LUMPED PARAMETERS | 159

 The model and physics interface names also appear in front of the variable names so
they can vary. The S-parameter variables are added to the predefined quantities in
appropriate plot lists.

Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

The Port Sweep Settings in the Magnetic Fields interface, Input Sweep Settings in the
Magnetic and Electric Fields interface, Manual Terminal Sweep Settings section in the
Electrostatics interface and the Manual Terminal Sweep Settings section in the Electric
Currents interface describe how to cycle through the ports and terminals, compute the
entire S-matrix and export it to a Touchstone file. It is also possible to choose to export
impedance (Z) or admittance (Y) matrices instead.

160 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Connecting to Electrical Circuits
In this section:

• About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

• Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings
• Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings
• Solving
• Postprocessing

Inductor in an Amplifier Circuit: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Electromagnetics_and_Circuits/inductor_in_circuit

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

This section describes the various ways electrical circuits can be connected to other
physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics. If you are not familiar with circuit
modeling, it is recommended that you review the Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface.

In general electrical circuits connect to other physics interfaces via one or more of three
special circuit features:

• External I vs. U
• External U vs. I
• External I-Terminal

In the AC/DC Module, the physics features supporting the connection to an electrical
circuit are the Terminal and Floating Potential features in electric field interfaces and the
Coil and Lumped Port features in magnetic field interfaces.

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 161

 These features either accept a voltage measurement from the connecting noncircuit
physics interface and return a current from an Electrical Circuit interface or the other
way around.

The “External” features are considered “ideal” current or voltage sources

by the Electrical Circuit interface. Hence, you cannot connect them
directly in parallel (voltage sources) or in series (current sources) with
other ideal sources. This results in the error message The DAE is
structurally inconsistent. A workaround is to provide a suitable parallel
or series resistor, which can be tuned to minimize its influence on the
results.

Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings

In addition to these circuit features, interfaces in the AC/DC Module, RF Module,
MEMS Module, Plasma Module, and Semiconductor Module (the modules that
include the Electrical Circuit interface) also contain features that provide couplings to
the Electrical Circuit interface by accepting a voltage or a current from one of the
specific circuit features (External I vs. U, External U vs. I, and External I-Terminal).

This coupling is typically activated when:

• A choice is made in the Settings window for the noncircuit physics interface feature,
which then announces (that is, includes) the coupling to the Electrical Circuit
interface. Its voltage or current is then included to make it visible to the connecting
circuit feature.
• A voltage or current that has been announced (that is, included) is selected in a
feature node’s Settings window.

These circuit connections are supported in Terminals and Coils.

Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings

A more general way to connect a physics interface to the Electrical Circuit interface is
to:

• Apply the voltage or current from the connecting “External” circuit feature as an
excitation in the noncircuit physics interface.

162 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

• Define your own voltage or current measurement in the noncircuit physics interface
using variables, coupling operators and so forth.
• In the Settings window for the Electrical Circuit interface feature, selecting the
User-defined option and entering the name of the variable or expression using
coupling operators defined in the previous step.

DETERMINING A CURRENT OR VOLTAGE VARIABLE NAME

To determine a current or voltage variable name, look at the Dependent Variables node
under the Study node. To do this:

1 In the Model Builder, right-click the Study node and select Show Default Solver.
2 Expand the Solver>Dependent Variables node and click the state node, in this
example, Current through device R1 (comp1.currents). The variable name is shown in
the Settings window for State.

Typically, voltage variables are named cir.Xn_v and current variables

cir.Xn_i, where n is the “External” device number — 1, 2, and so on.

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 163

 Solving

Some modeling errors lead to the error message The DAE is structurally
inconsistent being displayed when solving. This error typically occurs
from having an open current loop, from connecting voltage sources in
parallel, or connecting current sources in series.

In this respect, the predefined coupling features are also treated as (ideal)
voltage or current sources. The remedy is to close current loops and to
connect resistors in series with voltage sources or in parallel with current
sources.

Postprocessing
The Electrical Circuits interface, unlike most of the other physics interfaces, solves for
a relatively large number of global dependent variables (such as voltages and currents),
instead of solving for a few space-varying fields (such as temperature or displacement).
For this reason, the Electrical Circuit interface does not provide default plots when
computing a study.

The physics interface defines a number of variables that can be used in postprocessing.
All variables defined by the Electrical Circuit interface are of a global scope, and can
be evaluated in a Global Evaluation node (under Derived Values). In addition, the time
evolution or dependency on a parameter can be plotted in a Global plot (under a 1D
Plot Group node).

The physics interface defines a Node voltage variable for each electrical node in the
circuit, with name cir.v_name, where cir is the physics interface Label and <name>
is the node Name. For each two-pin component, the physics interface also defines
variables containing the voltage across it and the current flowing through it.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Derived Values, Evaluation Groups, and Tables and Global Evaluation

• Plot Groups and Plots and Global

164 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

Part Libraries
In electromagnetics simulations, the studied devices might have complex geometry,
such as motors. In the AC/DC Module, such complex geometry can be conveniently
built using the Part Library.

The Part Library contains the following categories:

• Homogenized Multiturn Coils

• Magnetic Cores
• Rotating Machinery 2D
• Single Conductor Coils

The parts are built from partially parameterized sequences of geometry instructions.
For example, you can load the surface_mounted_magnet_internal_rotor_2d part
into a model and then specify the number of magnetic poles in rotor, the diameter of
the shaft, and so on.

For an example, see Permanent Magnet Motor in 2D: Application

Library path ACDC_Module/Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/
pm_motor_2d_introduction

Part Libraries in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PART LIBRARIES | 165

 Material Libraries
The AC/DC materials library contains a number of materials that assist in modeling
electromagnetic components such as actuators, motors, loudspeakers, generators, and
so on. Two branches of material, AC/DC ( ) and Nonlinear Magnetic ( ) in the
Material Library ( ), are frequently used. The AC/DC branch includes typical materials
for electromagnetics modeling and the Nonlinear Magnetic branch includes nonlinear
magnetization curves for a large set of ferromagnetic alloys.

For detailed information about Materials including the AC/DC Material

Library and Nonlinear Magnetic Materials Library, see the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Liquid Metals folder of the AC/DC Material Library contains values of the
Thermal conductivity, Electrical conductivity, Dynamic viscosity, and Density for
liquid Titanium, Steel, Iron, Nickel, Copper, Aluminum, Magnesium, Tin, Lithium,
Sodium, Wood’s metal, Potassium, Gallium, NaK (Sodium-potassium eutectic), and
Mercury based on the book Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics by
P.A. Davidson, published by Cambridge University Press. Copyright (c) P.A. Davidson
2017. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press through PLSclear.

The AC/DC Material Library also contains the material property data from the
following company’s products:

BOMATEC
NdFeB standard grades2 (–, M, H, SH, UH, EH, AH, BH, /S, M/S, H/S, SH/S,
UH/S, EH/S, AH/S, BH/S, H/ST, SH/ST, UH/ST, EH/ST, AH/ST, BH/ST),
NdFeB (bonded, injection molded, and extruded), Ferrite (isotropic, anisotropic, and
injection molded), SmCo (injection molded), SmFeN (injection molded),
SmCo5 grades, Sm2Co17 grades, and AlNiCo (cast and sintered).

The foregoing materials are the property of BOMATEC AG. For product information
concerning such materials, see https://www.bomatec.com/en/products/. For other
questions concerning such materials, please contact [email protected] or
www.bomatec.com/en/contact/.

2. Here, the hyphen “–” refers to “normal” grades not having a particular suffix.

166 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE AC/DC MODULE

 4

Electric Field and Current Interfaces

This chapter summarizes the functionality of the electric field and current
interfaces found under the Electric Fields and Currents folder under the AC/DC branch
( ). The AC/DC Module enhances the Electrostatics and Electric Currents
interfaces included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics® license.

In this chapter:

• The Electrostatics Interface

• The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface
• The Electric Currents Interface
• The Electric Currents in Shells Interface
• The Electric Currents in Layered Shells Interface
• The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface
• The Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface

167
 The Electrostatics Interface
The Electrostatics (es) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC>Electric Fields and
Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the electric field,
electric displacement field, and potential distributions in dielectrics under conditions
where the electric charge distribution is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is
stationary except for when it is used together with other physics interfaces.
Eigenfrequency, frequency-domain, small-signal analysis, and time-domain modeling
are supported in all space dimensions.

The physics interface solves Gauss’ law for the electric field using the scalar electric
potential as the dependent variable.

Charge Conservation is the main node, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and has a Settings window for defining the constitutive relation for the
electric displacement field and its associated properties such as the relative permittivity.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Charge Conservation, Zero Charge (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and space charges. You can also right-click Electrostatics
to select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

168 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is es.

CROSS-SECTION AREA (1D COMPONENTS)

For 1D components, enter a default value for the Cross-section area A (SI unit: m2).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin domain. Instead it
describes a unit thickness that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used
for 3D components. See also Change Cross Section.

THICKNESS (2D COMPONENTS)

For 2D components, enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium, for
example. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components. See also Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane).

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific
name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep.
The Sweep parameter name must also be declared as a model parameter. The default is
PortName.

The generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance matrix elements. The
terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. Select a Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export —
Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and
imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create
new. Create new is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Select a Parameter to export: Z (the default), Y, or S.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 169

 From the Home toolbar add a Parameters node and enter the chosen name and assign
to it a temporary Expression of unity into the Parameters table. You can also right-click
Global Definitions to add the node.

Only a temporary expression needs to be entered at this stage. During the

analysis process, the solver assigns a proper value to this parameter. The
generated lumped parameters are in the form of capacitance matrix
elements. The terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Electric potential V. You can change its name, which
changes both the field name and the variable name. If the new name coincides with the
name of another electric potential field in the model, the physics interfaces shares
degrees of freedom. The new name must not coincide with the name of a field of
another type or with a component name belonging to some other field.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

170 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 • Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electrostatics
Interface
• Theory for the Electrostatics Interface

Electric Sensor: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/electric_sensor

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electrostatics Interface
The Electrostatics interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available.

ABOUT THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The relevant physics interface condition at interfaces between different media is

n2   D1 – D2  = s

In the absence of surface charges, this condition is fulfilled by the natural boundary
condition

n     0 V – P  1 –   0 V – P  2  = – n   D 1 – D 2  = 0

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users). Also see Table 4-1 for a list of interior and exterior
boundary conditions, including edge, point, and pair availability.

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 171

 • Archie’s Law • Ground
• Change Cross Section • Initial Values
• Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) • Line Charge
• Charge Conservation • Line Charge (on Axis)
1,2
• Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric • Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)
• Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric2,3 • Periodic Condition
• Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) • Point Charge
• Dispersion • Point Charge (on Axis)
• Dielectric Shielding • Space Charge Density
• Distributed Capacitance • Surface Charge Density
• Effective Medium • Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)
• Electric Displacement Field • Terminal
• Electric Potential • Thin Low Permittivity Gap
• Electrostatic Point Dipole • Zero Charge (the default boundary
• External Surface Charge Accumulation condition)

• Floating Potential
• Force Calculation
1
This feature is available with the Piezoelectricity multiphysics interface.
2Requires either the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, or Structural Mechanics

Module.
3
This feature is available with the Ferroelectroelasticity multiphysics interface.

Table 4-1 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface. It also includes edge, point, and pair availability.
TABLE 4-1: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

Change Cross Section x x pairs

Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) x x pairs
Dielectric Shielding x x pairs
Distributed Capacitance x pairs
Electric Displacement Field x x pairs

172 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

TABLE 4-1: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

Electric Potential x x edges, points, and pairs

External Surface Charge x pairs
Accumulation
Floating Potential x x pairs
Ground x x edges, points, and pairs
Periodic Condition x not applicable
Surface Charge Density x x pairs
Symmetry Plane x not applicable
Terminal x x domains
Thin Low Permittivity Gap x not applicable
Zero Charge (the default) x x pairs

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the model that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only. There are also Line Charge (on Axis) and Point Charge (on
Axis) available.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Charge Conservation
The Charge Conservation node adds the equations for charge conservation according to
Gauss’ law for the electric displacement field. It provides an interface for defining the
constitutive relation and its associated properties such as the relative permittivity.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 173

 evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

Select a Dielectric model to describe the macroscopic properties of the medium
(relating the electric displacement D with the electric field E) and the applicable
material properties, such as the relative permittivity. Select:

• Relative permittivity (the default) to use the constitutive relation D0rE. Then
the default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. The default is 1. If Effective medium is selected, the
Effective Medium subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
• Polarization to use the constitutive relation D0E  P. Then enter the components
based on space dimension for the Polarization vector P (SI unit: C/m2). The
defaults are 0 C/m2.
• Remanent electric displacement to use constitutive relation D0rE  Dr, where Dr
is the remanent displacement (the displacement when no electric field is present).
Then the default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From
material. For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter
values or expressions in the field or matrix. Then enter the components based on
space dimension for the Remanent electric displacement Dr (SI unit: C/m2). The
defaults are 0 C/m2.
• Dielectric losses to use the constitutive relation D  0'  j"E. Specify that the
Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and the Relative permittivity
(imaginary part) " (dimensionless) must be taken From material or be User defined.
For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. The default is 1.
• Ferroelectric to use the constitutive relation D0E Dr P(E), where Dr is the
remanent electric displacement, and the polarization vector is P calculated from the

174 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 electric field using a nonlinear relation of ferroelectricity with possible saturation
and hysteresis. This option is available when the Material type is set to Solid.

Ferroelectricity

• Dispersion to use the constitutive relation D0E  PE rS, where the
polarization vector is calculated from the electric field using the dielectric dispersion
model. This option is available when the Material type is set to Solid. You enter the
Relative permittivity rS (dimensionless) values From material. For User defined,
select Isotropic, Diagonal, or Symmetric and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. This value of electric permittivity will be used in stationary study, for which
the polarization vector is calculated as P0rS  E.

Once this option is selected, a subnode Dispersion will become available

under the Charge Conservation node. At that subnode, you can select the
dispersion model, enter the corresponding parameters, and chose how the
relative permittivity input on the parent node will be interpreted in
Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain and Time Dependent studies.

Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

This feature requires either the Acoustics Module, or MEMS Module, or

Structural Mechanics Module. See the individual documentation for
information.

The Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic) subnode to Charge Conservation allows you to

model possible conductive losses in a dielectric material. The effect is only active in an
Eigenfrequency or Frequency Domain study.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 175

 CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity  for the media is defined From material. You can
also select User defined or Linearized resistivity.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions for
the Electrical conductivity  in the field or matrix.
• For Linearized resistivity the default Reference temperature Tref, and Resistivity
temperature coefficient , and Reference resistivity 0 are taken From material, which
means that the values are taken from the domain (or boundary) material. T is the
current temperature, which can be a value that is specified as a model input or the
temperature from a heat transfer interface. The definition of the temperature field
appears in the Model Inputs section.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Electrostatics>Charge Conservation>Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

Ribbon
Physics tab with Charge Conservation node selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Conduction Loss (Time-Harmonic)

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential V that can serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default value is 0 V.

Space Charge Density

The Space Charge Density node adds a space charge density , which appears on the
right-hand side of the equation that the physics interface defines.

176 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

SPACE CHARGE DENSITY
Enter a value or expression for the Space charge density v(SI unit: C/m3). The default
is 0 C/m3.

Force Calculation
Use the Force Calculation node to define globally available force and torque variables
for the selected domains. Force Calculation is also available and defined for the Magnetic
Fields, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Magnetic Field Formulation, and Rotating Machinery,
Magnetic interfaces.

FORCE CALCULATION
Enter a Force name, which is then appended to global variables. The method used to
compute forces and torques is integration of the Maxwell’s stress tensor over the
exterior surfaces of the set of domains. This feature also gives access to the normal
component of the Maxwell stress tensor on the external surfaces. For the Magnetic
Fields, Magnetic and Electric Fields, and Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interfaces, the force
calculation includes both electric and magnetic forces. The computed force is made
available as a global vector variable with name <name>.Force<component>_<force
name>, where <name> is the Name of the physics interface.

Enter a direction vector for the Torque axis rax and coordinates for the Torque rotation
point r0. A torque calculation about a given point (Torque rotation point) is made and
defined as a global vector variable, <name>.T<component>_<force name>. The
resulting torque component parallel to the given Torque axis is given as a global scalar
variable, typically <name>.Tax_<force name>.

In frequency domain studies, the cycle-averaged force and torque variables are also
defined, with names <name>.Forceav<component>_<force name>,
<name>.Tav<component>_<force name> and <name>.Taxav_<force name>. The
variables described are still defined and represent the instantaneous force and torque.

• In 2D axisymmetry, the radial component of the total force is set to

zero, as this is an intrinsic property of the used symmetry.
• In small-signal analysis studies, no cycle-average variables are defined.
Use the additional plot settings for the Harmonic Perturbation on the
instantaneous variables to compute the quantities of interest. See
Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal
Analysis in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 177

 For more information on calculation of forces and torques, see
Computing Forces and Torques.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

The Compute both instantaneous and cycle-averaged variables in frequency domain check
box is selected by default. The check box controls which variables are defined by the
Force Calculation feature in frequency-domain studies. When selected (the default
setting in new models), the variables are defined as described above. This check box
selected by default for backward compatibility. If the check box is cleared, only the
cycle-averaged variables are computed, replicating the behavior of the Force
Calculation feature in version 4.3 and earlier. The check box is cleared in existing Force
Calculation features when opening models created in version 4.3 and earlier.

Zero Charge
The Zero Charge node adds the condition that there is zero charge on the boundary so
that n D  0. This boundary condition is also applicable at symmetry boundaries
where the potential is known to be symmetric with respect to the boundary. This is the
default boundary condition at exterior boundaries. At interior boundaries, it means
that no displacement field can penetrate the boundary and that the electric potential is
discontinuous across the boundary.

Ground
The Ground node implements ground (zero potential) as the boundary condition
V = 0.

Ground means that there is a zero potential on the boundary. This boundary condition
is also applicable at symmetry boundaries where the potential is known to be
antisymmetric with respect to the boundary.

For some physics interfaces, also select additional Ground nodes from the Edges (3D
components) or Points (2D and 3D components) submenus. For 2D axisymmetric
components, it can be applied on the Symmetry axis.

178 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

BOUNDARY, EDGE, OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on

points in 2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Electric Potential
The Electric Potential node provides an electric potential V0 as the boundary condition
V = V0.

Because the electric potential is being solved for in the physics interface, the value of
the potential is typically defined at some part of the geometry. For some physics
interfaces, also select additional Electric Potential nodes from the Edges (3D
components) or Points (2D and 3D components) submenus. For 2D axisymmetric
components, it can be applied on the symmetry axis.

BOUNDARY, EDGE, OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points in 3D or on

points in 2D usually yields a current outflow that is mesh dependent.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Enter the value or expression for the Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is
0 V.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Surface Charge Density

The Surface Charge Density node provides the following surface-charge boundary
condition for exterior boundaries (left) and interior boundaries (right):

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 179

 –n  D = s , n   D1 – D2  = s

Specify the surface charge density s at an outer boundary or at an interior boundary

between two nonconducting media.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information, see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY

Enter the value or expression for the Surface charge density s (SI unit: C/m2).

External Surface Charge Accumulation

The External Surface Charge Accumulation node implements the boundary condition

–n  D = s

where s is the solution of the following distributed ODE on the boundary:

d s
= n  Ji + n  Je
dt

where n·Ji is the normal component of the total ion current density on the wall and
n·Je is the normal component of the total electron current density on the wall, which
are feature inputs.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

EXTERNAL SURFACE CHARGE ACCUMULATION

Enter values or expressions for the Normal ion current density n·Ji (SI unit: A/m2)
sand the Normal electron current density n·Je (SI unit: A/m2).

180 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)
The Symmetry Plane node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry or
antisymmetry in the electric field, depending on which option is chosen.

SYMMETRY TYPE
Choose between Symmetry and Antisymmetry for the electric field. If Symmetry is
chosen, the boundary condition is

nE = 0

which states that the normal component of the electric field is zero. If Antisymmetry is
chosen, the boundary condition becomes

nE = 0

which states that the tangential component of the electric field is zero.

Dielectric Shielding Comparison: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Electrostatics/dielectric_shielding_comparison

Electric Displacement Field

The Electric Displacement Field node adds the following electric-displacement
boundary condition:

n  D = n  D0

It specifies the normal component of the electric displacement field at a boundary.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD

Enter the coordinates of the Boundary electric displacement field D0 (SI unit: C/m2).

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node defines periodicity or antiperiodicity between two
boundaries. If required, activate periodic conditions on more than two boundaries, in
which case the Periodic Condition tries to identify two separate surfaces that can each
consist of several connected boundaries. For more complex geometries, it might be
necessary to use the Destination Selection section, which you activate by right-clicking
the Periodic Condition node and select Manual Destination Selection. With that section,

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 181

 the boundaries which constitute the source and destination surfaces can be manually
specified.

When this feature is used in conjunction with a Sector Symmetry feature

on connected boundaries, wherever the sector symmetry boundaries
connect with the periodic boundaries, the same periodic condition feature
cannot be used on both sides. At least two periodic condition features are
required for the model to compute correctly.

BOUNDARY SELECTION

The software usually automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries, as indicated in the selection list. This works fine for cases like opposing
parallel boundaries. In other cases, right-click Periodic Condition and select Manual Destination
Selection to control the destination. By default it contains the selection that COMSOL
Multiphysics identifies.

When using nonconforming meshes on the source and destination of a periodic

boundary pair, for numerical stability, a finer mesh should be applied on the
destination side. Use conforming meshes if possible.

DESTINATION SELECTION
This section is available for specifying the destination boundaries, if needed, when the
Manual Destination Selection option is selected in the context menu for the Periodic
Condition node. You can only select destination boundaries from the union of all source
and destination boundaries.

PERIODIC CONDITION
Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, or Floquet
periodicity. Select:

• Continuity to make the potential periodic (equal on the source and destination).
• Antiperiodicity to make it antiperiodic.
• Floquet periodicity (only available with products supporting piezoelectric modeling).
Specify the components of the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit: rad/m).

182 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ORIENTATION OF DESTINATION
This section appears if the setting for Transform to intermediate map in the Orientation
of Source section is changed from the default value, Automatic, and Advanced Physics
Options is selected in the Show More Options dialog box. For information about the
Orientation of Destination section, see Orientation of Source and Destination in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Thin Low Permittivity Gap

Use the Thin Low Permittivity Gap node

0 r
n  D 1 = ----------  V 1 – V 2 
d
0 r
n  D 2 = ----------  V 2 – V 1 
d

to model a thin gap of a material with a small permittivity compared to the adjacent
domains. The layer has the thickness d and the relative permittivity r. The indices 1
and 2 refer to the two sides of the boundary.

THIN LOW PERMITTIVITY GAP

The default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
For User defined, enter a different value or expression. Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default is 5 mm.

Thin Low Permittivity Gap Comparison: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Introductory_Electrostatics/
thin_low_permittivity_gap_comparison

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 183

 Dielectric Shielding
The Dielectric Shielding node adds dielectric shielding as a boundary condition. It
describes a thin layer with thickness ds and a bulk relative permittivity r that shields
the electric field:

n  D = –  t   0  rs d s tV

Use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a boundary to
reduce the number of mesh elements.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

ELECTRIC SHIELDING
The default is to take the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) values From material.
It takes it from the adjacent domains if not explicitly defined. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. Enter a Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m) of the shielding. The default is 1 m.

For a dielectric shielding example, see Dielectric Shielding Comparison:

Application Library path ACDC_Module/Introductory_Electrostatics/
dielectric_shielding_comparison.

184 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or charge. By
specifying zero charge, a floating potential condition is obtained.

In most cases, it is not recommended to include the interior of good

conductors in the simulation. When using the Terminal on the domain
level, the interior unknowns for the electric potential are automatically
replaced by a single constant, thus avoiding numerical problems arising
from a very high material contrast. If one instead uses the Terminal on the
boundary level, it is recommended to exclude the interior of the
associated conductor from the domain selection for the main
Electrostatics node.

An operation called Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the parent

node. The operation is useful when there are several terminal domains or boundaries
that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will automatically
generate several Terminal nodes where each selection is geometrically connected.

The Terminal node also enables the computation of the lumped parameters of the
system, such as capacitance. See Computing Lumped Parameters.

TERMINAL
Specify the terminal properties. Enter a unique Terminal name that will be used to
identify the global variables (such as the terminal voltage or current) that are defined
by the terminal. The Terminal name can contain alphanumeric characters, but it should
be numeric when performing terminal sweeps.

Select a Terminal type — Charge (the default), Voltage, Circuit, or Terminated. Select:

• Charge to prescribe the total charge deposited on the terminal boundaries. Enter the
total charge Q0. The default is 0 C, which corresponds to a uncharged floating
electrode.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 185

 • Voltage to specify a fixed electric potential at the terminal. Enter an electric potential
V0. The default is 1 V.

To correctly calculate the terminal charge and the corresponding

capacitances, if Voltage Terminal is used on boundaries between The
Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Interface, let the dependent variable for The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface be the same as the dependent variable for The
Electrostatics Interface and disable Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling. How to set the name for the dependent variable is described in
the Dependent Variables section. Since the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is disabled, add manually a Fully Coupled node to the
Stationary Solver below the Solution node in the Solver Configurations.

• Circuit to specify a terminal connected to an Electrical Circuit physics interface that

models an external circuit. The Terminal node provides a current-voltage
characteristic to the circuit.

The Electrical Circuit Interface requires a current from the Terminal, so

the Circuit terminal type can only be used in Time Dependent or
Frequency Domain studies, in which the current can be computed as the
time derivative of the charge.

The Circuit type cannot be used together with a terminal sweep.

• Terminated to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent a load or

a transmission line. When Terminated is selected, the scattering parameters
(S-parameters) are computed. The Terminated setting can only be used in
frequency-domain studies.
- Enter a Terminal power P0 to specify the input power at this terminal from the
transmission line. This excitation can be toggled using a port sweep.
- Select an option from the Characteristic impedance from list to define the value of
the impedance — Physics interface or User defined. For Physics interface, the
Reference impedance Zref defined on the Settings window for the physics under
Sweep Settings is used. For User defined, enter a specific impedance Zref for this
terminal. The default is 50 .
When Terminal type is selected as Charge or Voltage, a contribution can be added as
Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or clicking Harmonic

186 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic Perturbation
— Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Initial values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Terminal. These settings can be useful to provide an initial guess to the
nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study.

The Initial value for voltage is available for all Terminal types except Voltage. Enter an
Initial value for voltage Vinit.

The Initial value for charge is available for the Circuit excitation. It specifies the initial
charge on the terminal when the circuit is connected. Enter an Initial value for charge
Qinit.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

For a voltage terminal type example, see Dielectric Shielding

Comparison: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Introductory_Electrostatics/dielectric_shielding_comparison.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential. It applies a constant voltage V0 on the boundary (for domain features, this
is the boundary enclosing the selected domain), such that the total normal electric
displacement field D equals a specific charge Q0:

V = V0

  D  n  dS = Q0 ,


THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 187

 where  represents the boundary and n refers to the surface normal. The constant
boundary voltage implies the tangential electric field equals zero; the electric field will
be perpendicular to the boundary:

–t V = Et = 0
n  E = 0.

In case of Q0 = 0 (the default case), the boundary will behave as an unconnected,

neutrally charged, good conductor under electrostatic conditions (a floating
equipotential). Although locally the displacement field may vary, the total electric
displacement field entering or leaving the boundary equals zero.

If the floating potential touches a point, boundary or domain feature that is not
floating (a Terminal or Ground feature), the floating potential will acquire that feature's
potential. If the floating potential is set to a certain charge, or connected to a circuit,
it behaves like a terminal.

FLOATING POTENTIAL
The Floating potential identifier text area shows the unique identifier for the floating
potential feature. It is used to identify the global variables created by the node, such as
the voltage. The Floating potential group check box on the Settings window for Floating
Potential controls how potentials are assigned to boundary segments in the feature’s
boundary selection. If this check box is not selected, a single potential is applied to all
boundaries in the selection. If the check box is selected, each group of contiguous
boundaries in the selection is given a unique potential. This simplifies the setup of
models with many floating electrodes. The values of the potential at each group of
boundaries are then made available in postprocessing, collected in a vector variable.

The following options are not available if the Floating potential group check box is
selected. Select a specification for the Electric charge — choose User defined to specify
a total Charge Q0 deposited on the surface. Select Circuit to connect the floating
potential to an Electrical Circuit.

The Electrical Circuit Interface requires a current from the Floating

Potential, so the Circuit terminal type can only be used in Time
Dependent or Frequency Domain studies, in which the current can be
computed as the time derivative of the charge.

188 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Initial Values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Floating potential. These settings can be useful to provide an initial
guess to the nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study.

Enter an Initial value for voltage Vinit.

The Initial value for charge is available for the Circuit excitation. It specifies the initial
charge on the floating potential when the circuit is connected. Enter an Initial value for
charge Qinit.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Settings and Properties Windows for Feature Nodes in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Distributed Capacitance
The Distributed Capacitance node adds a distributed capacitance boundary condition
according to the following equations for exterior boundaries:

V ref – V
– n  D =  0  r --------------------
ds

Use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet or film of a dielectric material. The
sheet has the relative permittivity r and the surface thickness ds, and it is connected
to the reference potential Vref.

DISTRIBUTED CAPACITANCE
Enter the values or expressions for Relative permittivity r (dimensionless), Surface
thickness ds (SI unit: m), and Reference potential Vref. The default value for the surface
thickness is 103 m (1 mm) and 0 V for the reference potential.

Line Charge
For 3D components, use the Line Charge node to specify line charges along the edges
of a geometry. Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the
parent node or clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 189

 information see Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EDGE SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

LINE CHARGE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge (on Axis) and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Line Charge (on Axis)

For 2D axisymmetric components, use the Line Charge (on Axis) node to specify line
charges along the symmetry axis.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

LINE CHARGE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, points are selected and this is the same as
a line out-of-plane.

190 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Use the Line Charge (Out-of-Plane) node to specify line charges along the points of a
geometry for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

LINE CHARGE (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line charge QL (SI unit: C/m). This source
represents electric charge per unit length and the default is 0 C/m.

Line Charge and Line Charge (on Axis)

Point Charge
The Point Charge node adds a point source to 3D components. The point charge
represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 191

 POINT CHARGE
Enter a value or expression to apply a Point charge QP (SI unit: C) to points. This
source represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point. The default is
0 C.

Point Charge (on Axis) and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Point Charge (on Axis)

The Point Charge (on Axis) node adds a point source to 2D axisymmetric components.
The point charge represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CHARGE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point charge QP (SI unit: C) to points on an axis.
This source represents an electric displacement field flowing out of the point. The
default is 0 C.

Point Charge and Line Charge (Out-of-Plane)

Change Cross Section

This node is available with 1D components. This setting overrides the global
Cross-Section Area setting made in any physics interface that uses this feature. For 2D
components, see Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane).

192 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Use the Change Cross Section node to set the cross-section area for specific geometric
entities.

CHANGE CROSS SECTION

Enter a value or expression for the Cross-section area A. The default value of one unit
area is typically not representative for the actual domain. Instead, it describes a unit
area that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used for 3D components.

Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane)

This node is available for 2D components. This setting overrides the global Thickness
setting made in any physics interface that uses this node. For 1D components, see
Change Cross Section.

Use the Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) node to set the out-of-plane thickness for
specific geometric entities.

CHANGE THICKNESS (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter a value or expression for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value is, in most cases, 1 unit length, which is typically not representative for a thin
domain. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components.

Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric

This feature is available with the Ferroelectroelasticity multiphysics

interface which requires either the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, or
Structural Mechanics Module. See Ferroelectricity and
Ferroelectroelasticity (in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s
Guide) for more information.

The Charge Conservation, Ferroelectric node is normally used together with a

Electrostriction multiphysics coupling node and Solid Mechanics interface. The node is
added by default to the Electrostatics interface when adding a Ferroelectroelasticity
interface. It is also available from the context menu (right-click the Electrostatics
interface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 193

 Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric

This feature is available with the Piezoelectricity interface, which requires

either the Acoustics Module, or MEMS Module, or Structural Mechanics
Module. See the individual documentation for information.

The Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node is normally used together with a

Piezoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling node and a corresponding Piezoelectric
Material node in the Solid Mechanics interface. The node is added by default to the
Electrostatics interface when adding a Piezoelectricity interface. It is also available from
the context menu (right-click the Electrostatics interface parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar.

When the Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node is added to the

electrostatics interface in the absence of an active Piezoelectric Effect
multiphysics coupling node, the material behaves similarly to a Charge
Conservation node, with electric properties corresponding to the relative
permittivity entered (see below). The piezoelectric effect is not included
in the corresponding equation system.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT
If the node is used together with an active Piezoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling
node, then these settings are locked. Note that if they are unlocked, then the material
behaves like a dielectric and not a piezoelectric. In this case, the default is to take the
Relative permittivity rS (dimensionless) values From material. For User defined, select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Dispersion
The Dispersion subnode to Charge Conservation and Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric
allows you to model possible dielectric losses in the material. The effect can be
accounted for in Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study.

Under the Material model, you can select either Debye (default) or Multipole Debye
dispersion option.

194 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

For a single pole Debye dispersion choice, you can enter the Relaxation time and Relative
permittivity contribution. In the Thermal Effects tab, you can select the Shift function
type, which will be used to compute the effective relaxation time accounting for the
temperature effects.

For the Multipole Debye dispersion, you can select two options to enter the Relaxation
Data.

• Relaxation time and Relative permittivity change choice will provide an input table
with dynamically changed size, where you can enter any number of Relaxation time
and the corresponding Relative permittivity contribution values. In the Thermal
Effects tab, you can select the Shift function type, which will be used to compute the
effective relaxation times accounting for the temperature effects.
Constant Loss Tangent option. In this case, you enter the Loss Tangent (fc) together
with the Center frequency fc. You also specify the model Bandwidth (decades) that
defines a frequency interval centered at fc, in which the loss tangent will be
approximately constant and equal to (fc). You can also select the Accuracy for the
approximation to be either Normal (default) or High. The software will automatically
deduce the necessary number of Debye poles together with the values of the
corresponding relaxation times and relative permittivity contributions, which will be
used in computations to maintain the requested bandwidth and accuracy.

Debye Dispersion

In Eigenfrequency study and Time Dependent study, each pole will

require one extra vector degree of freedom (domain variable) to represent
the corresponding contribution to the polarization. Thus, using many
poles in the relaxation data input table, or setting the Accuracy to High
accuracy in case of Constant Loss Tangent, can lead to significant
computation costs for larger models.

For all cases, you can specify how the relative permittivity input, rS, on the parent
node should be interpreted by selecting the Static response (the default value is High
frequency limit). This setting will have effect in Eigenfrequency, Frequency Domain,
and Time Dependent study types.

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 195

 THERMAL EFFECTS
Dispersion properties depend on the temperature. For many materials, a change in the
temperature can be transformed directly into a change in the time scale. Thus, the
relaxation time is modified to aTTm, where aT(T) is a shift function.

Select a Shift function — None, Vogel-Fulcher, Arrhenius, Williams-Landel-Ferry,

Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan, or User defined.

• When the default, None, is kept, the shift function aTT is set to unity and the
relaxation time is not modified.
• For Vogel-Fulcher enter values or expressions for these properties:
- Reference temperature T0. The default is 230 K.
- Activation energy Q. The default is 8000 J/mol.

• For Arrhenius enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.

• For Williams-Landel-Ferry enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature TWLF The default is 293.15 K.
- WLF constant 1 C1WLF. The default is 17.44.
- WLF constant 2 C2WLF. The default is 51.6 K.

• For Tool-Narayanaswamy-Moynihan enter values or expressions for these properties:

- Reference temperature T0. The default is 293.15 K.
- Activation energy Q.
- Activation energy fraction  (0<<1).
- Structural relaxation times 0.
- Fictive temperature weights w.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the shift function aT.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Discretization from the Show More Options dialog box. Select the element order from
the list box for the auxiliary electric field vector variables en.

You can change the solution algorithm by using the check box Use local time
integration (checked by default). When unchecked, the solution of the equations for

196 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

the auxiliary dependent variables in Time Dependent study will be governed by the
time stepper algorithm used in the solver.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context Menus
Electrostatics>Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric>Dispersion

Ribbon
Physics tab with Charge Conservation, Piezoelectric node selected in the model tree:

Attributes>Dispersion

Electrostatic Point Dipole

Add an Electrostatic Point Dipole node to 3D and 2D components. Add a contribution
as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or click Harmonic
Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic Perturbation
— Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

The Electrostatic Point Dipole represents the limiting case of zero separation distance
between two equally strong point sources of opposing signs while maintaining the
product between separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (p). The
dipole moment is a vector entity with positive direction from the negative charge to
the positive one.

ELECTROSTATIC POINT DIPOLE

Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction (the default) or Electric dipole
moment.

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric dipole moment
direction np (dimensionless) and the Electric dipole moment, magnitude p.
• For Electric dipole moment enter coordinates for the Electric dipole moment p.

Archie’s Law
This subfeature is available only when Archie’s law is selected as the Electrical
conductivity material parameter in the parent feature (for example, the Current

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 197

 Conservation node). Then the subnodes are made available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Archie’s Law subnode to provide an electrical conductivity computed using
Archie’s Law. This subnode can be used to model nonconductive effective medium
saturated (or variably saturated) by conductive liquids, using the relation:

n m
 = sL p L

Archie’s Law Theory

CONDUCTION CURRENTS
By default, the Electrical conductivity L (SI unit: S/m) for the fluid is defined From
material. This uses the value of the conductivity of the material domain.

For User defined enter a value or expression. If another type of temperature dependence
is used other than a linear temperature relation, enter any expression for the
conductivity as a function of temperature.

Enter these dimensionless parameters as needed:

• Cementation exponent m
• Saturation exponent n
• Fluid saturation SL
• Porosity p to set up the volume fraction of the fluid.

Effective Medium
This subfeature is available only when Effective medium is selected as the material
parameter (for example, Relative permeability or Relative permittivity) in the parent
feature node when it is available with the physics interface (for example, the Charge
Conservation, Current Conservation, or Ampere’s Law nodes). Then the subnodes are
made available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as well as from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Effective Medium subfeature to specify the material properties of a domain
consisting of a porous medium using a mixture model. Depending on the specific
physics interface being used, the subfeature can be used to provide a mixture model

198 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

for the electric conductivity , the relative dielectric permittivity r, or the relative
magnetic permeability r.

EFFECTIVE MEDIUM
This section is always available and is used to define the mixture model for the domain.

Select the Number of materials (up to 5) to be included in the mixture model.

For each material (Material 1, Material 2, and so on), select either Domain material, to
use the material specified for the domain, or one of the other materials specified in the
Materials node. For each material, enter a Volume fraction 12, and so on.

The Volume fractions specified for the materials should be fractional (between 0 and
1) and should add to 1 in normal cases.

The availability of the Effective Electrical Conductivity, Effective Relative

Permittivity, and Effective Relative Permeability sections depend on the
material properties used in the physics interface. In addition, these
sections are only active if Effective medium is selected in the corresponding
material property for the parent feature node.

EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY, EFFECTIVE RELATIVE

PERMITTIVITY, OR EFFECTIVE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
Select the averaging method to use in the mixture model between the Volume average
of the material property (for example, conductivity or permittivity), the volume average
of its inverse (for example, the resistivity), or the Power law. For each material, specify
either From material, to take the value from the corresponding material specified in the
Effective Medium section, or User defined to manually input a value.

Effective Material Properties in Effective Media and Mixtures

THE ELECTROSTATICS INTERFACE | 199

 T he E le c tr o s t at i c s, Bou n d ary
Elements Interface
The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements (esbe) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electric Fields and Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used for
computing the potential distribution in dielectrics under conditions where the electric
potential distribution on the boundaries is explicitly prescribed. The formulation is
based on the boundary element method and the interface is available in 2D and 3D.

The physics interface solves Laplace’s equation for the electric potential using the scalar
electric potential as the dependent variable

–     0  r V  = 0 .

For a discussion about the boundary element method, see Theory for the
Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Charge Conservation, Zero Charge (on exterior boundaries and in 3D also on
interior edges) and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, electric potential and surface charge density conditions. You
can also right-click Electrostatics, Boundary Elements to select physics features from the
context menu.

If both The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary

Elements Interface are available, the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics
toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model
Builder.

The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements

Interface can also be coupled by using the same name for the dependent
variable for both interfaces. Then Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is not needed. How to set the name for the dependent variable
is described in the Dependent Variables section.

200 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics will be used to automatically set up an appropriate mesh
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, select any of the options — Manual, All domains, All voids, or All
domains and voids (the default). The geometric entity list displays the selected domain
entity numbers. Edit the list of selected domain entity numbers using the selection
toolbar buttons to the right of the list or by selecting the geometric entities in the
Graphics window. Entity numbers for voids can be entered by clicking the Paste ( )
button in the selection toolbar and supplying the entity numbers in the dialog box.
The entity number for the infinite void is 0, and finite voids have negative entity
numbers.

Selections can also be entered using the Selection List window, available from the
Windows menu on the Home toolbar.

For more information about making selections, see Working with

Geometric Entities in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

PHYSICS SYMBOLS
Select the Enable physics symbols check box to display symmetry planes (in 3D) and
lines (in 2D) in the Graphics window, as specified in the Symmetry settings.

THICKNESS (2D COMPONENTS)

For 2D components, enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default value of 1 is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 201

 Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the
equation used for 3D components.

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to invoke a parametric sweep over
terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific name to the variable that
controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep. The Sweep parameter name
must also be declared as a model parameter. The default is PortName.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the Modeling with the AC/DC Module
chapter of this manual.

To correctly calculate the terminal charge and the corresponding

capacitances, if voltage Terminal is used on boundaries between The
Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Interface, let the dependent variable for The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface be the same as the dependent variable for The
Electrostatics Interface and disable Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling. How to set the name for the dependent variable is described in
the Dependent Variables section. Since the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is disabled, add manually a Fully Coupled node to the
Stationary Solver below the Solution node in the Solver Configurations.

SYMMETRY

For 3D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane, Condition for
the y = y0 plane, and Condition for the z = z0 plane lists, choose Off (the
default), Symmetric, or Antisymmetric. Then enter the value for the plane
location x0, y0, or z0 (SI unit: m) as required.

202 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 For 2D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane and Condition
for the y = y0 plane lists, choose Off (the default), Symmetric, or
Antisymmetric. Then enter the value for the plane location x0 or z0 (SI
unit: m) as required.

FAR-FIELD APPROXIMATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

For more information about the Far Field Approximation settings, see
Far-Field Approximation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

INFINITY CONDITION

For 3D components, select the Infinity condition — Total charge (the

default) or Asymptotic value at infinity. Specify the Total charge Qtot
(SI unit: C; the default value is 0 C) or Electric potential at infinity V (SI
unit: V; the default value is 0 V). If there is an antisymmetric symmetry in
the potential field, it acts as an added infinite ground plane with a fixed
value of the electric potential. The value at infinity is fixed to 0 by the
presence of the infinite ground plane, so for this case there is a fixed Zero
potential at infinity condition.

For 2D components, select the Infinity condition — Total charge (the

default) or Value at reference distance. Specify the Total charge Qtot
(SI unit: C; the default value is 0 C) or Electric potential at reference
distance Vref (SI unit: V; the default value is 0 V). If there is an
antisymmetric symmetry in the potential field, it acts as an added ground
line with a fixed value of the electric potential. The value at a reference
distance is fixed to 0 by the presence of the ground line, so for this case
there is a fixed Zero potential at reference distance condition.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 203

 QUADRATURE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

For more information about the Quadrature settings, see Quadrature in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
From the Electric potential/Surface charge density list, choose from predefined options
for the boundary element discretization order for the electric potential variable and the
surface charge density variable, respectively. The predefined options represent the
suitable combinations of element orders such as Quadratic/Linear (the default).

For 3D components, the Line charge variable will have the same
discretization order as the Electric potential variable.

The settings under Value types when using splitting of complex variables are important
for sensitivity and optimization computations. See the description of the built-in
operators fsens and fsensimag.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

Domain, Boundary, and Edge Nodes for the Electrostatics, Boundary

Elements Interface
The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface has these domain, boundary, and
edge nodes available from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking the physics interface in Model Builder to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

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AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Initial Values • Ground

• Charge Conservation • Surface Charge Density
• Electric Potential • Terminal
• Floating Potential • Zero Charge
• Force Calculation

The Zero Charge node is the default boundary and edge condition available for this
physics interface and described for the Electrostatics interface.

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add
more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar, Global menu.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).

Charge Conservation
The Charge Conservation node adds the equations for charge conservation according to
Gauss’ law for the electric displacement field. It provides an interface for defining the
constitutive relation defined by the relative permittivity.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

Enter the Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) to describe the macroscopic
properties of the medium. The default is to take the Relative permittivity values From
material. For User defined, enter a value or expression in the field.

Notice that the boundary element method is based on the availability of

an analytic Green’s function for the domain. Thus, the Relative
permittivity must evaluate to a constant value for each Charge Conservation
node.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 205

 Electric Potential
The Electric Potential node provides an electric potential V0 as the boundary condition
V = V0.

For more information about the Electric Potential condition, see Electric
Potential in the documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential.

For more information about the Floating Potential condition, see

Floating Potential in the documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Ground
The Ground node implements ground (zero potential) as the boundary condition
V = 0.

For more information about the Ground condition, see Ground in the
documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

206 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

Surface Charge Density

The Surface Charge Density node provides the following surface-charge boundary
condition for exterior boundaries (left) and interior boundaries (right):

–n  D = s , n   D1 – D2  = s

Specify the surface charge density s at an outer boundary or at an interior boundary

between two nonconducting media.

For more information about the Surface Charge Density condition, see
Surface Charge Density in the documentation for the Electrostatics
interface.

For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry. Enable Compensate for tube volume to allow for a
potential gradient across the cross section of the virtual tube. This can be
useful for establishing a zero surface charge density condition on the
virtual tube periphery.

Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or charge.

For more information about the Terminal condition, see Terminal in the
documentation for the Electrostatics interface.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 207

 For 3D components, enter the Edge radius (SI unit: m) for the virtual tube
surrounding the edge. The default value is 0.1 m. It is generally assumed
that the edge radius is small in comparison to other geometrical measures
of the model, such as the edge length and the distances between different
edges in the geometry.

To correctly calculate the terminal charge and the corresponding

capacitances, if voltage Terminal is used on boundaries between The
Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
Interface, let the dependent variable for The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface be the same as the dependent variable for The
Electrostatics Interface and disable Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling. How to set the name for the dependent variable is described in
the Dependent Variables section. Since the Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling is disabled, add manually a Fully Coupled node to the
Stationary Solver below the Solution node in the Solver Configurations.

Zero Charge
The Zero Charge node adds the condition that there is zero charge on the boundary so
that n D  0. This is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries and on
edges embedded within a Charge Conservation feature.

Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling

The Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling multiphysics node assures continuity of the
electric potential across boundaries between The Electrostatics Interface and The
Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface. The Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential
Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by
right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The

208 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface are
available.

The Electrostatics Interface and The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements

Interface can also be coupled by using the same name for the dependent
variable for both interfaces. Then Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling
is not needed. How to set the name for the dependent variable is
described in the Dependent Variables section.

When using The Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface with

iterative solvers, Right Preconditioning is preferred. Thus, it is advised to
check that Right Preconditioning is used when combining the Electric
Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling with The Electrostatics, Boundary
Elements Interface and other physics interfaces. How to define Right
Preconditioning is described in Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the list
of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All boundaries
is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to the Electrostatics interface
that intersect the exterior boundaries to the Electrostatics, Boundary Elements
interface are available in the boundary entity number list.

COUPLED INTERFACES
• Select Electrostatics, Boundary Elements as Primary interface and Electrostatics as
Secondary interface.

THE ELECTROSTATICS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 209

 The Electric Currents Interface
The Electric Currents (ec) interface ( ), under the AC/DC>Electric Fields and Currents
branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute electric field, current, and
potential distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects
are negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.

Depending on the licensed products, stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal

analysis, and time-domain modeling are supported in all space dimensions. In the time
and frequency domains, capacitive effects are also accounted for.

The physics interface solves a current conservation equation based on Ohm’s law using
the scalar electric potential as the dependent variable. The interface is typically used to
model good conductors for which Ohm’s law applies. It is not suitable for modeling
poor conductors like air and insulators.

Current Conservation is the main node, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and provides a Settings window for defining the electrical conductivity as well
as the constitutive relation for the electric displacement field and its associated material
properties, such as the relative permittivity.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Current Conservation, Electric Insulation (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and current sources. You can also right-click Electric
Currents to select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

210 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ec.

CROSS-SECTION AREA (1D)

Enter a default value for the Cross-section area A (SI unit: m2). The default value of
1 m2 is typically not representative for a small domain. Instead it describes a unit area
that makes the 1D equation identical to the equation used for 3D components. See
also Change Cross Section (described for the Electrostatics interface).

THICKNESS (2D)
Enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m) (see Equation 2-17).
The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin dielectric medium, for
example. Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to
the equation used for 3D components. See also Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane)
(described for the Electrostatics interface).

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Select the Use manual terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific
name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the sweep.
The default is PortName. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 211

 capacitance matrix elements. The terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. Select a Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export —
Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and
imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create
new. Create new is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Select a Parameter to export — Z (the default), Y, or S.

For most applications it is simpler to sweep over terminals using the

Stationary Source Sweep study step. See Stationary Source Sweep in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual and (for more details)
Stationary Source Sweep in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Electric potential V. You can change its name, which
changes both the field name and the variable name. If the new name coincides with the
name of another electric potential field in the model, the physics interfaces share
degrees of freedom. The new name must not coincide with the name of a field of
another type or with a component name belonging to some other field.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Computing Lumped Parameters

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric
Currents Interface
• Theory for the Electric Currents Interface

Pacemaker Electrode: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/pacemaker_electrode

212 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric
Currents Interface
The Electric Currents interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users) or Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users). You can also right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

ABOUT THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The exterior and interior boundary conditions listed in Table 4-1 are available. The
relevant physics interface condition at interfaces between different media and interior
boundaries is continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural boundary condition.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 213

 AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes are available for this physics interface, listed in alphabetical order. Also see
Table 4-1 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions, including edge, point,
and pair availability.

• Boundary Current Source • External Current Density

• Contact Impedance • Floating Potential
• Current Conservation • Initial Values
• Current Source • Line Current Source
• Distributed Impedance • Line Current Source (on Axis)
• Electric Insulation • Normal Current Density
• Electric Point Dipole • Piezoresistive Material1
• Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) • Point Current Source
• Electric Shielding • Sector Symmetry
• Electrical Contact • Symmetry Plane (for Electric Field)
• Terminal

1
This feature is available with the Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents interface, which
requires the MEMS Module.

These nodes are described for the Electrostatics interface:

• Archie’s Law • Electric Potential

• Change Cross Section • Force Calculation
• Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) • Ground
• Effective Medium • Periodic Condition

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

214 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the model that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

Table 4-1 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface. It also includes edge, point, and pair availability.
TABLE 4-2: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (INCLUDING EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR
AVAILABILITY) FOR THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR ALSO AVAILABLE FOR

Boundary Current Source x pairs

Contact Impedance x pairs
Distributed Impedance x x not applicable
Electric Insulation x x pairs
Electric Potential x x edges, points, and pairs
Electric Shielding x x pairs
Floating Potential x x pairs
Ground x x edges, points, and pairs
Normal Current Density x not applicable
Periodic Condition x not applicable
Symmetry Plane x not applicable
Terminal x x pairs, domains

Current Conservation
The Current Conservation node adds the continuity equation for the electrical potential
and provides an interface for defining the electric conductivity as well as the
constitutive relation and the relative permittivity for the displacement current.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Non-solid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 215

 configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E

By default, the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) for the media is defined From
material. Or select User defined, Effective medium, Archie’s Law, Hall effect, or Linearized
resistivity.

User Defined
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions for the
electrical conductivity in the field or matrix. The default is 0 S/m. If type of
temperature dependence is used other than a linear temperature relation, enter any
expression for the conductivity as a function of temperature.

Linearized Resistivity
Select Linearized resistivity for a temperature-dependent conductivity (this occurs in,
for example, Joule heating, and is also called resistive heating). The equation
describing the conductivity:

1
 = ---------------------------------------------------
 0  1 +   T – T ref  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature Tref, and  is the temperature
coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature.

The default Reference resistivity 0 (SI unit: m), Reference temperature Tref
(SI unit: K), and Resistivity temperature coefficient  (SI unit: 1/K) are taken From
material, which means that the values are taken from the domain (or boundary)
material. T is the current temperature, which can be a value that is specified as a model
input or the temperature from a heat transfer interface. The definition of the
temperature field is in the Model Inputs section.

Only certain material models support the Linearized resistivity. See AC/
DC Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

To specify other values for any of these properties, select User defined from the list and
then enter a value or expression for each. The default values are:

• 1 m for the Reference resistivity

216 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

• 273.15 K for the Reference temperature, and
• 0 1/K for the Resistivity temperature coefficient

Hall Effect
Select Hall Effect to incorporate the effect of a magnetic field on the constitutive
relation. A Hall current term R H J c  B is added to the total conduction current J c ,
where R H is the Hall coefficient, and B is the magnetic flux density. This current
component is incorporated using an anisotropic modified electrical conductivity
tensor.

The specified Electrical conductivity is isotropic and can be defined From material or
User defined. The Hall coefficient R H (SI unit: m 3   sA  ) is defined macroscopically as
the inverse of the carrier charge density R H = 1   nq  , with n the carrier density, and
q the carrier charge, with the value set by user input. The default magnetic flux density
is User defined, but can also be defined from Common model input or from an
appropriate magnetic fields interface.

When Effective medium is selected, either right-click Current Conservation or on the

Physics toolbar, Attributes menu click to add a Effective Medium subnode. When
Archie’s law is selected, do the same to add an Archie’s Law subnode.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

Select a Dielectric model to describe the macroscopic properties of the medium
(relating the electric displacement D with the electric field E) and the applicable
material properties, such as the relative permittivity. For a description of the
constitutive relations Relative permittivity, Polarization, Remanent electric displacement
and Dielectric losses, see Constitutive Relation D-E as described for the Charge
Conservation node for the Electrostatics interface. The constitutive relations specific
to Electric Currents are:

• Loss tangent, loss angle: uses the constitutive relation D  0'  jtanE. Specify
the Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and Loss angle  (SI unit: rad).
• Loss tangent, dissipation factor: uses the constitutive relation D  0'  jtanE.
Specify the Relative permittivity (real part) ' (dimensionless) and the Dissipation
factor tan (dimensionless).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 217

 If more than one set of initial values is required, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and current sources. Add
more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default value is 0 V.

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears in Ohm’s law

J = E + J e

and in the equation that the physics interface defines.

The external current density does not contribute to the losses (due to Joule heating),
since there is no electric field associated with it. To include the contribution to the
losses from the external current density, select the Add contribution of the external
current density to the losses check box. Then select an option from the External losses
list — From domain conductivity (the default) or User defined. If From domain
conductivity is selected, the heat source is computed using the conductivity specified in
the material model feature (such as Current Conservation) that is applied in the domain.
For User defined, enter a value for Qe (SI unit: W/m3) to specify a user-defined heat
source.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components, for
example) of the External current density Je (SI unit: A/m2). The defaults are 0 A/m2.

Current Source
The Current Source node adds a distributed current source Qj in the equation that the
physics interface defines. Use this node with caution as it can violate the current
conservation law that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

218 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj (SI unit: A/m3). The default is
0 A/m3.

Electric Insulation
The Electric Insulation node, which is the default boundary condition, adds electric
insulation as the boundary condition:

nJ = 0

This boundary condition means that no electric current flows into the boundary. At
interior boundaries, it means that no current can flow through the boundary and that
the electric potential is discontinuous across the boundary. It is also applicable at
symmetric boundaries where the potential is known to be symmetric with respect to
the boundary.

Electric insulation as the default boundary condition is not applicable to interior

boundaries. To add electric insulation to an interior boundary, add an Electric
Insulation node in addition to the one that represents the default boundary condition.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential node is used when modeling a metallic electrode at floating
potential. It applies a constant voltage V0 on the boundary (for domain features, this
is the boundary enclosing the selected domain), such that the total normal electric
current density J equals a specific current I0:

V = V0

  –n  J  dS = I0 ,


where  represents the boundary and n refers to the surface normal. The constant
boundary voltage implies the tangential electric field equals zero; the electric field will
be perpendicular to the boundary:

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 219

 –t V = Et = 0
n  E = 0.

In case of I0 = 0 (the default case), the boundary will behave as an unconnected perfect
conductor (a floating equipotential). This is a good approximation when the
conductivity of the electrode is many orders of magnitude larger than that of the
surrounding medium. Although locally the current density may vary, the total current
entering or leaving the boundary equals zero.

If the floating potential touches a point, boundary or domain feature that is not
floating (a Terminal or Ground feature), the floating potential will acquire that feature's
potential. If the floating potential is set to a certain current, or connected to a circuit,
it behaves like a terminal.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

FLOATING POTENTIAL
The Floating potential identifier text area shows the unique identifier for the floating
potential feature. It is used to identify the global variables created by the node, such as
the voltage. The Floating potential group check box on the Settings window for Floating
Potential controls how potentials are assigned to boundary segments in the feature’s
boundary selection. If this check box is not selected, a single potential is applied to all
boundaries in the selection. If the check box is selected, each group of contiguous
boundaries in the selection is given a unique potential. This simplifies the setup of
models with many floating electrodes. The values of the potential at each group of
boundaries are then made available in postprocessing, collected in a vector variable.

The following options are not available if the Floating potential group check box is
selected. Select a specification for the Floating potential current — choose User defined
(the default) to specify a total Current I0 (SI unit: A) that flows from the electrode. The
default is 0 A, corresponding to an unconnected electrode. Select Circuit to connect
the floating potential to an Electrical Circuit interface.

Initial values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Floating Potential. These settings can be useful to provide an initial
guess to the nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study when the

220 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

initial values of the other dependent variables (such as the electric potential) are
computed from a separate physics or study. In most cases, the default values are
appropriate.

Enter an Initial value for voltage Vinit (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Settings and Properties Windows for Feature Nodes in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Boundary Current Source

The Boundary Current Source node adds a current source Qj on the boundary.

n   J1 – J2  = Q j

It is applicable to interior boundaries that represent either a source or a sink of current.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Boundary current source Qj (SI unit: A/m2). The
default is 0 A/m2.

Normal Current Density

The Normal Current Density node is applicable to exterior boundaries that represent
either a source or a sink of current. It provides a condition for specifying the normal
current density as an inward or outward current flow:

–n  J = Jn

Or alternatively, as a current density J0:

n  J = n  J0

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 221

 The normal current density is positive when the current flows inward in the domain.
Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

NORMAL CURRENT DENSITY

Select a Type — Inward current density (the default) or Current density.

• For Inward current density enter a value or expression for the Normal current density
Jn (SI unit: A/m2). Use a positive value for an inward current flow or a negative
value for an outward current flow. The default is 0 A/m2.
• For Current density enter values or expressions for the components of the Current
density J0 (SI unit: A/m2). The defaults are 0 A/m2.

Distributed Impedance
The Distributed Impedance node adds a distributed impedance boundary condition to
a model.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

Use this boundary condition to model a thin sheet of a resistive material connected to
a reference potential Vref.

The layer impedance can be specified either with the bulk material conductivity s, the
relative permittivity r and layer thickness ds, or directly with the surface resistance s
and capacitance Cs. Assuming DC currents, the equation is:

s
n   J 1 – J 2  = -----  V – V ref 
ds
1
n   J 1 – J 2  = -----  V – V ref 
s

For the Frequency Domain and Time Dependent study types, this boundary condition
is slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The equations
are:

222 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

   + j 0  r 
n   J 1 – J 2  = --------------------------------  V – V ref 
ds

n   J 1 – J 2  =  ---- + jC s  V – V ref 

1
rs

n   J 1 – J 2  = -------    V – V ref  +  0  r  V – V ref 
1
dL t

n   J 1 – J 2  =  -----  V – V ref  + C s  V – V ref 
1
 s t 

DISTRIBUTED IMPEDANCE
Enter the reference potential Vref (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

Select a potentially complex-valued Layer specification — Thin layer (the default) or

Surface impedance.

• For Thin layer, enter values or expressions for the:

- Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 5·103 m (5 mm).
- Electrical conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) and Relative permittivity r
(dimensionless). The defaults take values From material. For User defined, enter
different values or expressions. The default electrical conductivity is 1·102 S/m
and the default relative permittivity is 1.
• For Surface impedance, enter values or expressions for the Surface resistance s
(SI unit: ·m2) and the Surface capacitance Cs (SI unit: Fm2). The default surface
impedance is 1·108 ·m2 and the default surface capacitance is 0 Fm2.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 223

 Terminal
The Terminal node provides a boundary or domain condition for connection to
external circuits, to transmission lines, or with a specified voltage or current. By
specifying zero current, a floating potential condition is obtained.

In most cases, it is not recommended to include the interior of good

conductors in the simulation. When using the Terminal on the domain
level, the interior unknowns for the electric potential are replaced by a
single constant, thus avoiding numerical problems arising from a very
high material contrast. If one instead uses the Terminal on the boundary
level, it is recommended to exclude the interior of the associated
conductor from the domain selection for the main Electric Currents
node.

The Terminal node also enables the computation of the lumped parameter of the
system, such as the impedance.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. The Harmonic Perturbation subnode
only has effect if Current or Voltage are selected as terminal type. For more information
see Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

An operation named as Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the

parent node. The operation is useful when there are several terminal domains or
boundaries that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will
automatically generate several Terminal nodes where each selection is geometrically
connected.

TERMINAL
Specify the terminal’s properties. The Terminal name identifies the terminal and the
variables it creates. The name should be numeric for sweeps to work properly.

Select a Terminal type — Current (the default), Voltage, Circuit, Terminated, or Power.

The Circuit and Power types cannot be used together with a terminal
sweep.

224 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Select:

• Current to specify a total current flowing from the terminal. Enter the current I0 (SI
unit: A). The default is 0 A for an open circuit.
• Voltage to specify a fixed electric potential at the terminal. Enter the value of the
electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is 1 V.
• Circuit to specify a terminal connected to an Electrical Circuit interface that models
an external circuit.
• Terminated to connect the terminal to an impedance that might represent a load or
a transmission line. When Terminated is selected, the scattering parameters
(S-parameters) are computed.
- Enter a Terminal power P0 (SI unit: W) to specify the input power at this terminal
from the transmission line. This excitation can be toggled using a terminal sweep.
The default is 1 W.
- Select an option from the Characteristic impedance from list to define the value of
the impedance — Physics interface (the default) or User defined. For Physics
interface the Reference impedance Zref defined on the Settings window for the
physics interface under Sweep Settings is used. For User defined enter a specific
impedance Zref (SI unit: ) for this terminal. The default is 50 .
• Power to specify a fixed electrical power for the terminal. The power is computed as
the product of the terminal current and voltage and, in frequency domain, is the
cycle-averaged power. When Power is selected:

- Enter a Terminal power P0 (SI unit: W) to specify the input power at this terminal.
The default is 1 W.

Using Power excitation causes the equation system to become nonlinear.

COMSOL Multiphysics automatically adjusts the solver settings when
Power is selected.

Be aware that, in general, the values of the voltage and the current might
not uniquely be determined by this constraint and may depend on the
initial value provided for the current and voltage variables. Particularly in
the frequency domain, the absolute phase of the quantities can be
arbitrary. This indeterminacy can have an impact on the solution process.
See Compile Equations in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for a possible solution to this problem.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 225

 Initial Values
The initial values subsection is used to provide initial values for the internal state
variables in the Terminal. These settings can be useful to provide an initial guess to the
nonlinear solver or the initial value in a time-dependent study when the initial values
of the other dependent variables (such as the electric potential) are computed from a
separate physics or study. In most cases, the default values are appropriate.

The Initial value for voltage is available for all Terminal types except Voltage. Enter an
Initial value for voltage Vinit (SI unit: V). The default is 0 V.

The Initial value for current is available for Power only. In this case, it provides an initial
guess for the nonlinear solver, and should not be set to zero. The initial value provided
may affect the solution. Enter an Initial value for current Iinit (SI unit: A). The default
is 1 mA.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Computing Lumped Parameters

Electric Shielding
The Electric Shielding node provides an electric shielding boundary condition. Use this
node to model a thin layer of a highly conductive medium that shields the electric field.
The sheet has the electrical conductivity s and the surface thickness d.

The condition is represented by the following equation for interior boundaries and
(setting J2  0) exterior boundaries assuming DC currents

n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV 

For the frequency domain and Time Dependent study types, also displacement
currents are accounted for via the bulk relative permittivity of the sheet; rs and the
conservation laws change to:

n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d    s + j 0  rs  tV 


n   J 1 – J 2  = –  t  d   s tV +  0  rs tV
 t 

226 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Use this boundary condition when approximating a thin domain with a boundary to
reduce the number of mesh elements. The Electric Field and Conduction Current sections
are the same as for Current Conservation.

THICKNESS
Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is
1 cm.

Electric Shielding: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Electric_Currents/electric_shielding

Contact Impedance
Use the Contact Impedance node on interior boundaries to model a thin layer of
resistive material. It can also be added as a pair using a Pair Contact Impedance node.
The feature allows specifying the contact impedance either by entering the properties
of the material together with the layer thickness, or by entering the impedance
properties of the thin layer directly.

The feature, in stationary studies, applies the following conditions that relate the
normal electric current density with the jump in the electric potential:


n  J 1 = ------  V 1 – V 2 
ds

n  J 2 = ------  V 2 – V 1 
ds
1
n  J 1 = -----  V 1 – V 2 
s
1
n  J 2 = -----  V 2 – V 1 
s

The first two equations refer to a layer impedance specified using the bulk material
conductivity s and the layer thickness ds, while the last two equations refer to the case
in which the surface resistance s is specified. The indices 1 and 2 refer to the two sides
of the boundary. These parameters work the same as with Distributed Impedance.

For the frequency domain and Time Dependent study types, this boundary condition
is slightly more sophisticated and accounts also for capacitive coupling. The bulk
material relative permittivity r or the layer capacitance Cs can be specified.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 227

 The equations used in Frequency Domain studies are:

  + j 0  r 
n  J 1 = --------------------------------  V 1 – V 2 
ds
  + j 0  r 
n  J 2 = --------------------------------  V 2 – V 1 
ds

n  J 1 =  ----- + jC s  V 1 – V 2 
1
 s 

n  J 2 =  ----- + jC s  V 2 – V 1 
1
 s 

In Time Dependent studies:


n  J 1 = -----    V 1 – V 2  +  0  r  V 1 – V 2 
1
ds t

n  J 2 = -----    V 2 – V 1  +  0  r   V 2 – V 1 
1
ds  t 

n  J 1 =  -----  V 1 – V 2  + C s   V 1 – V 2 
1
 s t 


n  J 2 =  -----  V 2 – V 1  + C s  V 2 – V 1 
1
 s t 

CONTACT IMPEDANCE
Select a potentially complex-valued Layer specification — Thin layer (the default) or
Surface impedance.

• For Thin layer, enter values or expressions for the:

- Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 5·103 m (5 mm).
- Electrical conductivity  (SI unit: S/m) and Relative permittivity r
(dimensionless). The defaults take values From material. For User defined, enter

228 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 different values or expressions. The default electrical conductivity is 1·102 S/m
and the default relative permittivity is 1.
• For Surface impedance, enter values or expressions for the Surface resistance s (SI
unit: ·m2) and the Surface capacitance Cs (SI unit: Fm2). The default surface
impedance is 1·108 ·m2 and the default surface capacitance is 0 Fm2.

Thin-Film Resistance: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/thin_film_resistance

Electrical Contact
The Electrical Contact node defines correlations for the conductance h at the interface
of two bodies in an imperfect contact due to the surface roughness. It can be added to
pairs by selecting Pair Electrical Contact from the Pairs menu.

The conductance h is involved in the current flow across the surfaces in contact
according to:

n  J1 = –hc  V1 – V2 

n  J2 = –hc  V2 – V1 

where indices 1 and 2 refer to the two sides of the boundary.

ELECTRICAL CONTACT
Select the Constriction conductance — Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation (the default),
Mikic elastic correlation, or User defined. For User defined enter a value or expression for
hc (SI unit: S/m2). The default is 0 S/m2.

CONTACT SURFACE PROPERTIES

This section displays if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation
are chosen under Contact.

Enter values for the:

• Surface roughness, asperities average height  asp (SI unit: m). The default is 1 m.
• Surface roughness, asperities average slope masp (dimensionless). The default is 0.4.
• Contact pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 229

 For Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation select a Hardness definition — Microhardness
(the default), Vickers hardness, or Brinell hardness.

• For Microhardness enter a value for Hc (SI unit: Pa). The default is 3 GPa.
• For Vickers hardness enter a value for the Vickers correlation coefficient c1 (SI unit:
Pa) and Vickers size index c2 (dimensionless). The defaults are 5 GPa and 0.1,
respectively.
• For Brinell hardness enter a value for HB (SI unit: Pa). The default is 3 GPa. HB
should be between 1.30 and 7.60 GPa.

For Mikic elastic correlation select the Contact interface Young’s modulus Econtact —
Weighted harmonic mean (the default) or User defined.

• For Weighted harmonic mean, enter values or expressions for the Young’s modulus,
upside, Eu (SI unit Pa), the Young’s modulus, downside, Ed (SI unit Pa), the Poisson’s
ratio, upside, u (dimensionless), and the Poisson’s ratio, downside, d
(dimensionless). If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, enter instead values or
expressions for the Young’s modulus, source, Esrc (SI unit Pa), the Young’s modulus,
destination, Edst (SI unit Pa), the Poisson’s ratio, source, src (dimensionless), and
the Poisson’s ratio, destination, dst (dimensionless). The defaults are 0.
• For User defined enter another value or expression for the Contact interface Young’s
modulus Econtact (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 GPa.

Theory for Electrical Contact

Sector Symmetry
Select Sector Symmetry at interfaces between rotating objects where sector symmetry
is used. It is only available for pairs. A default subnode is added. Right-click to select
additional features from the Fallback Features submenu. In 2D, this feature assumes
rotation around the origin.

This feature is always used in conjunction with a Periodic Condition on

adjacent radial sector boundaries. Note that the same periodic condition
feature cannot be used on both sides of where the sector symmetry
boundaries connect with the periodic boundaries. At least two periodic
condition features are required for the model to compute correctly.

230 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

PAIR SELECTION
When using nonconforming meshes on the source and destination of a pair, for
numerical stability, a finer mesh should be applied on the destination side for any pair
with a condition that imposes a coupling or a constraint across the pair. The sector
symmetry feature falls into this category.

SECTOR SETTINGS
Enter the Number of sectors (<50) nsect. The default is 2.

Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default) or Antiperiodicity.

Based on space dimension, enter values or expressions in the table for the Axis of
rotation arot.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Line Current Source

The Line Current Source node adds a line source to edges in 3D components and to
points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric components. The line source represents electric
current per unit length.

EDGE OR POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on edges or points usually yields a

current outflow that is mesh dependent.

LINE CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line current source Qj (SI unit: A/m). This
source represents electric current per unit length. The default is 0 A/m.

Line Current Source (on Axis) for 2D axisymmetric components.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 231

 Line Current Source (on Axis)
The Line Current Source (on Axis) node adds a line source to boundaries in 2D
axisymmetric components. The line source represents electric current per unit length.

LINE CURRENT SOURCE (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression to apply a Line current source Qj (SI unit: A/m) to
boundaries. This source represents electric current per unit length.

Line Current Source

Point Current Source

The Point Current Source node adds a point source and represents an electric current
flowing out of the point. Add point sources to 3D components from the Points menu.
Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point current source Qj (SI unit: A) to points.
This source represents an electric current flowing out of the point.

• Line Current Source for 2D components

• Point Current Source (on Axis) for 2D axisymmetric components

232 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Point Current Source (on Axis)
The Point Current Source (on Axis) node adds a point source and represents an electric
current flowing out of the point in 2D axisymmetric components.

POINT SELECTION

Beware that constraining the potential on points usually yields a current

outflow that is mesh dependent.

POINT CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression to apply a Point current source Qj (SI unit: A) to points.
This source represents an electric current flowing out of the point.

• Point Current Source for 3D components

• Line Current Source for 2D components

Electric Point Dipole

The Electric Point Dipole node, available for 2D and 3D components, represents the
limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong point current
sources and current sinks of opposing signs while maintaining the product between
separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (P). The positive direction is
from the current sink to the current source.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction (the default) or Dipole moment.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 233

 DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Under Dipole Specification:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment
direction np and the Electric current dipole moment, magnitude p (SI unit: A·m).
• For Dipole moment enter the components of the Electric current dipole moment p (SI
unit: A·m).

Electric Point Dipole (on Axis)

Electric Point Dipole (on Axis)

The Electric Point Dipole (on Axis), available for 2D axisymmetric components,
represents the limiting case of zero separation distance between two equally strong
point current sources and current sinks of opposing signs while maintaining the
product between separation distance and source strength at a fixed value (P). The
positive direction is from the current sink to the current source.

ELECTRIC POINT DIPOLE (ON AXIS)

Enter the Electric current dipole moment in z direction pz (SI unit: A·m).

Electric Point Dipole

Piezoresistive Material
The Piezoresistive Material is normally used together with a Piezoresistive Effect, Domain
Currents multiphysics coupling node. The node is added by default to the Electric
Currents interface when adding a Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents predefined

234 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

multiphysics coupling interface. It is also available from the context menu (right-click
the Electric Currents interface parent node) or from the Physics toolbar.

When the Piezoresistive Material node is added to the Electric Currents

interface in the absence of an active Piezoelectric Effect, Domain Currents
multiphysics coupling node, the material behaves similarly to a Current
Conservation node, with electric properties corresponding to the relative
permittivity and electrical conductivity entered. The piezoresistive effect
is not included in the corresponding equation system.

PIEZORESISTIVE MATERIAL PROPERTY

This node should be used together with an active Piezoresistive Effect, Domain Currents
multiphysics coupling node. Select a Constitutive model — Piezoresistance form or
Elastoresistance form. For each of the following, the default uses values From material.
For User defined enter other values in the matrix or field.

• Specify a Electrical conductivity, zero stress (SI unit: S/m). This typically comes from
the material added under the Materials node.
• For Piezoresistance form, select a Piezoresistance coupling matrix l (SI unit: m4/
(sA2); note that this is equivalent to m/Pa).
• For a Elastoresistance form, select an Elastoresistance coupling matrix Ml
(SI unit: m).

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS INTERFACE | 235

 The Electric Currents in Shells
Interface
The Electric Currents in Shells (ecis) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC>Electric
Fields and Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute electric
fields, currents, and potential distributions in thin conducting layered shells under
conditions where inductive effects are negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much
larger than the studied device. It supports stationary, time-dependent and frequency
domain modeling on faces in 3D.

The electric potential can be located either on the selected surface or in a product space
spanned by the surface and the physical thickness of the shell (using an extra
dimension). For conductive shells, the physics interface solves a current conservation
equation based on Ohm’s law using the scalar electric potential as the dependent
variable. For dielectric layers the interface solves Gauss’ law (it effectively turns into a
local Electrostatics interface).

The Electric Currents in Shells interface is very similar to The Electric Currents in
Layered Shells Interface. The main difference is the default mode. The Electric
Currents in Layered Shells Interface is set to be layered by default, while the Electric
Currents in Shells interface is set to be nonlayered by default.

This interface supports layered shell features, which means each boundary
in the 3D geometry may represent a number of thin layers with different
electrical properties. Potential variations in the normal direction (in
between and inside layers) are supported. For a general description of
layer and interface selections, see Layer and Interface Selection Tools. For
more information, see the section on how to set up a Layered Material
node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations

implemented by this physics interface, see The Electric Currents
Interface, and the Theory for the Electric Currents Interface. Additional
information is available in Theory for the Electrostatics Interface chapter
and The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface chapter.

236 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ecis.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
By default, all boundaries are available for the application of The Electric Currents in
Shells Interface. Select the Restrict to layered boundaries check box to make the
interface applicable only if a layered material is defined on the boundary. If a layered
material (Material with Layer thickness specified, Single Layer Material, Layered Material
Link, or Layered Material Stack) is available, its name is then displayed beside the
boundary index (for example, slmat1), otherwise the boundary is marked as not
applicable.

SHELL PROPERTIES
The default setting of the combo box Shell type is the main difference between The
Electric Currents in Shells Interface and The Electric Currents in Layered Shells
Interface, where the former is set to be Nonlayered shell by default and the later is set
to be Layered shell by default.

When the Nonlayered shell option is selected, the interface treats the thickness as a
multiplicative factor which enters the conservation of surface currents.

• If the Restrict to layered boundaries check box is not selected in the Boundary
Selection section, a nonlayered material may be defined on the selected boundaries,
and the Thickness Lth can be set as a user defined value or expression. This value
overrides the values set in the material nodes.
• You can visualize the selected layered materials and layers in each layered material by
clicking the Layer cross section preview and Layer 3D preview buttons.
When the Layered shell option is selected, the Extra Dimension tool is used to solve the
equations through the thickness of a layered material. Depending on other settings, it
can describe the physics of objects where electric potential vary both tangentially and
perpendicularly (through the thickness).

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 237

 The thickness of the layered material should be set as follows, depending on the type
of material:

• In a Material node, the Layer thickness can be in the table found under the Material
Contents section of the material Settings window. This automatically adds a Shell
subnode under the Material node, transforming it as a layered material.
• When the layered material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell Property Group window.
• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers may be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be
defined for each of them. The total thickness of the layered material is the sum of all
the layers thicknesses.

Note that the Layered shell option should be used whenever a layered material is
applied on the boundaries, because the thickness is part of the material settings.

Clear the Use all layers check box to apply The Electric Currents in Shells Interface on
some layers only. Select a Layered material from the list (the interface is then applicable
only on the boundaries where this latter material is defined), and clear the check boxes
corresponding to layers where the interface should not be applied in the Selection table.

• The layer thickness variable, ecis.ds, used in the weak equations, is

the product of the thickness set in the Shell Properties section,
ecis.lth, and the scale factor ecis.lsc, which is equal to 1 by
default, and can be overridden by a user defined value in a single layer
material.
• The layer thickness variable, ecis.ds, is defined in all dimensions, and
is unrelated to the Out-of-plane thickness of the layered material,
htlsh.d, which is only available in 2D.

• See Layer and Interface Selection Tools.

• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

238 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 The desired selection for the physics interface may correspond to
boundaries with different layered materials. This means that a single
physics interface can accommodate several different stacking sequences.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the definition
of layered materials.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Electric potential dependent variable — Linear, Quadratic
(the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is for the Electric potential V. The name can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

Layer and Interface Selection Tools

Almost all physics nodes that you add in The Electric Currents in Shells Interface have
either a section named Shell Properties, or Layer Selection or Interface Selection.
Selections there interact with the standard selections of geometrical objects
(boundaries and edges) in order to provide a complete specification of where a material
property or boundary condition is to be applied within a layered material.

The physics features can be of two, fundamentally different, types: those who act on
the layers themselves, and those who act on the interfaces between layers. The settings
for these two types of features are slightly different.

LAYER SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on layers, the interpretations of layer selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to a domain contribution in the

selected layers.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on the
faces of the layers exposed to that edge.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 239

 This is illustrated by Figure 4-1 and Figure 4-2, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

Figure 4-1: Boundary selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

240 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Figure 4-2: Edge selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

In the Shell Properties section, it is possible to limit the contributions to individually

selected layers of the selections made in the Boundary Selection section. For a given
Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack, or Single Layer Material, you get access to
a list of check boxes for the selection of the individual layers.

INTERFACE SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on interfaces, the interpretation of interface selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on

the selected interfaces.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to edge contributions on the
interface edges parallel to the selected edge.
This is illustrated by Figure 4-3 and Figure 4-4, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 241

 Figure 4-3: Boundary selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

Figure 4-4: Edge selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

242 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

In the Interface Selection section, it is possible to select the interfaces between layers
where the contribution should be added, including the top and bottom interfaces (see
Figure 4-5 for the interfaces description). For a given Layered Material Link, Layered
Material Stack, or Single Layer Material, you get access to a list of predefined interfaces
subsets.

Figure 4-5: Definition of upside and downside settings for a boundary for different
configurations, and corresponding interfaces for a layered material.

See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates

It is possible to write expressions that are functions of the coordinates in the thickness
direction of the shell. Expressions based on the usual coordinates, like x, y, and z, are
evaluated on the reference surface (the meshed boundaries). In addition to this, the
locations in the through-thickness direction can be accessed by making explicit or
implicit use of the coordinates in the extra dimension.

The extra dimension coordinate has a name like x_llmat1_xdim. The middle part of
the coordinate name is derived from the tag of the layered material definition where it
is created; in this example a Layered Material Link.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 243

 Boundary and Edge Nodes for the Electric Currents in Shells Interface
The Electric Currents in Shells Interface has these boundary and edge nodes available
from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux
users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

ABOUT THE EDGE CONDITION SELECTIONS

The edge conditions available in The Electric Currents in Shells Interface are
applicable to exterior edges only. For shell interfaces, exterior means exterior to the
boundary selection. In other words; an edge that is connected to adjacent boundaries,
only on one side. Consequently, an edge can be regarded as interior (and therefore,
not applicable), even though it is exterior to the domain that is enclosed by the shell
boundary selection. See Layer and Interface Selection Tools for more information.

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Initial Values • Interlayer Connection

• Conductive Shell • Dielectric Layer
• Insulating Layer • Piezoelectric Layer
• Boundary Current Source • Continuity (Layered Shell)
• Interface Current Source

These nodes are available for this physics interface and described for the Electric
Currents and Electrostatics interfaces (listed in alphabetical order):

• Current Source • Ground

• Electric Insulation • Normal Current Density
• Electric Potential • Terminal
• External Current Density

244 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default is 0 V.

Conductive Shell
The Conductive Shell node is the default feature The Electric Currents in Shells
Interface. Its property depends on if the Shell type in the physics interface is set to
Nonlayered shell or Layered shell. See the description of Shell Properties at the beginning
of The Electric Currents in Shells Interface chapter for more information. Generally,
the node adds the continuity equation for the electric potential and allows for defining
the electric conductivity of the layers. This feature closely relates to Current
Conservation under The Electric Currents Interface.

LAYER MODEL
When the Shell Type is set to Layered shell, by default the Layer Model is set to General
which considers a full equivalent 3D representation of the model. For this case, the
Layer Model section provides an extra option Highly conductive layer. By selecting the
Highly conductive layer, the feature enforces the potential to be constant through the
thickness of the selected layers. For conducting layers where very small electric
potential gradients exist in the perpendicular direction, such a setting could increase
numerical stability.

Insulating Layer
The Insulating Layer offers the option to not have any current through the selected
layer, which is equivalent to removing the physics from the selected layer from the 3D
point of view. See Layer and Interface Selection Tools for more information about how
to select a layer.

Boundary Current Source

The Boundary Current Source node adds a current source Qj on the boundary.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 245

 t   J 1 – J 2  = Q j, s

It is applicable to interior boundaries that represent either a source or a sink of current.

BOUNDARY CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Boundary current source Qj,s (SI unit: A/m2). The
default is 0 A/m2.

Interface Current Source

The Interface Current Source is available for boundaries only. Instead of representing a
source interior to the layer, or a source on the layer’s outer perimeter, it represents a
net current density flowing from the adjacent domain into the shell (Qj,s, SI unit: A/
m2), It can be used to model, for example, a boundary acting as an electrode.
Alternatively, for interior interface selections it can represent a source of current on an
interface between layers.

In the 3D representation of the layer stack, you could consider it a Boundary Current
Source applied to either the top or bottom of the layer stack or on an interface between
layers. For more information on the 3D representation of the layer stack, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.

Use this node with caution as it might violate the current conservation law
that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Select the interfaces for which the source contribution should be added.

For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and
Interface Selection Tools.

INTERFACE CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj,s (SI unit: A/m2). The default is
0 A/m2.

246 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Interlayer Connection
The Interlayer Connection is available only on edges, where it removes for the selected
layers, the potential gradient in the perpendicular direction (in the direction of the
extra dimension). The layers will become electrically connected, and the top and
bottom of all involved layers will have the same potential. Multiple Interlayer
Connection features can be applied to create groups of connected layers.

An Interlayer Connection on a single layer can be used to locally convert the full 3D
formulation into an in-plane conservation problem. For thin highly conductive layers,
this is numerically more stable.

SHELL PROPERTIES
For a general description of layer and interface selections, see Layer and Interface
Selection Tools.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Dielectric Layer
The Dielectric Layer feature is only available for Layered Shell. The node adds the
Poisson’s equation for the electric potential and allows for defining the electric
permittivity of the layers. This feature closely relates to Charge Conservation under
The Electrostatics Interface.

Piezoelectric Layer
The Piezoelectric Layer feature is an extension of the Dielectric Layer. It offers the
option to have multiphysics coupling with the corresponding Layered Shell physics
interface node to model piezoelectric devices.

Continuity (Layered Shell)

The Continuity feature is only available for the interface where the Layer Type sets to
Layered Shell. Use this node to specify the side-by-side continuity conditions on the
electric potential at an edge between two layered materials. By default, the electric
potential is discontinuous at the interface between two layered materials.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN SHELLS INTERFACE | 247

 LAYER SELECTION
Select Source and Destination layered materials from the lists. This makes the node
applicable on the edges adjacent to both selected layered materials. Click the Layer
Cross Section Preview button to visualize the settings.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

CONNECTION SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Select either Straight (default) or Twisted as the Connection type.

Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary

The Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary multiphysics coupling assures
continuity of the electric potential between The Electric Currents in Shells Interface
and The Electric Currents Interface. The Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary
node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by right-clicking
the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The Electric Currents in Shells
Interface and The Electric Currents Interface are available.

248 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

The Electric Currents in Layered
Shells Interface
The Electric Currents in Layered Shells (ecis) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electric Fields and Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used to
compute electric field, current, and potential distributions in thin and thick conductive
shells and dielectrics, optionally with an internal layered structure. Inductive effects are
assumed to be negligible; that is, the skin depth should be much larger than the studied
device. It supports stationary, time-dependent and frequency domain modeling on
faces in 3D.

The Electric Currents in Layered Shells interface is very similar to The Electric
Currents in Shells Interface. The main difference is the default mode. The Electric
Currents in Shells Interface is set to be nonlayered by default, while the Electric
Currents in Layered Shells interface is set to be layered by default.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics interface, see The

Electric Currents in Shells Interface chapter.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN LAYERED SHELLS INTERFACE | 249

 The Electric Currents, Single Layer
Shell Interface
The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell (ecs) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electromagnetics and Mechanics>Piezoresistivity branch when adding a physics
interface, is a legacy interface used to compute electric field, current, and potential
distributions in thin conducting shells under conditions where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device. It
supports stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal analysis, and time-domain
modeling on edges in 2D and faces in 3D

In earlier version this interface was called Electric Currents, Shell. It has
been replaced by The Electric Currents in Shells Interface, which is found
under the AC/DC branch ( ).

The physics interface solves a current conservation equation based on Ohm's law using
the scalar electric potential as the dependent variable.

Current Conservation is the main node, which adds the equation for the electric
potential and provides a Settings window for defining the electrical conductivity as well
as the constitutive relation for the electric displacement field and its associated material
properties such as the relative permittivity.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder— Current Conservation, Electric Insulation (the default edge or point condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for

250 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

example, edge or point conditions and current sources. You can also right-click Electric
Currents, Single Layer Shell to select physics features from the context menu.

Except where described here, the majority of the Settings windows are the
same as for the Electrostatics and Electric Currents interfaces as
referenced. The only difference are:

• For 3D components, boundaries are selected instead of domains, and

edges instead of boundaries.
• For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, boundaries are selected
instead of domains, and points instead of edges and boundaries.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations

implemented by this physics interface, see the Theory for the Electric
Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ecs.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS

For 2D components, enter a value or expression for the Thickness d. The

default value is 1 unit length.

Use the Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) node to define specific

boundaries or points instead of a global setting for the thickness.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SINGLE LAYER SHELL INTERFACE | 251

 SHELL THICKNESS
Enter a value or expression for the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default value is
1 cm.

When modeling with shells, the Shell Thickness section defines a parameter
that enters the equations everywhere. It is available in all dimensions.

This is unrelated to the Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) node, which is

only available in 2D and represents the out-of-plane length of the shell,
which is being modeled as a cross-section.

When modeling in 2D, this means that on the physics interface Settings
window, there are two sections — the Shell Thickness and Out-of-Plane
Thickness — available, as well as two feature nodes — Change Shell
Thickness and Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane).

MANUAL TERMINAL SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 .

Select the Activate manual terminal sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke
a parametric sweep over the terminals. Enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a
specific name to the variable that controls the terminal number solved for during the
sweep. The default is PortName. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of
capacitance matrix elements. The terminal settings must consistently be of either fixed
voltage or fixed charge type.

The lumped parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Enter a file path or Browse
for a file. Select a Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export —
Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and
imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create
new. Select a Parameter to export — Z (the default), Y, or S.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

252 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

DISCRETIZATION

• Computing Lumped Parameters

• Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents,
Single Layer Shell Interface

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents,
Single Layer Shell Interface
The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface has these boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

ABOUT THE EDGE AND POINT CONDITIONS

The nodes in Table 4-1 are available at interfaces between different media and interior
edges (in 3D components) and point conditions (in 2D and 2D axisymmetric
components) in continuity; that is,

n2   J1 – J2  = 0

which is the natural edge/point condition.

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Change Shell Thickness • Electric Shielding

• Current Conservation • Initial Values
• Current Source • Normal Current Density

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SINGLE LAYER SHELL INTERFACE | 253

 These nodes are available for this physics interface and described for the Electric
Currents and Electrostatics interfaces (listed in alphabetical order):

• Archie’s Law • Electric Potential

• Boundary Current Source • External Current Density
• Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) • Ground
• Current Source • Initial Values
• Distributed Impedance • Line Current Source
• Effective Medium • Point Current Source
• Electric Insulation • Terminal
• Electric Point Dipole

Current Conservation
The Current Conservation node adds the continuity equation for the electrical potential
and provides an interface for defining the electric conductivity as well as the
constitutive relation and the relative permittivity for the displacement current.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

ELECTRIC FIELD
See Electric Field as described for the Charge Conservation node for the Electrostatics
interface.

254 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) for the media is defined From
material. Or select User defined, Linearized resistivity, Effective medium, or Archie’s law.

Note that general anisotropy is not supported. The boundary orientation

has to be normal to one of the principal directions of the material tensor,
that is parallel to a plane spanned by the two other principal directions.
Violating this condition will result in incorrect results without any
warning or error message.

User Defined
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions in the
field or matrix.

If another type of temperature dependence is used other than a linear

temperature relation, enter any expression for the conductivity as a
function of temperature.

Linearized Resistivity
Select Linearized resistivity for a temperature-dependent conductivity (this occurs in,
for example, Joule heating, and is also called resistive heating). The equation
describing the conductivity:

1
 = ---------------------------------------------------
 0  1 +   T – T ref  

where 0 is the resistivity at the reference temperature T0, and  is the temperature
coefficient of resistance, which describes how the resistivity varies with temperature.

The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient
 (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity 0 (SI unit: m) are taken From material,
which means that the values are taken from the domain material.

Only certain material models support the Linearized resistivity. See AC/
DC Material Library in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SINGLE LAYER SHELL INTERFACE | 255

 To specify other values for any of these properties, select User defined from the list and
then enter a value or expression. T is the current temperature, which can be a value
that is specified as a model input or the temperature from a Heat Transfer interface.
The definition of the temperature field appears in the Model Inputs section.

When Effective medium is selected, the Effective Medium subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. When Archie’s law is selected, an Archie’s Law subnode is available.

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add
more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
The default is 0 V.

Current Source
The Current Source node adds a distributed current source Qj in the equation that the
physics interface defines. Use this node with caution as it might violate the current
conservation law that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

ELECTRODE CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj (SI unit: A/m3). The default is
0 A/m3.

Change Shell Thickness

Add a Change Shell Thickness node to specify a different shell thickness for a subset of
the boundaries or edges where the Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell interface is
defined.

256 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

CHANGE SHELL THICKNESS
Enter a Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 1 cm.

Normal Current Density

The Normal Current Density node represents a current density flowing normally from
the domain into the shell boundary. This condition is different from the Current
Source node since it represents a net current density flowing from the adjacent domain
into the shell, and can be used to model, for example, a boundary acting as an
electrode.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

NORMAL CURRENT DENSITY

Enter a value or expression for the Normal current density Jn (SI unit: A/m2). The
default is 0 A/m2.

Electric Shielding
The Electric Shielding node, available for 3D components, can be used to model a
geometrically thin section of shell made of a highly conductive medium. The layer
thickness parameter dl specifies the thickness in the direction tangential to the shell,
while the thickness in the direction normal to the shell is taken from the physics
interface or, if present, from a Change Shell Thickness node.

The layer has an electrical conductivity of and a relative permittivity of r.

ELECTRIC SHIELDING
The default Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) and Electrical conductivity 
(SI unit: S/m) take values From material. For User defined enter different values or
expressions.

Enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness dl (SI unit: m). The default is 1 cm.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SINGLE LAYER SHELL INTERFACE | 257

 The Electric Currents, Layered Shell
Interface
The Electric Currents, Layered Shell (ecls) interface ( ), which is a legacy interface
used to compute electric fields, currents, and potential distributions in thin conducting
layered shells under conditions where inductive effects are negligible; that is, when the
skin depth is much larger than the studied device. It supports stationary modeling on
faces in 3D.

The model with this interface can still be opened and solved. The
interface cannot be added as a new interface and it has been replaced by
The Electric Currents in Layered Shells Interface, which is found under
the Electric Fields and Currents folder under the AC/DC branch ( ).

The physics interface solves a current conservation equation based on Ohm’s law using
the scalar electric potential as the dependent variable. The electric potential is added
either by the Layered Shell feature or the Homogenized Shell feature. Both features
have advantages and disadvantages, particularly considering shell thickness and
electrical connections between the shells.

For (moderately) thick shells, the layered shell implementation is superior as it provides
a full 3D representation (perpendicular potential gradients and -currents are included
by means of an extra dimension). The homogenized shell implementation instead only
solves for in-plane potential gradients. It requires less degrees of freedom, and is
numerically more stable. It is especially useful for very thin layers, for which the layered
shell implementation may fail. Moreover, it naturally preserves electrical continuity
across edges interior to the shell. Both the Layered Shell feature and the Homogenized
Shell feature are equipped with a number of subfeatures, allowing you to take
advantage of the strength of each, in different parts of the model.

When the physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added to the Model
Builder— Layered Shell and Electric Insulation (the default edge condition). Then, from
the Physics toolbar, other nodes can be added that implement, for example, boundary

258 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

or edge conditions and interlayer connections. You can also right-click Electric
Currents, Layered Shell to select physics features from the context menu.

• This interface supports the Layered Shell feature, which means each
boundary may represent a number of thin layers with different
electrical properties. Potential variations in the normal direction (in
between and inside layers) are supported. For a general description of
layer and interface selections, see The Layer Selection Section. See also
the section on how to set up a Layered Material node in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For a more extensive introduction to the physics and equations

implemented by this physics interface, see The Electric Currents
Interface, and the Theory for the Electric Currents Interface. Additional
information is available in The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell
Interface chapter.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ecls.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 259

 LAYER SELECTION
Select the applicable layers (the default setting is All layered materials). If no layered
materials have been included yet, there is a shorthand available for creating a Single
Layer Material (the plus, next to the Layer Selection setting).

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Electric potential V. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model. This variable is explicitly used only by Homogenized Shell features. The Layered
Shell features have their own variable name (for the degrees of freedom in the extra
dimension).

DISCRETIZATION
The setting for the discretization order is shared by the Homogenized Shell degrees of
freedom and the Layered Shell degrees of freedom.

The Layer Selection Section

Almost all physics nodes that you add in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell interface
have a section named Layer Selection. Selections there interact with the standard
selections of geometrical objects (boundaries and edges) in order to provide a
complete specification of where a material property or boundary condition is to be
applied.

The physics features can be of two, fundamentally different, types: Those which act on
the layers themselves, and those which act on the interfaces between layers. The
settings for these two types of features are slightly different.

The default selections in the Layer Selection section differ between different physics
features. This reflects the fact that some physics features (such as the Layered Shell
feature) are more likely to be applied to all layers, whereas other features (such as the

260 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

Homogenized Shell Connection) are more likely to be used for a single layer or
interface.

In the Layer list, you can select

• All layered materials. This option is not available for all features.
• Any Layered Material Link defined under Materials in the current component.
• Any Layered Material Stack defined under Materials in the current component.
• Any Single Layer Material defined under Materials in the current component.

If you select All layered materials, you cannot control individual layers; the contribution
is given to all layers. All information is taken from the definitions made in the layered
material features (Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack, or Single Layer Material)
under Materials in the current component. This means that a single physics node can
accommodate several different stacking sequences. As geometrical selection, you can
use any object selected in any of the layered material features.

If you select an individual Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack, or Single Layer
Material, then you can only select geometrical objects which are part of the selections
of that feature. In most cases, you will get access to a list of check boxes where you can
further limit the contributions to individually selected layers or interfaces to which this
contribution is to be added.

LAYER SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on layers, the interpretation of layer selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to a domain contribution in the

selected layers.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on the
faces of the layers exposed to that edge.
This is illustrated by Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 261

 Figure 4-6: Boundary selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

Figure 4-7: Edge selection with layers 2 and 5 selected.

262 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

INTERFACE SELECTIONS
When a physics feature acts on interfaces, the interpretation of interface selections are:

• A boundary selection in the geometry corresponds to boundary contributions on

the selected interfaces.
• An edge selection in the geometry corresponds to edge contributions on the
interface edges parallel to the selected edge.
This is illustrated by Figure 4-8 and Figure 4-9, where the patch at the lower left is the
actual shell, and the 3D sketch shows an expanded view of what it would represent in
the physical world.

Figure 4-8: Boundary selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 263

 Figure 4-9: Edge selection with interfaces ‘layer 2 - layer 3’ and ‘layer 5 up’ selected.

Electrical Continuity in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface

Electric potential in Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface can be described either
by the Homogenized Shell, or Layered Shell feature.

• The Homogenized Shell feature imposes electrical continuity among all adjacent
homogenized shells, regardless whether they belong to the same Layered Material.
• The Layered Shell feature exclusively imposes electrical continuity within layered
shells sharing the same Layered Material.
• The Layered Shell feature and the Homogenized Shell feature are electrically insulated
by default (even when sharing the same Layered Material). To override this insulation
you can use the Homogenized Shell Connection feature.

For more information; these cases are demonstrated in the Solid to Multilayered Shell
Comparison model available in the Application Library.

Using the Extra Dimension Coordinates

Sometimes, you want to write expressions that are functions of the coordinates in the
thickness direction of the shell. If you write expressions based on the usual coordinates,

264 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

like x, y, and z, such an expression will be evaluated on the reference surface (the
meshed boundaries). In addition to this, you can access locations in the
through-thickness direction by making explicit or implicit use of the coordinates in the
extra dimension.

The extra dimension coordinate has a name like x_llmat1_xdim. The middle part of
the coordinate name is derived from the tag of the layered material definition where it
is created; in this example a Layered Material Link.

Boundary and Edge Nodes for the Electric Currents, Layered Shell
Interface
The Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface has these boundary and edge nodes
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

ABOUT THE EDGE CONDITION SELECTIONS

The edge conditions available in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface are
applicable to exterior edges only. For shell interfaces, exterior means exterior to the
boundary selection. In other words; an edge that is connected to adjacent boundaries,
only on one side. Consequently, an edge can be regarded as interior (and therefore,
not applicable), even though it is exterior to the domain that is enclosed by the shell
boundary selection.

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Layered Shell • Varying Thickness

• Interlayer Connection • Layer Current Source
• Homogenized Shell Connection • Interface Current Source
• Homogenized Shell

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 265

 These nodes are available for this physics interface and described for the Electric
Currents and Electrostatics interfaces (listed in alphabetical order):

• Electric Insulation • Ground

• Electric Potential • Terminal
• External Current Density

Layered Shell
The Layered Shell node adds the continuity equation for the electric potential and
allows for defining the electric conductivity of the layers. This interface closely relates
to Current Conservation under The Electric Currents Interface. Even though the
interface works on the boundary level, the resulting equations correspond directly to
a volumetric model. The Layered Shell includes an extra dimension to describe
perpendicular gradients.

Notice that the Layered Shell requires a Layered Material. This has consequences for the
continuity equation. For more information about continuity handling, see Electrical
Continuity in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface.

LAYER SELECTION
Select the applicable layers (the default setting is All layered materials). Additionally,
there is a shorthand available for creating a Single Layer Material (the plus, next to the
Layer Selection setting).

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.
• The default Layered Shell feature will be locked to the physics interface
selection. You can add additional Layered Shell features for specific
layers, overriding the default properties.
• You can provide material parameters with a through-thickness variation
by explicitly or implicitly using expressions containing the extra
dimension coordinate as described in Using the Extra Dimension
Coordinates.

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CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) of the layers is defined as From
material. If you select User defined, the same user defined value will be applied to all
selected layers.

Note that, as opposed to the Current Conservation feature in the Electric

Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface, and the Homogenized Shell
feature in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface, the Layered Shell
feature does support general anisotropy.

User Defined
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full depending on the
characteristics of the electrical conductivity, and then enter values or expressions in the
field or matrix.

Interlayer Connection
The Interlayer Connection is available both for boundaries, and edges. In both cases it
removes for the selected layers, the potential gradient in the perpendicular direction
(in the direction of the extra dimension). The layers will become electrically
connected, and the top and bottom of all involved layers will have the same potential.
Multiple Interlayer Connection features can be applied to create groups of connected
layers.

An Interlayer Connection on a single layer can be used to locally convert the full 3D
formulation into an in-plane conservation problem. For thin highly conductive layers,
this is numerically more stable.

LAYER SELECTION
Select the applicable layers. The layered material is given by the Layered Shell parent
feature.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 267

 Homogenized Shell Connection
The Homogenized Shell Connection is available for edges. It can be used to override the
natural default electric insulation between Layered Shell and Homogenized Shell features.
For more information about continuity of electric potential in Electric Currents,
Layered Shell interface, go to Electrical Continuity in the Electric Currents, Layered
Shell Interface.

The Homogenized Shell Connection removes for the selected layers, the potential
gradient in the direction normal to the shell (in the direction of the extra dimension),
by setting the potential equal to the one in the base selection. The base selection
potential is the one used by the Homogenized Shell feature. Setting the potential equal
to the base potential creates an electrical connection between the selected layers, and
Homogenized Shell boundaries adjacent to the selected edge.

LAYER SELECTION
Select the applicable layers. The layered material is given by the Layered Shell parent
feature.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Homogenized Shell
The Homogenized Shell feature takes the material properties from one or more selected
layers, and determines their effective material properties. It integrates the conductivity
in the direction normal to the shell (in the direction of the extra dimension), taking
the local layer thickness into account:

1
 eff = ---
d   dx ,
XD

where d refers to the total thickness of all layers involved. For a discrete set of layers
having their own uniform material properties, this integral effectively translates to a
sum of conductivities, multiplied by their corresponding local layer thickness:

268 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 n
1
 eff = ---
d  d l i  i .
i=1

This represents a parallel connection of resistors. The Varying Thickness subfeature can
be used to locally affect the degree to which a particular layer contributes to the sum.

• If composite, layered materials and general anisotropy are not of

interest to you and you want to solve an in-shell current conservation
problem (as with The Electric Currents, Single Layer Shell Interface),
use a Homogenized Shell feature with a Single Layer Material.
• The Varying Thickness subfeature will allow you to set a spatially or
temporally varying thickness (to model material deposition and such).
• The electric potential is automatically continuous among adjacent
Homogenized Shells. More information about continuity in Electric
Currents, Layered Shell interface can be found in the chapter Electrical
Continuity in the Electric Currents, Layered Shell Interface.

The resulting material properties are then used in a current conservation problem, that
only considers the potential gradients tangential to the shell (in-plane conservation
law):

 T   d eff E T  =  T  J s =  Qs dx ,
XD

where the product deffET is effectively the surface current density Js in A/m. ET is
the tangential electric field, and Qs represents a volumetric source of current. Without
sources, the right-hand side becomes zero, and in-plane current should be conserved.

When applied to a single layer, the Homogenized Shell is virtually identical to the
traditional, nonlayered Current Conservation feature in the Electric Currents, Single
Layer Shell Interface.

LAYER SELECTION
Select the layers to be included in the integral for the effective material properties.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 269

 CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m) of the layers is defined as From
material. If you select User defined, the same user defined value will be applied to all
selected layers.

Varying Thickness
The Varying Thickness feature is a subfeature to the Homogenized Shell feature. It allows
to set a spatially or temporally varying thickness. This is typically used for modeling
material deposition and such. For more information on varying thickness and the
homogenized shell, see the Homogenized Shell feature.

LAYER SELECTION
Select the layers for which the thickness should be varied.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

VARYING THICKNESS
Enter a value or expression for the Selected layers thickness dl (SI unit: m). May depend
on location, time, temperature, or other quantities. The default value is 0.1 mm.

Layer Current Source

The Layer Current Source is available both for boundaries, and edges. In case of a
boundary, it represents a volumetric source of current Qj,v inside the selected layers (SI
unit: A/m3).

In case of an edge, it represents an influx of current Qj,s from the edge into the
neighboring layers (SI unit: A/m2). In the 3D representation of the layer stack, you
could consider it a “boundary current source” applied to one of the boundaries on the
outer perimeter of the layer. For more information on the 3D representation of the
layer stack, see The Layer Selection Section.

Use this node with caution as it might violate the current conservation law
that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

270 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

LAYER SELECTION
Select the layers for which the source contribution should be added.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

LAYER CURRENT SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj,v or Qj,s (SI unit: A/m3 or A/
m2, respectively). For the boundary feature, the default is 0 A/m3, for an edge feature,
the default is 0 A/m2.

Interface Current Source

The Interface Current Source is available for boundaries only. It is similar to the Layer
Current Source, but instead of representing a source interior to the layer, or a source
on the layer’s outer perimeter, it represents a net current density flowing from the
adjacent domain into the shell (Qj,s, SI unit: A/m2), It can be used to model, for
example, a boundary acting as an electrode. Alternatively, for interior interface
selections it can represent a source of current on an interface between layers.

In the 3D representation of the layer stack, you could consider it a “boundary current
source” applied to either the top or bottom of the layer stack or on an interface
between layers. For more information on the 3D representation of the layer stack, see
The Layer Selection Section.

Use this node with caution as it might violate the current conservation law
that is inherent in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.

INTERFACE SELECTION
Select the interfaces for which the source contribution should be added.

• For a general description of layer and interface selections, see The

Layer Selection Section.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENTS, LAYERED SHELL INTERFACE | 271

 INTERFACE CURRENT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Current source Qj,s (SI unit: A/m2). The default is
0 A/m2.

Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary

The Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary multiphysics coupling assures
continuity of the electric potential between The Electric Currents, Layered Shell
Interface and The Electric Currents Interface. The Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via
Boundary node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by
right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The Electric
Currents, Layered Shell Interface and The Electric Currents Interface are available.

272 | CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC FIELD AND CURRENT INTERFACES

 5

Magnetic Field Interfaces

This chapter summarizes the functionality of the magnetic field interfaces found
under the Magnetic Fields, No Currents and Electromagnetic Fields folders under the
AC/DC branch ( ). It also includes one interface under the Electromagnetics and
Mechanics folder.

In this chapter:

• The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface

• The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface
• The Magnetic Fields Interface
• The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface
• The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface
• The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface

273
 The Magnetic Fields, No Currents
Interface
The Magnetic Fields, No Currents (mfnc) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Magnetic Fields, No Currents branch when adding a physics interface, is used to
compute magnetostatic fields from permanent magnets and other current free
magnetic sources. The formulation is stationary but for use together with other physics
also time-domain modeling is supported in 2D and 3D.

The physics interface solves Gauss’ law for the magnetic field using the scalar magnetic
potential as the dependent variable.

The main node is the Magnetic Flux Conservation feature, which adds the equation
for the magnetic potential and provides an interface for defining the material
properties and the constitutive relation for the magnetic flux density. It is used when
there are no currents and all the magnetic fields are originated by permanent magnets
or external systems not included in the model.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Magnetic Flux Conservation, Magnetic Insulation
(the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar,
add other nodes that implement, for example, additional boundary conditions and
point conditions. You can also right-click Magnetic Fields, No Currents to select physics
features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

274 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

Except where described below, the Settings windows are described for the
Magnetic Fields and Electrostatics interfaces.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mfnc.

BACKGROUND MAGNETIC FIELD

Select an option from the Solve for list — Reduced field or Full field (the default). For
Reduced field specify a Background magnetic field Hb (SI unit: A/m). The entered
expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

When a background field is active, the physics interface solves for the reduced
(perturbation) field only. This setting, together with the External Magnetic Flux
Density feature, is useful to introduce an external field generated by systems not
included in the model.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 275

 THICKNESS

Enter a value or expression for the Out-of-plane thickness d. The default

value of 1 unit length is typically not representative for a thin domain.
Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical
to the equation used for 3D components.

ERROR CHECK
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

When the Check applicability of features in study check box is selected, any features that
are incompatible with the study will generate an error message when trying to solve or
show the default solver. No solver will be generated. Deselect it and you will be able
to run the model, possibly with runtime errors instead. It is available to allow the
advanced user to tweak any feature and use it outside of its intended study scope.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic scalar potential Vm. The
name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic scalar potential dependent variable — Linear,
Quadratic (the default), or Cubic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface

• Magnetic Prospecting of Iron Ore Deposits: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Introductory_Magnetostatics/magnetic_prospecting
• Magnetic Signature of a Submarine: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Introductory_Magnetostatics/
magnetic_signature_submarine

276 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields,
No Currents Interface
The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface has these domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

To obtain a unique solution, the value of the magnetic potential must be

provided at least at one point. If the magnetic insulation boundary
condition is used everywhere, the potential has to be fixed using a point
condition.

ABOUT THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

In magnetostatics the relevant physics interface condition between two domains 1 and
2 is

n2   B1 – B2  = 0

This condition provides continuity of the normal component of the magnetic flux
density and is automatically satisfied by the natural boundary condition for interior
boundaries, which is

n     0 V m – M  1 –   0 V m – M  2  = – n   B 1 – B 2  = 0

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 277

 AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes are available for this physics interface and listed in alphabetical order. Also
see Table 5-1 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions.

• External Magnetic Flux Density • Magnetic Scalar Potential

• Initial Values • Magnetic Shielding
• Force Calculation1 • Periodic Condition
• Magnet • Sector Symmetry1
• Magnetic Flux Conservation • Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic
• Magnetic Flux Density Field)

• Magnetic Insulation • Thin Low Permeability Gap

• Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential
1
Described for another physics interface in this user guide.

• Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Table 5-1 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface.
TABLE 5-1: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS
INTERFACE

PHYSICS NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

External Magnetic Flux Density x

Magnetic Flux Density x
Magnetic Insulation x x
Magnetic Scalar Potential x x
Magnetic Shielding x x
Periodic Condition x
Symmetry Plane x
Thin Low Permeability Gap x
Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential x x

278 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Flux Conservation
The Magnetic Flux Conservation node adds Equation 2-19 above (or a similar equation
depending on the selected constitutive relation) for the magnetic potential and
provides an interface for defining the constitutive relation and the relevant material
properties (for example, the relative permeability).

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

See the settings for Constitutive Relation B-H under Ampère’s Law,
except for these differences:

• Magnetic losses and Effective B-H curve, being time-harmonic material

models, are not available.
• Select B-H curve to use a curve that relates magnetic flux density B and
the magnetic field H as B f H. To define B, select From material
(the default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to
specify a value or expression for the magnitude of the magnetic flux
density in the field that appears.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic scalar potential that can
serve as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic scalar potential Vm. The
default value is 0 A.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 279

 Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents interface provides
magnetic insulation using the following boundary condition, which sets the normal
component of the magnetic flux density to zero n B  0. Magnetic insulation is the
default boundary condition.

This condition is useful at boundaries confining a surrounding region of

air or to model symmetry cuts.

Magnetic Scalar Potential

The Magnetic Scalar Potential node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic scalar
potential:

V m = V m0

MAGNETIC SCALAR POTENTIAL

Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic scalar potential Vm0 (SI unit: A). The
default is 0 A.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Magnet
The Magnet node is used to model one or multiple magnets, simplifying the definition
of the magnetization direction in each magnet. In the The Rotating Machinery,
Magnetic Interface, this feature is called Nonconducting Magnet.

280 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

MAGNET

Direction Method
Select the Direction method to be used for determining the direction of the
magnetization in the magnet. Choose between:

• Specify north and south boundaries, where the north and south boundaries of the
magnet can be selected. The direction of the magnetization is then calculated based
on the position average of each pole.
• Specify by domains, which allows the magnetization direction to be set individually
in different subselections of the Magnet feature. The magnetization in each such
domain can then be set by either specifying the north and south boundaries, or by
entering a user defined direction.

• User defined, which allows the user to manually specify a direction vector for the
magnetization.

Pattern Type
This section is only available when Specify north and south boundaries is selected as the
Direction method. The setting makes it possible to automatically set the magnetization
direction for multiple magnets following a certain pattern. Choose between No
pattern, Circular pattern, and Linear pattern (or domain index based). When Circular
pattern is selected, the magnetization direction for each pattern element is determined
by its position in a circle and a pattern repetition angle. Select Linear pattern (or domain
index based) to repeat the definition of the magnetization direction in a selection of
magnets that are linearly displaced.

Type of Periodicity
This section is only available when Circular pattern or Linear pattern (or domain index
based) is chosen as the Pattern type. The different options are Repeating, Alternating,
and User defined. When Repeating is selected, the magnetization direction is the same
in each element. Select Alternating to instead have the magnetization direction reversed
for each repeated element in the pattern. If the alternating pattern is applied to an odd
number of magnets, the north and south boundaries should be specified for the first
magnet in the pattern. The User defined option is only available for a circular pattern
and allows a custom input that determines how much the magnetization direction
should change between each element.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 281

 Pattern Additional Angle
This section is only available when User defined is chosen as the Type of periodicity,
when also having Circular pattern as the Pattern type. This angle is added to the
magnetization direction for each repetition in the pattern.

Pattern Center
This section is only available when Circular pattern is chosen as the Pattern type. It
defines the center of the circular pattern.

Pattern Axis
This section is only available when Circular pattern is chosen as the Pattern type. This
setting is only available in 3D, and defines the axis around which the pattern is created.

Direction of Magnetization
This section is only available when User defined is selected as the Direction method in
the Magnet feature. This input vector is equivalent to the one that can be added when
Magnetization is selected in the Magnetic Flux Conservation feature.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

This section is identical to the one in the Magnetic Flux Conservation node, apart from
that only the options Remanent flux density and Nonlinear permanent magnet are
available here.

Magnetic Flux Density

The Magnetic Flux Density node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic flux
density. The following equation defines the normal component of the magnetic flux
density using a magnetic flux vector B0:

n  B = n  B0 (5-1)

Using this boundary condition specify the normal component of the magnetic flux
density at the boundary.

Alternatively, specify an inward (or outward) flux density using the following equation:

–n  B = Bn (5-2)

Using this formulation, it is possible to specify the normal component of the magnetic
flux density as a scalar.

282 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY
Select a Type of the boundary condition to use — Inward flux density (the default) or
Magnetic Flux density:

• For Inward flux density it defines the boundary condition according to

Equation 5-2. Enter a scalar value or expression for the normal component of the
Inward flux density Bn (SI unit: T). A positive value represents an inward flux.
• For Magnetic flux density it defines the boundary condition according to
Equation 5-1. Enter a value or expression for each component of the Magnetic flux
density B0 (SI unit: T) in the corresponding fields.

Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential

The Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential node provides a boundary condition that specifies a
zero magnetic potential on the boundary Vm 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic Field)

The Symmetry Plane node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry or
antisymmetry in the magnetic field, depending on which option is chosen.

SYMMETRY TYPE
Choose between Symmetry and Antisymmetry for the magnetic field. If Symmetry is
chosen, the boundary condition is

nH = 0

which states that the normal component of the magnetic field is zero. If Antisymmetry
is chosen, the boundary condition becomes

nH = 0

which states that the tangential components of the magnetic field are zero.

Permanent Magnet: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Magnetostatics/permanent_magnet

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 283

 External Magnetic Flux Density

This node is only available when solving a problem with a background

magnetic flux density (Reduced field is selected from the Solve for list under
Background Field in the physics interface Settings window).

The External Magnetic Flux Density boundary condition forces the reduced magnetic
flux density to be zero on the boundary, or, equivalently, forces the total field to be
equal to the background field. Apply this boundary condition on external boundaries
that are at a distance far enough from the system so that its effect on the background
field is negligible.

Magnetic Shielding
The Magnetic Shielding node adds a boundary condition for magnetic shielding. It
describes a thin layer of a highly permeable medium that shields the magnetic field.
The boundary condition uses the following equations for the normal magnetic flux
density discontinuity and the tangential magnetic field inside the layer:

n   B1 – B2  = t   ds Bt  Ht  
Ht = –t Vm

In these equations, t represents a tangential derivative (gradient), and ds is the

surface thickness.

MAGNETIC SHIELDING
Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m).

Relative Permeability
Select Relative permeability r (dimensionless) to use the constitutive relation
B  0rH. The default uses values From material. For User defined enter another value
or expression.

B-H Curve
Select B-H curve B (SI unit: T) to use a curve that relates magnetic field H and the
magnetic flux density B as B  fH. The Magnetic flux density norm setting can take
the values From material or User defined.

284 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Scalar Potential Discontinuity
The Magnetic Scalar Potential Discontinuity node adds a boundary condition on an
interior boundary which allows for a prescribed discontinuity in the magnetic scalar
potential. The difference in magnetic scalar potential through this boundary is given by

u d
V m – V m = V m d

where Vmu is the magnetic scalar potential on the upside of the boundary selection and

Vmd is the magnetic scalar potential on the downside.

When applied to a cut boundary making a nonsimply connected region simply

connected, this feature formally represents a surface current flowing along the
boundaries connecting the upside and downside boundaries.

Thin Low Permeability Gap

The Thin Low Permeability Gap node adds a boundary condition on an interior
boundary which allows for a discontinuity in the magnetic scalar potential. This feature
represents a thin layer in a magnetic material filled with another material that has
smaller relative magnetic permeability. Use this feature to model, for example, an air
gap in a magnetic circuit. Enter a relative magnetic permeability r for the thin layer
material as well as a thickness ds. The difference in magnetic flux through this
boundary is given by

V m 1 – V m 2
n  B 1 =  0  r  --------------------------------- = – n  B 2
ds

where Vm,1 is the magnetic scalar potential on the upside of the boundary selection
and Vm,2 is the magnetic scalar potential on the downside.

THIN LOW PERMEABILITY GAP

The default Relative permeability r (dimensionless) uses values From material. For User
defined enter a different value or expression. Enter a value or expression for the Surface
thickness ds (SI unit: m).

Archie’s Law
See the Archie’s Law section in the Electric Field and Current Interfaces chapter.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS INTERFACE | 285

 The Magnetic Fields, No Currents,
Boundary Elements Interface
The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements (mfncbe) interface ( ), found
under the AC/DC>Magnetic Fields, No Currents branch when adding a physics interface,
is used to compute magnetostatic fields from permanent magnets and other current
free magnetic sources. It can also be coupled to The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only
Interface or The Magnetic Fields Interface to account for outer, current free regions
as an alternative to using Infinite Elements. The formulation is stationary. The physics
interface solves Gauss’ Law for the magnetic field using the scalar magnetic potential
as the dependent variable.

–     0  r V m  = 0 .

For a discussion about the boundary element method, see Theory for the
Boundary Elements PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Magnetic Flux Conservation, Magnetic Insulation (on exterior boundaries), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, magnetic scalar potential and magnetic flux density conditions. You can also
right-click Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements to select physics features
from the context menu.

If both The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface and The Magnetic
Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface are available, the
Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling node is available from the
Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by right-clicking the
Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder.

286 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 If both The Magnetic Fields Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No
Currents, Boundary Elements Interface are available, the Magnetic
Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics
menu in the Physics toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings
node in Model Builder.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics will be used to automatically set up an appropriate

meshing sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, select any of the options — Manual, All domains, All voids, or All
domains and voids (the default). The geometric entity list displays the selected domain
entity numbers. Edit the list of selected domain entity numbers using the selection
toolbar buttons to the right of the list or by selecting the geometric entities in the
Graphics window. Entity numbers for voids can be entered by clicking the Paste ( )
button in the selection toolbar and supplying the entity numbers in the in the dialog
box. The entity number for the infinite void is 0, and finite voids have negative entity
numbers.

Selections can also be entered using the Selection List window, available from the
Windows menu on the Home toolbar.

For more information about making selections, see Working with

Geometric Entities in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 287

 PHYSICS SYMBOLS
Select the Enable physics symbols check box to display symmetry planes (in 3D) and
lines (in 2D) in the Graphics window, as specified in the Symmetry settings.

SYMMETRY

For 3D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane, Condition for
the y = y0 plane, and Condition for the z = z0 plane lists, choose Off (the
default), Symmetric (infinite magnetic insulation plane), or Antisymmetric
(infinite ground plane). Then enter the value for the plane location x0, y0,
or z0 (SI unit: m) as required.

For 2D components, from the Condition for the x = x0 plane and Condition
for the y = y0 plane lists, choose Off (the default), Symmetric (infinite
magnetic insulation line), or Antisymmetric (infinite ground line). Then
enter the value for the plane location x0 or z0 (SI unit: m) as required.

FAR FIELD APPROXIMATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

For more information about the Far Field Approximation settings, see
Far-Field Approximation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

QUADRATURE
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

For more information about the Quadrature settings, see Quadrature in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THICKNESS (2D COMPONENTS)

For 2D components, enter a default value for the Out-of-plane thickness d (SI unit: m).
The default value of 1 unit length is typically not representative for a thin domain.
Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the
equation used for 3D components.

288 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

INFINITY CONDITION

For 3D components, select the Infinity condition — Magnetic insulation

(the default) or Zero magnetic scalar potential at infinity. If there is an
antisymmetric symmetry in the potential field, it acts as an added infinite
ground plane with a fixed value of the magnetic scalar potential. The value
at infinity is fixed to 0 by the presence of the infinite ground plane, so for
this case there is only a fixed Zero magnetic scalar potential at infinity
condition.

For 2D components, select the Infinity condition — Magnetic insulation

(the default) or Zero magnetic scalar potential at reference distance. If there
is an antisymmetric symmetry in the potential field, it acts as an added
ground line with a fixed value of the magnetic scalar potential. The value
at a reference distance is fixed to 0 by the presence of the ground line, so
for this case there is only a fixed Zero magnetic scalar potential at reference
distance condition.

DISCRETIZATION
From the Magnetic scalar potential/Magnetic flux density list, choose from predefined
options for the boundary element discretization order for the magnetic scalar potential
variable and the magnetic flux density variable, respectively. The predefined options
represent the suitable combinations of element orders such as Quadratic/Linear (the
default).

The settings under Value types when using splitting of complex variables are important
for sensitivity and optimization computations. See the description of the built-in
operators fsens and fsensimag.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic scalar potential Vm. The
name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a model.

Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents,

Boundary Elements Interface
The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface has these domain
and boundary nodes available from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 289

 context menu (macOS or Linux users), or by right-clicking the physics interface in the
Model Builder to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes and subnodes are described in this section:

• Magnetic Flux Conservation • Magnetic Scalar Potential

1
• Force Calculation • Magnetic Flux Density
• Magnetic Insulation • Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential
• Initial Values Coupling

• Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential • Magnetic Vector-Scalar Potential

Coupling
1
Described for another physics interface in this user guide.

Magnetic Flux Conservation

The Magnetic Flux Conservation node adds Equation 2-19 (or a similar equation
depending on the selected constitutive relation) for the magnetic scalar potential and
provides an interface for defining the constitutive relation and the relevant material
properties (for example, the relative permeability).

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

See the settings for Constitutive Relation B-H under Ampère’s Law.
Notice that the Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements
interface supports the following constitutive relations only: Relative
permeability, Remanent flux density, and Magnetization.

Notice that the boundary element method is based on the availability of

an analytic Green’s function for the domain. Thus, the Relative
permeability must evaluate to a constant value for each Magnetic Flux
Conservation node.

290 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node for the Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary
Elements interface provides the default boundary condition. The magnetic insulation
boundary condition sets the normal component of the magnetic flux density to zero:

nB = 0

This condition is useful at boundaries confining a surrounding region of

air or to model symmetry cuts.

Initial Values
Initial Values adds an initial value for the magnetic scalar potential that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
Add more Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar, Global menu.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic scalar potential Vm. The
default value is 0 A.

Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential

The Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential node provides a boundary condition that specifies a
zero magnetic potential on the boundary Vm 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Magnetic Scalar Potential

The Magnetic Scalar Potential node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic scalar
potential:

V m = V m0

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 291

 MAGNETIC SCALAR POTENTIAL
Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic scalar potential Vm0 (SI unit: A). The
default is 0 A.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Magnetic Flux Density

The Magnetic Flux Density node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic flux
density.

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

See the settings for Magnetic Flux Density in the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents documentation. Notice that the Magnetic Fields, No Currents,
Boundary Elements interface supports the Inward flux density option only.

Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling

The Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling multiphysics node assures continuity of
the magnetic scalar potential across boundaries between The Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements
Interface. The Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling node is available from the
Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings
node in Model Builder, if both The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface and The
Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface are available.

The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface can be set to solve for the
Reduced field using the Background Magnetic Field setting. The Magnetic
Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface does not have such a
setting but it can be made to represent an open boundary for the reduced
field by adding, in The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface, an
External Magnetic Flux Density feature on the boundary selection for the
Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling.

292 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 When using The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements
Interface with iterative solvers, Right Preconditioning is preferred. Thus, it
is advised to check that Right Preconditioning is used when combining the
Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling with The Magnetic Fields, No
Currents, Boundary Elements Interface and other physics interfaces.
How to define Right Preconditioning is described in Iterative in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the list
of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All boundaries
is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents interface that intersect the exterior boundaries to the Magnetic Fields, No
Currents, Boundary Elements interface are available in the boundary entity number
list.

When using the symmetry options at the physics interface level as

discussed in Symmetry, there will be no degrees of freedom on the
symmetry planes. For such cases, please make sure that the coupling
selection does not contain boundaries that intersect with the symmetry
planes.

COUPLED INTERFACES
Select Magnetic Fields, No Currents as Primary interface and Magnetic Fields, No Currents,
Boundary Elements as Secondary interface.

Magnetic Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling

The Magnetic Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling multiphysics node assures continuity of
the magnetic flux density across boundaries between The Magnetic Fields Interface
and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface. The Magnetic
Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling node is available from the Multiphysics menu in the
Physics toolbar or by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, NO CURRENTS, BOUNDARY ELEMENTS INTERFACE | 293

 both The Magnetic Fields Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary
Elements Interface are available.

The Magnetic Fields Interface can be set to solve for the Reduced field
using the Background Magnetic Field setting. The Magnetic Fields, No
Currents, Boundary Elements Interface does not have such a setting but
it can be made to represent an open boundary for the reduced field by
adding, in The Magnetic Fields Interface, a Magnetic Field feature with
the background magnetic field on the boundary selection for the Magnetic
Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling.

When combining The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements

Interface with The Magnetic Fields Interface, the latter has to use Gauge
Fixing for A-Field and a solved using Fully Coupled and a Direct solver,
see the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on Fully
Coupled and Direct.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the list
of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All boundaries
is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to the Magnetic Fields
interface that intersect the exterior boundaries to the Magnetic Fields, No Currents,
Boundary Elements interface are available in the boundary entity number list.

When using the symmetry options at the physics interface level as

discussed in Symmetry, there will be no degrees of freedom on the
symmetry planes. For such cases, please make sure that the coupling
selection does not contain boundaries that intersect with the symmetry
planes.

COUPLED INTERFACES
Select Magnetic Fields as Primary interface and Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary
Elements as Secondary interface.

294 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Magnetic Fields Interface
The Magnetic Fields (mf) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC>Electromagnetic Fields
branch when adding a physics interface, is used to compute magnetic field and induced
current distributions in and around coils, conductors, and magnets. Depending on the
licensed products, stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal analysis, and
time-domain modeling are supported in 2D and 3D. Note that the frequency and
time-domain formulations become ill-posed when approaching the static limit. You
can extend the useful frequency range downward by adding a low conductivity.

The physics interface solves Maxwell’s equations, which are formulated using the
magnetic vector potential and, optionally for coils, the scalar electric potential as the
dependent variables.

The main node is Ampère’s law, which adds the equation for the magnetic vector
potential and provides an interface for defining the constitutive relations and its
associated properties, such as the relative permeability.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Magnetic Fields, Ampère’s Law, Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement boundary conditions and external currents. You can also right-click
Magnetic Fields to select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 295

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mf.

BACKGROUND FIELD
This section allows the specification of a background magnetic vector potential (that
generates a background magnetic flux density).

Select an option to Solve for — Full field (the default) or Reduced field. When Reduced
field is selected, choose the Background field specification — Magnetic vector potential
(the default) or Uniform magnetic flux density. Mathematically, the background field is
always specified as a background magnetic vector potential. The Uniform magnetic flux
density option will apply an appropriate magnetic vector potential generating the
specified magnetic flux density. In axisymmetric geometries, the uniform background
field is applied in the axial direction.

For Magnetic vector potential, enter values or expressions for the Background magnetic
vector potential Ab (SI unit: Wb/m). The defaults are 0 Wb/m. For Uniform magnetic
flux density, in 2D or 3D components, enter the values or expressions of the
components of the Uniform magnetic flux density Bb (SI unit: T); in 2D axisymmetric
components, enter the value or expression of the Uniform axial magnetic flux density
Bb,z (SI unit: T). The defaults are 0 T. The specified background magnetic flux
densities must be uniform (space-independent), but they can be a function of time.

When a background field is active, this solves for the relative (perturbated) field only.
This setting, together with the External Magnetic Vector Potential feature, is useful to
introduce an external field generated by systems not included in the model.

COMPONENTS
This section is only available in 2D and 2D axially symmetric components.

The current vector has the same direction as the magnetic vector potential. This setting
also controls the direction in which applied and induced currents can flow in the
model. The default option is to solve for the out-of-plane component only for 2D and
2D axisymmetric components.

296 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Select Components — Out-of-plane vector potential (the default), In-plane vector
potential, or Three-component vector potential for the magnetic vector potential.

From the practical viewpoint this choice is equivalent to deciding in what directions
the electric current is allowed to flow (out-of-plane currents, in-plane currents, or
currents flowing in all three coordinate directions) and affects other settings in the
model, for example, the Port Properties>Type of port section for the Lumped Port
node.

When In-plane vector potential or Three-component vector potential is selected, the

Gauge Fixing for A-Field node becomes available.

In 2D axisymmetric dimension, The Covariant Formulation is used.

THICKNESS
For 2D components, enter a value or expression for the global Out-of-plane thickness d
(SI unit: m). The default of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin domain.
Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the
equation used for 3D components.

Use the Change Thickness (Out-of-Plane) node (described for the Electrostatics
interface) to define specific geometric entities (for example, domains) instead of a
global setting for the thickness.

PORT SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the Lumped Port features. Enter a Sweep parameter name to
indicate the name of the model parameter that controls the port activated in each step
of the sweep. The default is PortName. The name given must match the model
parameter, defined under Global Definitions, that is object of a Parametric Sweep node
in the current Study.

The lumped parameters computed can be subject to a Touchstone file export. To

activate this functionality, enter a file path or click Browse to navigate to a file. Select a
Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export — Magnitude and angle (MA)
(the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and imaginary parts (RI). Select
the desired operation to perform from the If file exists list — Overwrite (the default) or
Create new. The latter is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Enter a Reference impedance, Touchstone file export Zref (SI unit: ). The
default is 50 .

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 297

 ERROR CHECK
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

When the Check applicability of features in study check box is selected, any features that
are incompatible with the study will generate an error message when trying to solve or
show the default solver. No solver will be generated. Clear the check box and you will
be able to run the model, possibly with runtime errors instead. It is available to allow
the advanced user to tweak any feature and use it outside of its intended study scope.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Magnetic vector potential A. You can change both its field
name and the individual component variable names. If the new field name coincides
with the name of another magnetic vector potential field in the model, the physics
interfaces share degrees of freedom and component names. The new field name must
not coincide with the name of a field of another type, or with a component name
belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique within a model,
except for fields of the same type sharing a common field name.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic vector potential dependent variable — Linear,
Quadratic (the default), or Cubic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields
Interface
• Computing Lumped Parameters
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface

Quadrupole Lens: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Electromagnetics/quadrupole

Eddy Currents: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Introductory_Electromagnetics/eddy_currents

298 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields
Interface
The Magnetic Fields interface has these domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes
available, which are listed in alphabetical order.

About the Boundary Conditions

With no surface currents present, the physics interface conditions

n2   A1 – A2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because A is being solved for, the tangential component of the
magnetic potential is always continuous, and thus the first condition is automatically
fulfilled. The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary condition and is
hence also fulfilled unless surface currents are explicitly introduced.

Table 5-2 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface.
TABLE 5-2: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

External Magnetic Vector Potential x x

Impedance Boundary Condition x
Layered Transition Boundary x
Condition
Lumped Port x x
Magnetic Field x
Magnetic Insulation x x
Magnetic Potential x x
Magnetic Shielding x
Perfect Magnetic Conductor x x
Periodic Condition x
Surface Current Density x x
Surface Magnetic Current Density x x
Symmetry Plane x
Thin Low Permeability Gap x
Transition Boundary Condition x

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 299

 Available Nodes
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

300 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Also see Table 5-2 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions.

• Ampère’s Law • Lumped Port

• Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic • Magnet
• Ampère’s Law, Nonlinear • Magnetic Field
Magnetostrictive • Magnetic Insulation (the default
• Boundary Feed boundary condition)
• Coil • Magnetic Point Dipole
• Coil Geometry • Magnetic Point Dipole (on Axis)
• Edge Current • Magnetic Potential
• Electric Point Dipole • Magnetic Shielding
• External Current Density • Passive Conductor
• External Magnetic Vector Potential • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Force Calculation (described for the • Periodic Pair
Electrostatics interface) • Sector Symmetry
• Gap Feed • Single Conductor Coil
• Harmonic Perturbation • Surface Current Density
• Impedance Boundary Condition • Surface Magnetic Current Density
• Initial Values • Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic Flux
• Layered Transition Boundary Density)
Condition • Thin Low Permeability Gap
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane) • Transition Boundary Condition
• Velocity (Lorentz Term)

For 2D axisymmetric components, the COMSOL software takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries
only.

Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 301

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Ampère’s Law
The Ampère’s Law node adds Ampère’s law for the magnetic field and provides an
interface for defining the constitutive relation and its associated properties as well as
electric properties.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation, and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Non-solid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

Specify the constitutive relation that describes the macroscopic properties of the
medium (relating the magnetic flux density B and the magnetic field H) and the
applicable material properties, such as the relative permeability.

The equation for the selected constitutive relation displays under the list. For all
options, the default uses values From material, or select User defined to enter a different
value or expression.

Select a Magnetization model — Relative permeability (the default), B-H curve, Magnetic
losses, Remanent flux density, Magnetization, Effective B-H curve, Hysteresis Jiles–Atherton
model, Nonlinear permanent magnet, Analytic magnetization curve, or External material.

Analytic magnetization curve option is available only when the Material type
is set to Solid.

302 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Relative Permeability
Select Relative permeability r (dimensionless) to use the constitutive relation
B  0rH. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter
values or expressions in the field or matrix. If Effective medium is selected, a Effective
Medium subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as
well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu, which can specify the relative
permeability of the mixture.

B-H Curve
Select B-H curve H (SI unit: A/m) to use a curve that relates magnetic flux density B
and the magnetic field H as H  fB.

The Magnetic field norm and Magnetic coenergy density settings can take the values From
material or User defined.

When User defined is selected, specify a user-defined expression for the magnetic field
norm. The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the same as the direction of
the magnetic flux density at each point.

Do not select this option in a Frequency Domain study, such as when

using The Induction Heating Interface. This option is not relevant for
time harmonic modeling, which assumes linear material properties.

Check your own B-H curve data using the B-H Curve Checker:
Application Library path ACDC_Module/Applications/bh_curve_checker

Magnetic Losses
This option introduces a complex relative permeability and it is intended for
time-harmonic (frequency domain) studies. Therefore, it is not available for The
Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface.

Select Magnetic losses  and (dimensionless) to describe the relative permeability as

a complex-valued quantity: r    i, where  and  are the real and imaginary
parts, respectively.

Remanent Flux Density

Select Remanent flux density Br (SI unit: T) to use the constitutive relation
B = 0recH + Br, where rec and Br are the recoil permeability and the remanent flux
density respectively (the flux density when no magnetic field is present). The recoil
permeability rec is very similar to the relative permeability, and is valid as long as the
magnet is subjected to normal operating conditions (it is only valid within the linear

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 303

 region close to the vertical axis H = 0). Br is given by taking the remanent flux density
norm (typically, provided by the material) and multiplying it with a normalized
direction field specified in the physics: Br = Br e/e.

• The default recoil permeability rec (dimensionless) uses values From material. For
User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics
of the recoil permeability and enter another value or expression in the field or
matrix.
• The remanent flux density norm Br is taken From material by default. The AC/
DC branch in the material library contains a number of hard magnetic
materials specifically for this purpose. Alternatively, chose User defined, and specify
your own expression.
• Enter x and y components for the Remanent flux direction e. For 3D components,
enter x, y, and z components.

Magnetization
Select Magnetization M (SI unit: A/m) to use the constitutive relation B  0H  0M.
Enter x and y components. For 3D components, enter x, y, and z components.

Effective B-H Curve

Select Effective B-H curve Heff (SI unit: A/m) to use an effective curve that provides
the local linearized relation between the magnetic flux density B and the magnetic field
H in time-harmonic problems.

This option is designed for time-harmonic (Frequency domain) problems

and implements a effective saturation model for nonlinear materials. See
Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive Relations for more
information.

Generate the effective B-H curve data using the Effective Nonlinear
Magnetic Curves Calculator: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Applications/effective_nonlinear_magnetic_curves

Nonlinear Permanent Magnet

Select Nonlinear permanent magnetto use a nonlinear BH-relation that is isotropic
around a point in H space that is shifted by the coercive field Hc. This constitutive
relation is intended for easy modeling of self-demagnetization of soft permanent
magnets. It is recommended to keep all input settings at the default From material and
use the example material, Nonlinear Permanent Magnet in the AC/DC material library
either as is or as a template for defining customized materials. The latter is done by

304 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

changing the interpolation functions defined in the material. The example material is
a generic and approximate representation of AlNiCo 5.

The Direction of magnetization is the only input that normally should be entered in the
physics.

Do not select this option in a Frequency Domain study, such as when

using The Induction Heating Interface. This option is not relevant for
time harmonic modeling, which assumes linear material properties.

See also Effective Nonlinear Magnetic Constitutive Relations in the

theory section.

Hysteresis Jiles–Atherton model

Select the Hysteresis Jiles–Atherton model to use in the constitutive relation
B  0H  0M with the magnetization M (SI unit: A/m) computed from the
solution of the five parameters Jiles–Atherton model. Specify the five parameters Ms, a,
k, c, and  either from the material (default) or as user defined. The example material
Jiles–Atherton Hysteretic Material is available in the AC/DC material library. The
parameters may be tensor quantities resulting in the modeling of an anisotropic
hysteretic material as shown in the application library entry:

Vector Hysteresis Modeling: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Verifications/vector_hysteresis_modeling

In stationary study, the model defaults to use Transient initialization defined by the user.
Switch it to Parametric hysteresis when performing Parametric Sweep on time instants.
The entry Initial Magnetization is present to set the initial values of Jiles–Atherton
variables.

The Discretization section is used to choose the discretization order of Jiles–Atherton

variables.

For a more through description of the model, its parameters and literature
references, see The Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model in the theory
section.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 305

 Analytic Magnetization Curve
Select this option use the constitutive relation B  0(H  M(H)  Mr), where Mr is
the remanent magnetization (SI unit: A/m), and the magnetization vector is M(H) is
calculated from the magnetic field using a nonlinear relation with possible saturation
and hysteresis. This option is available only when the Material type is set to Solid.

The material is assumed to exhibit spontaneous magnetization, so that it is constituted

of domains with nonzero magnetization even at zero applied field. Application of a
magnetic field can rearrange the domains resulting into the net magnetization in the
material. At very large applied fields, the magnetization saturates, as all domains in the
material become aligned along the direction of the applied field. Domain wall
interactions can also lead to a significant hysteresis in the magnetization process.

All domains have magnetization of the same magnitude |M|  Ms, but the
magnetization can have different orientations. The applied magnetic field changes the
domain orientation, and the resulting net magnetization is found from the following
nonlinear implicit relation:

H eff
M = M s L  H eff  --------------
H eff

The effective field in the material is given by

H eff = H + M

where the matrix  characterizes the interdomain coupling.

The magnetization shape is characterized by the function L with the following

properties:

For weak effective fields, the magnetization is nearly linear

M   0 H eff

and can be characterized by the initial magnetic susceptibility matrix 0.

For strong fields, the magnetization magnitude approaches the saturation value

H eff
M  M s --------------
H eff

The magnetization shape is characterized be the Langevin function

306 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 3 0 H eff Ms
L = coth  ------------------------ – -----------------------------
Ms 3 0m H eff

where 0 is the magnetic susceptibility in the initial linear region.

Other possible choices of the L function are a hyperbolic tangent, which is sometimes
referred to as the Ising model

 0 H eff
L = tanh  ---------------------
 Ms 

and a linear function

 0 H eff
L = ---------------------
Ms

The latter option will make it possible to find an explicit expression for the
magnetization. However, such model does not have a proper saturation behavior, and
thus it should be used only in the operating range far from saturation. Both the
Langevin function and hyperbolic tangent models requires the magnetization vector
components to be treated as extra dependent variables.

Possible hysteresis of in the material magnetization is characterize using the Jiles–

Atherton model. The model assumes that the total magnetization can be represented
as a sum of hysteretic and anhysteretic parts, the latter one is given by

H eff
M an = M s L  H eff  --------------
H eff

The change in the total magnetization caused by the change on the effective magnetic
field is represented as

dM = c r dM an + max    dH eff 0   
–1
 = k p  M an – M 

where cr is the reversibility parameter, and kp is the pining loss parameter. The above
can be solved using either a time-dependent analysis or a stationary parametric sweep.

For more details, see The Jiles–Atherton Hysteresis Model in the theory
section.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 307

 External Material
Select External material to use a curve that relates magnetic flux density B and the
magnetic field H as H  fB according to an externally coded function.

Specify the External material to use (from the Materials node under Global Definitions).
This setting allows using material models or constitutive relations defined in an
external library. See Working with External Materials for more information.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E

This section is described for the Current Conservation feature.

The options Effective medium and Archie’s law require additional subnodes. If Effective
medium is selected, a Effective Medium subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. If
Archie’s law is selected, add an Archie’s Law subnode in the same way. These subnodes
contain additional settings to specify how the material properties are computed.
Effective medium models a mixture of materials whose properties are computed by
averaging the properties of the components. Archie’s law models a conductive liquid in
a nonconductive matrix.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION D-E

The default Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) for the media is used From material
and defined on the shell domain. For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full based on the characteristics of the permittivity and then enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. If Effective medium is selected, a Effective Medium
subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as well as
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu, which can specify the relative permittivity of
the mixture.

Ampère’s Law, Magnetostrictive

The Ampère’s Law, Magnetostrictive node is obsolete and will be removed

in future versions. It cannot be added in version 6.1 and later, but may be
present in models created by earlier versions of the software.

You are advised to update your model to use one of the new multiphysics
interfaces instead, either The Nonlinear Magnetostriction Interface or
The Piezomagnetism Interface (for modeling linear magnetostrictive
effects).

308 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic
The Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic node adds Ampère’s law for the magnetic field in a
piezomagnetic material (also called linear magnetostrictive material), and it provides
an interface for defining the electric properties. It is normally used as part of the
Piezomagnetic Effect multiphysics interface (described in the Structural Mechanics
Module User’s Guide) together with a Piezomagnetic Effect multiphysics coupling node
and Piezomagnetic Material node in the corresponding Solid Mechanics interface.
Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic node is added by default to the Magnetic Fields interface
when adding a Piezomagnetic Effect multiphysics interface. The interface requires the
AC/DC Module and at least one of the following modules: Structural Mechanics,
MEMS, Acoustics.

When the Ampère’s Law, Piezomagnetic node is added to the Magnetic

Fields interface in the absence of an active Piezomagnetic Effect
multiphysics coupling node, the material behaves similarly to an Ampère’s
Law node with some limitations. Thus, the magnetic permittivity of free
space will be assumed. The piezomagnetic effect is then not included in
the corresponding equation system.

Ampère’s Law, Nonlinear Magnetostrictive

MAGNETIZATION
Specify the constitutive relation that describes the macroscopic properties of the
medium (relating the magnetic flux density B and the magnetic field H) for a
magnetostrictive material:

B =  0  H + M  H S mech  + M r 

where M  H S mech  is the material magnetization that depends on the magnetic field
and mechanical stress, and Mr is the remanent magnetization vector (SI unit: A/m).

• Nonlinear Magnetostriction
• Modeling Magnetostrictive Materials
• Analytic Magnetization Curve

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 309

 CONDUCTION CURRENT
This section is described for the Current Conservation feature.

ELECTRIC FIELD
The default Relative permittivity r (dimensionless) for the media is used From material.
For User defined, select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the
characteristics of the permittivity and then enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential A that can
serve as an initial value for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the Magnetic vector potential A (SI unit: Wb/m). The
defaults are 0 Wb/m.

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears on the right-hand side of the equation that the Magnetic Fields interface
defines.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

clicking Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Enter a value or expression for each component of the External current density Je
(SI unit: A/m2). The defaults are 0 A/m2.

The external current density does not contribute to the losses (due to Joule heating),
since there is no electric field associated with it. To include the contribution to the
losses from the external current density, select the Add contribution of the external
current density to the losses check box. Then select an option from the External losses
list — From domain conductivity (the default) or User defined. If From domain
conductivity is selected, the heat source is computed using the conductivity specified in

310 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

the material model feature (such as Ampère’s Law) that is applied in the domain. For
User defined, enter a value for Qe (SI unit: W/m3) to specify a user-defined heat source.

Velocity (Lorentz Term)

The Velocity (Lorentz term) node adds velocity v. The external current is equal to
v × B.

This node is available in 2D and 2D axisymmetry space dimensions of the Magnetic

Fields, Magnetic and Electric Fields, and Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interfaces. In 2D
and 2D axisymmetry, it is available when only solving for the out-of-plane component
of the magnetic vector potential. The node is also available in 3D Magnetic and
Electric Fields interface when solving for both the electric potential and the magnetic
vector potential.

Correct use of the velocity feature requires deep physical insight. In

situations when the moving domain is of bounded extent in the direction
of the motion, material properties vary in this direction, or the domains
contains magnetic sources that also move, the Lorentz term must not be
used.

There are several library examples demonstrating the correct usage:

• Magnet Falling Through Copper Tube: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Devices,_Transducers_and_Actuators/falling_magnet
• Magnetic Brake: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Devices,_Transducers_and_Actuators/magnetic_brake
• Homopolar Generator: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/homopolar_generator

An operational definition of when it can be used is that the moving domain should only
contain an induced magnetic source (magnetization plus eddy currents) that has to be
stationary with respect to the motion. Thus, it cannot be used for modeling projectiles
of finite length or projectiles containing magnets. It can be used to model conductive,
homogeneous spinning disks (magnetic brakes); magnets over a moving infinite

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 311

 homogeneous plane (maglev trains); and flow of homogeneous conducting fluid past
a magnet (liquid metal pumps or Hall generators/thrusters, for example).

If you are not sure how to proceed, contact the COMSOL Support
Center: https://www.comsol.com/support.

VELOCITY (LORENTZ TERM)

User defined is selected by default. Enter the components for the Velocity vector v
(SI unit: m/s) or, if present, select any velocity field defined in the model. For example,
using the velocity field is useful when coupling to the velocity field of a fluid for a
magnetohydrodynamic model.

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node is the default boundary condition for the Magnetic Fields
interface and adds a boundary condition that sets the tangential components of the
magnetic potential to zero at the boundary n  A = 0.

• Strictly speaking, the tangential components of the magnetic potential

is n  An.
• Magnetic insulation is a special case of the Magnetic Potential
boundary condition that sets the tangential component of the
magnetic potential to zero.

This node is used for the modeling of a lossless metallic surface, for example, a ground
plane or as a symmetry type boundary condition. The node imposes symmetry for
magnetic fields and “magnetic currents.” In the transient and time harmonic
formulations, it also imposes antisymmetry for electric fields and electric currents. The
node supports induced electric surface currents and thus any prescribed or induced
electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents) flowing into a perfect electric
conductor boundary are automatically balanced by induced surface currents.

312 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Magnetic Insulation node can also be applied on interior boundaries. The
boundary will then support two surface current densities on the two sides, denoted bu
Jsu (upside) and Jsd (downside).

Js
J
I'
I

Js

Figure 5-1: The magnetic insulation boundary condition is used on exterior and interior
boundaries representing the surface of a lossless metallic conductor or (on exterior
boundaries) a symmetry cut. The shaded (metallic) region is not part of the model but still
carries effective mirror images of the sources. Note also that any current flowing into the
boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents. The tangential vector
potential (and electric field) vanishes at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Weak constraints perform poorly when applied on vector elements. They

should be used when the magnetic vector potential is discretized with
Lagrange elements, for example, when solving for out-of-plane
component in a two-dimensional component.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field node adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n  H = n  H0

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar by clicking the
Attributes menu and selecting Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 313

 MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the Magnetic Field H0 (SI unit: A/m) vector
coordinates. The defaults are 0 A/m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Surface Current Density

The Surface Current node adds a boundary condition for a surface current density Js:

–n  H = Js
n   H1 – H2  = Js

These expressions apply to exterior and interior boundaries respectively. Add a

contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or clicking
Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

SURFACE CURRENT
Enter values or expressions for the Surface current density Js0 (SI unit: A/m)
coordinates. The defaults are 0 A/m.

Surface Magnetic Current Density

The Surface Magnetic Current Density boundary condition

n  E = J ms
n 2   E 1 – E 2  = – J ms

specifies a surface magnetic current density at both exterior and interior boundaries,
respectively. The magnetic current density is specified as a three-dimensional vector,
but because it needs to flow along the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics
projects it onto the boundary surface and neglects its normal component. This makes
it easier to specify the magnetic current density and avoids unexpected results when a
magnetic current density with a component normal to the surface is given.

314 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

SURFACE MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface magnetic current density
Jms0 (SI unit: V/m).

Symmetry Plane (for Magnetic Flux Density)

The Symmetry Plane node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry or
antisymmetry in the magnetic flux density, depending on which option is chosen.

SYMMETRY TYPE
Choose between Symmetry and Antisymmetry for the magnetic flux density. If
Symmetry is chosen, the boundary condition is

nB = 0

which states that the normal component of the magnetic flux density is zero. If
Antisymmetry is chosen, the boundary condition becomes

nB = 0

which states that the tangential components of the magnetic flux density are zero.

Magnetotellurics: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Resistive/magnetotellurics

Magnetic Potential
By default, the Magnetic Potential node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic
vector potential:

n  A = n  A0

where A0 is defined in the Magnetic Potential section. As the equation suggests, the
boundary condition only guarantees that the tangential components of A and A0 are
equal. Their normal components might deviate depending on specific situations. For
reduced field formulation where the background field is specified in the interface
settings, the node acts the same as the Magnetic Insulation feature.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 315

 MAGNETIC POTENTIAL
Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic vector potential A0 (SI unit: Wb/m)
coordinates.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Perfect Magnetic Conductor

The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition n  H = 0 is a special case of the
surface current boundary condition that sets the tangential component of the
magnetic field and thus also the surface current density to zero. On external
boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance” boundary condition
or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes symmetry for electric fields
and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents) are not
allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as that would violate
current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic conductor
boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero, which, in
addition to setting the surface current density to zero, also makes the tangential
magnetic vector potential (and in dynamics the tangential electric field) discontinuous.

Js=0

I'
I
J=0

Figure 5-2: The perfect magnetic conductor boundary condition is used on exterior
boundaries representing the surface of a high impedance region or a symmetry cut
(equivalent to using antisymmetry in Symmetry Plane feature). The shaded (high
impedance) region is not part of the model but carries effective mirror images of the
sources. Note also that any electric current flowing into the boundary is forbidden as it
cannot be balanced by induced electric surface currents. The tangential magnetic field
vanishes at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

316 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Periodic Pair
Use the Periodic Pair node, selected from the Pairs menu, to specify a pair where the
periodic condition is applied to the magnetic vector potential. It is used to constrain
continuity in a linear periodic machine where only a finite part is modeled. This node
is different from the Periodic Condition feature that does not apply to pairs.

PAIR SELECTION
From the Pairs selection list, choose the pair which defines the source and destination
boundaries.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Linear Motor in 2D: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/linear_motor_2d

Line Current (Out-of-Plane)

Use the Line Current (Out-of-Plane) node, selected from the Points menu, to specify a
line current out of the modeling plane. In axially symmetric geometries this is the
rotational (azimuthal) direction; in 2D geometries this is the z direction.

LINE CURRENT (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter a value or expression for the Out-of-plane current I0 (SI unit: A).

Line Current (on Axis)

The Line Current (on Axis) feature is available for 2D axisymmetric components. It
applies to edges that coincide with the symmetry axis, and is active only when in-plane
magnetic vector potential components are available (for more information, see
Components). Use the Line Current (on Axis) feature to specify a line current along the
symmetry axis.

LINE CURRENT (ON AXIS)

Enter a value or expression for the Line current in z direction Iz (SI unit: A).

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 317

 Electric Point Dipole
Add Electric Point Dipole nodes to 3D and 2D components. This represents the limiting
case of when the length d of a current filament carrying uniform current I approaches
zero while maintaining the product between I and d. The dipole moment is a vector
entity with the positive direction set by the current flow.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction (the default) or Dipole moment.

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Under Dipole specification:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment
direction np (the defaults are 0) and Electric current dipole moment, magnitude p
(SI unit: Am) (the default is 0 Am).
• For Dipole moment enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment p
(SI unit: Am). The defaults are 0 Am.

Gauge Fixing for A-Field

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components. Gauge fixing is available when

vector (curl) shape functions are used, that is, when having in-plane
dependent variables. The node is made available when In-plane vector
potential or Three-component vector potential is selected from the
Components section on the Settings window for The Magnetic Fields
Interface.

The Gauge Fixing for A-Field node enforces the gauge A  0 by adding an additional
potential variable, , and its associated conservation equation to the system. This is

318 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

often necessary to get a unique and numerically stable solution to the equation solving
for the magnetic vector potential A.

See two blog posts about what is and how to use the gauge fixing:

• https://www.comsol.com/blogs/
what-is-gauge-fixing-a-theoretical-introduction/
• https://www.comsol.com/blogs/
how-do-i-use-gauge-fixing-in-comsol-multiphysics/

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define the gauge-fixing potential . In
most cases, the feature should be applied to all domains where the magnetic vector
potential A is solved for. By default, the selection is set to All domains, ensuring that
the gauge fixing is applied to all the valid domains in the model.

GAUGE FIXING FOR A-FIELD

In 3D, there is an option to change the feature’s Equation form, which is set to Study
controlled by default. For Time Dependent and Frequency Domain studies, set
Equation form to Stationary can be efficient to handle regions without conductivity.

The variable is used to impose a condition on the derivatives of the magnetic vector
potential, so its absolute value does not have particular significance; only its gradient
enters the equations (the variable  acts more or less like a potential). The absolute
value of the variable can be set by entering the Divergence condition variable scaling 0
(SI unit: A/m). The default value is 1 A/m, which is appropriate for most models.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

This section allows a more fine control on the boundary conditions for  applied by
the Gauge Fixing feature. The domain equation for  only imposes a condition on the
gradient, so it is important to constrain the absolute value of  to ensure a nonsingular
model. The Constant value on insulation boundaries check box (selected by default)
imposes a constant value on the conductive boundaries in the model, such as Magnetic
Insulation.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 319

 If there are no such boundaries, select the Ensure constraint on value to ensure that
there is always a constraint set (at least in one point) on the value of the divergence
condition variable .

If you apply Gauge Fixing across pair boundaries, the internal logic for
constraining  in at least one point does not work. The problem is most
likely to appear in gauge fixing for rotating machinery. Assume you have
one gauge fixed Ampère's Law domain in the stator and one in the rotor,
then one must use separate Gauge Fixing features for these as the geometry
analysis for setting up point constraints on  does not work across pairs.
It can also be handled by adding manual constraints on .

Applying Gauge Fixing to nonlinear models, for example with materials

involving magnetic saturation has the known side-effect that the
nonlinear solver fails to converge for models with zero or numerically
small excitation. Thus, starting for example parametric sweeps from
exactly zero applied source currents should be avoided.

Magnet
The Magnet node is used to model one or multiple magnets, simplifying the definition
of the magnetization direction in each magnet. In configurations with electric
conductivity, this feature allows for imposing electrical insulation on boundaries,
making it easier to compute losses in segmented magnets. It is also possible to add a
Loss Calculation subfeature in order to compute induced losses. In the The Rotating
Machinery, Magnetic Interface, this feature is called Conducting Magnet.

MAGNET

Direction Method
Select the Direction method to be used for determining the direction of the
magnetization in the magnet. Choose between:

• Specify north and south boundaries, where the north and south boundaries of the
magnet can be selected. The direction of the magnetization is then calculated based
on the position average of each pole.
• Specify by domains, which allows the magnetization direction to be set individually
in different subselections of the Magnet feature. The magnetization in each such

320 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 domain can then be set by either specifying the north and south boundaries, or by
entering a user defined direction.

• User defined, which allows the user to manually specify a direction vector for the
magnetization.

Pattern Type
This section is only available when Specify north and south boundaries is selected as the
Direction method. The setting makes it possible to automatically set the magnetization
direction for multiple magnets following a certain pattern. Choose between No
pattern, Circular pattern, and Linear pattern (or domain index based). When Circular
pattern is selected, the magnetization direction for each pattern element is determined
by its position in a circle and a pattern repetition angle. Select Linear pattern (or domain
index based) to repeat the definition of the magnetization direction in a selection of
magnets that are linearly displaced.

Type of Periodicity
This section is only available when Circular pattern or Linear pattern (or domain index
based) is chosen as the Pattern type. The different options are Repeating, Alternating,
and User defined. When Repeating is selected, the magnetization direction is the same
in each element. Select Alternating to instead have the magnetization direction reversed
for each repeated element in the pattern. If the alternating pattern is applied to an odd
number of magnets, the north and south boundaries should be specified for the first
magnet in the pattern. The User defined option is only available for a circular pattern
and allows a custom input that determines how much the magnetization direction
should change between each element.

Pattern Additional Angle

This section is only available when User defined is chosen as the Type of periodicity,
when also having Circular pattern as the Pattern type. This angle is added to the
magnetization direction for each repetition in the pattern.

Pattern Center
This section is only available when Circular pattern is chosen as the Pattern type. It
defines the center of the circular pattern.

Pattern Axis
This section is only available when Circular pattern is chosen as the Pattern type. This
setting is only available in 3D, and defines the axis around which the pattern is created.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 321

 Direction of Magnetization
This section is only available when User defined is selected as the Direction method in
the Magnet feature. This input vector is equivalent to the one that can be added when
Magnetization is selected in the Ampère’s Law feature.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

This section is identical to the one in the Ampère’s Law node, apart from that only the
options Remanent flux density and Nonlinear permanent magnet are available here.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E

This first part of this section is identical to the one in the Ampère’s Law node, when
Electrical conductivity is chosen as the Conduction model. There is also an additional
setting here, called Constrain for induced currents, that determines which boundaries
are electrically insulated. The different options are Within each domain, No induced
current constrain, Within each connected component, and Within all domains. Selecting
Within each domain electrically insulates each selected domain separately, and constrains
the currents within. Choosing No induced current constrain places no constraint on the
induced currents. The option Within each connected component instead constrains the
currents in each subselection of domains that are geometrically connected. For
example, two adjacent domains will be electrically insulated around their outer
common boundary, while for domains that are separated the effect will be the same as
when selecting Within each domain. When selecting Within all domains, the net current
of all selected domains will be constrained to zero. This setting is only available in 2D,
and can be thought of as all of the domains being electrically connected outside of the
plane. With this setting there can be a nonzero net current in some domains, but it will
be equalized by currents in the opposite direction in other domains.

North
The North subnode is added by default as a subnode of the Magnet node, whenever
Specify north a south boundaries is chosen as the Direction method. It is also added as a
subnode to a Domain Direction node with the same setting. Use this feature to select
the exterior boundaries that should be the north pole boundaries of the magnet.

South
The South subnode is added by default as a subnode of the Magnet node, whenever
Specify north and south boundaries is chosen as the Direction method. It is also added as

322 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

a subnode to a Domain Direction node with the same setting. Use this feature to select
the exterior boundaries that should be the south pole boundaries of the magnet.

Domain Direction
The Domain Direction subnode is added by default as a subnode of the Magnet node,
whenever Specify by domains is chosen as the Direction method. This node contains the
same two settings as its parent feature, Specify north and south boundaries and User
defined, which will be applied to its selection. Multiple copies of this feature can be
added under one Magnet feature in order to individually specify the magnetization
direction of different domains.

Passive Conductor
The Passive Conductor node adds a simplified version of the Magnet feature, which
does not require specification of the magnetization direction. It is used to model a
magnet without any remanent flux density. It is possible to add a Loss Calculation
subfeature in order to compute induced losses.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION B-H

This section is identical to the one in the Ampère’s Law node, except for that only the
options Relative permeability, B-H curve, and Effective B-H curve are available here.

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION JC-E

This section is identical to the one in the Magnet node.

Coil
The Coil node can be used to model coils, cables and other conductors subject to a
lumped excitation, such as an externally applied current or voltage. The Coil feature
transforms this lumped excitation into local quantities (electric field and electric
current density), and computes lumped parameters of interest such as impedance, and
inductance.

The Coil feature supports two different Conductor models:

• Single conductor, which models a conductive body such as a wire, busbar, or other
metallic conductor in which the current flows freely due to the material’s
conductivity. This model can be used when the current flow has a well-defined

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 323

 beginning and end (for example, connections to an external source) or is closed in
a loop.

The Domain Selection has to be complete in the sense that selecting only
part of a contiguous conductor will lead to unphysical results.

• Homogenized multiturn, which models a bundle of tiny wires tightly wound together
but separated by an electrical insulator. In this scenario, the current flows only in the
direction of the wires and is negligible in other directions.

The Coil feature is available both for domain and for boundary selections. In the latter
case, it represents a flat coil or a conductor with a thickness negligible compared with
the other dimensions. Different subnodes can be added to the Coil node in different
cases.

The global Harmonic Perturbation subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node and select it from the Global menu) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu. The subnode can be used to apply a harmonic perturbation
to the coil excitation.

In 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the Coil feature supports the Coil group
functionality, that can be activated by selecting the corresponding check box.

The Coil group option assumes that the selected domains represent cross
sections of the same conductor going in and out of the modeling plane.
These domains are expected to have the same areas. The same total
current will be imposed in each domain, even if the domain areas are not
equal. If the areas are unequal, the computed concatenated flux, coil
voltage and inductance will be incorrect. For cases with varying cross
section areas, it is recommended to use separate coil features that are
coupled using The Electrical Circuit Interface.

324 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Refer to the Modeling Coils section in the modeling guide for more information about
this node.

In 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the wires are assumed to be in

the out-of-plane direction.

See Modeling Coils in this guide to learn more about using this feature.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain. Since Coil features model conductors or
bundles of wires, the correct choice is usually Solid.

COIL

Coil Name
Enter a Coil name. This name is appended to the global variables (current, voltage)
defined by this coil, and it can be used to identify the coil in a Coil Geometry Analysis
study step.

Conductor Model
Select the Conductor model for the coil. The choices correspond to rather different
physical model, although the setup is similar. The Single conductor model (the default)
is appropriate for solid, massive current-carrying conductors. The Homogenized
multiturn model represent a bundle of tiny wires that are not geometrically resolved
but taken into account in their average effect. The choice of Conductor model affects
the controls that are visible in the GUI and the available subnodes for the Coil feature.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 325

 Coil Type (3D Homogenized Multiturn)
This section is available when selecting Homogenized multiturn as the Conductor model
in 3D components and is used to specify the coil geometry (the direction of the wires).

Select a Coil Type — Linear (the default), Circular, Numeric, or User defined. The different
alternatives are described in the following sections. Also see Using Coils in 3D Models
for more information.

An additional subnode is needed to completely define the coil geometry:

• For Linear or Circular the Coil Geometry subnode is added by default.

• For User defined the User Defined Coil Geometry subnode is added by
default.
• For Numeric the Geometry Analysis subnode is added by default.

When Single conductor is selected as the Conductor model, the coil behaves as if Coil Type
is Numeric, including the presence of the Geometry Analysis subnode.

Linear Coil Types

In a Linear coil, all the wires are parallel and straight lines. Use the Coil Geometry
subnode to select an edge or a single group of connected edges that maps out the local
coil direction. The direction of the wires and the coil length is taken to be the direction
and the length of the edge(s), as marked by the red arrow. Avoid selecting multiple
parallel edge groups as that will result in an incorrect coil length.

To respect the current conservation law, the applied currents cannot originate from
interior boundaries. A Linear coil should therefore be terminated on exterior
boundaries.

Circular Coil Types

In a Circular coil, the wires are wound in circles around the same axis. Use the Coil
Geometry subnode to select a group of edges forming a circle or a part of a circle
around the coil’s axis. From the selected edges, the coil axis is computed and the
direction of the wires is taken to be the azimuthal direction around the axis, as marked
by the red arrows. The coil length used is computed as the coil volume divided by the
coil cross sectional area, unless the Use robust geometry analysis method box is checked.
When the robust method is used, the coil length is simply the length of the selected
edges.

326 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Numeric Coil Types
This option is available at the domain level only. In a Numeric coil, the current flow is
computed automatically in a Coil Geometry Analysis study step. Use the Geometry
Analysis subnode to set up the problem.

Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis

User Defined Coil Types

For User defined manually specify the direction of the wires as a vector field and the
length of the coil. Use the User Defined Coil Geometry subnode to specify the coil
geometry.

Coil Group (2D and 2D Axisymmetric Components)

The Coil group check box is only available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.
Select this check box to enable the Coil group mode for this feature. With this settings,
the domains or domain groups in this feature’s selection are considered
series-connected. Selecting this check box activates the Domain Group subnode. See
Coil Groups for more information.

Coil Excitation
Select a Coil excitation — Current (the default), Voltage, Circuit (voltage), Circuit
(current), or Power (2D and 2D axisymmetric components only).

• Current forces a total current flowing in the coil wire. Enter a Coil current Icoil (SI
unit: A). The default is 1 A. See the box below for study limitations on this setting.
• Voltage applies a total voltage across the coil enter a Coil voltage Vcoil (SI unit: V).
The default is 1 V.
• Circuit (current) works similarly to the Current excitation, but in this case the inputs
are provided by a circuit connection.
• Circuit (voltage) works similarly to the Voltage excitation, but in this case the inputs
are provided by a circuit connection.
• Power (only available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components) forces the coil input
power (cycle-average in frequency studies) to the specified value. Choosing this

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 327

 option makes the problem nonlinear. For Power enter a Coil power Pcoil (SI unit: W).
The default value is 1 W.

When using the Current, Circuit (current), and Power options, the coil
feature sets up a control problem for the coil voltage and current. Due to
its complexity, the following limitations apply:

• The Power option is only available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric

components.
• The Current and Circuit (current) options should be used with care in
Time Dependent study steps. One should avoid applying a current step
excitation (for example a fixed nonzero current) as that will lead to
unphysical results and/or numerical instability.
• See Modeling Coils in this guide to learn more about using this feature.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
This section is available only when Single conductor is selected as the Coil model. In this
case, the coil represents a solid, massive conductor and the conductivity of the material
is required to compute the current density flowing in it.

This section is identical to the one in the Ampère’s Law node.

HOMOGENIZED MULTITURN
This section is available only when Homogenized multiturn is the selected as the Coil
model. In this case, the coil represents a bundle of tiny wires separated by an insulator.
Additional settings can be specified.

Number of Turns
Enter the Number of turns N. The default is 10. This is the number of tiny wires
constituting the coil. The coil resistance is affected by this number and so is the current
density in the coil as it together with the Current setting defines the number of
Ampère-turns in the coil.

Coil Wire Conductivity

Enter a Coil wire conductivity coil (SI unit: S/m). The default value is approximately
the conductivity for copper, 6·107 S/m. This parameter represents the conductivity of
the metal wires forming the coil. This is not the bulk conductivity of the material,
which is instead set to zero according to the lumped model of a bundle of wires.

328 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Coil Wire Cross-Section Area
Enter the cross-section area of the individual wire (acoil) in the bundle. It is used, for
example, to compute the lumped resistance of the coil. The area can be specified in
different ways, according to the option selected in the Coil wire cross-section area list
— User defined (the default), Standard wire gauge, American wire gauge (Brown &
Sharpe), From round wire diameter, or Filling factor.

• For User defined, enter the value of the cross section area acoil (SI unit: m2). The
default is 106 m2.
• For Standard wire gauge, enter the SWG size. Sizes between 7/0 and 50 are
available. The default size is 0.
• For American wire gauge (Brown & Sharpe), enter the AWG size. Sizes between 0000
and 40 are available. Sizes such as 0000 can be also written as 4/0. The default size
is 0.
• For From round wire diameter, enter the diameter of the individual wire dcoil (SI
unit: m). The cross-section area of the round wire will be computed from it. The
default value of dcoil is 1 mm.is 0.
• For Filling factor, enter the filling factor f. This unitless factor determines the fraction
of the subdomain area that is occupied by the turns of the wire, and the cross-section
area of the coil turn will be computed from it. The default value of f is 0.5. This
option is only available at the domain level.

For Homogenized multiturn domain Coil, the total cross-section area of the
coil bundle (N·acoil), is expected to be smaller than the area of the domain
selection.

MAGNETIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD

At the domain level, the Coil node replaces the Ampère’s Law node in the definition
of the material model for the domain. The Settings window for the domain node
contains the sections Magnetic Field and Electric Field, identical to the ones in the
Ampère’s Law node.

When Single conductor is selected as the Conductor model, the material properties to be
specified are the ones of the material constituting the domain. when Homogenized
multiturn is selected, specify the homogenized material properties of the domain, that
is, the homogenized properties of the conducting wires and the surrounding insulator.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 329

 STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. This section is available only in 3D components
when using Homogenized multiturn as the Conductor model and it contains advanced
settings relative to the accuracy and stabilization of the solution.

The Accurate coil voltage calculation check box enables a current filtering functionality
that improves the accuracy of the computed electric field and the induced coil voltage,
at the cost of a slightly increased number of degrees of freedom. This functionality is
only applicable for time dependent and frequency domain studies, and is active by
default.

For the purpose of stabilizing the solution, the coil feature can apply a small electric
conductivity to the coil domain. Use the Stabilization combo box to specify the value
of the conductivity. Choose Automatic (the default) to use a conductivity automatically
computed by the coil. In frequency domain studies, the conductivity is chosen so that
the skin depth in the coil is much larger than the coil length (see the sections Coil
Geometry and User Defined Coil Geometry below). It is deduced from the formula

 stab = 0.001  -------------2-

2


by setting the skin depth , equal to the coil length. In other study types the
conductivity is set to 1 S/m.

If None is chosen, no conductivity is used in the coil domain. Choose User defined to
specify the Electrical conductivity in the coil domain  (SI unit: S/m). The default
value is 1 S/m. The purpose of this electrical conductivity is only to stabilize the
solution. According to the Homogenized multiturn model, the domain should not be
conductive and all the currents should flow in the direction of the wires only.

• Coil Excitation
• Power Excitation
• Using Coils in 3D Models

Harmonic Perturbation
The Harmonic Perturbation subnode is available at the global level from the context
menu (right-click the Coil parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Use this feature to specify a harmonic perturbation for the coil excitation.

330 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

COIL
A harmonic perturbation can be specified only if the Coil excitation of the parent feature
is Coil current or Coil voltage. In the first case, enter a Coil current Icoil (SI unit: A). The
default is 1 A. In the second case, enter a Coil voltage Vcoil (SI unit: V). The default is
1 V.

Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and Small-Signal Analysis

in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Coil Geometry
The Coil Geometry subnode of the Coil is available if the Conductor model of the parent
feature is Homogenized multiturn and the Coil type is Linear or Circular. This feature was
previously called Reference Edge. This subnode is used to specify the direction of the
tiny wires constituting the multiturn coil.

• In Linear coils, the wires are all parallel and straight lines. Select an edge or a group
of co-linear edges. The direction of the wires and the coil length is taken to be the
direction and the length of the edges. To avoid unphysical currents, a Linear coil
should be terminated on external boundaries.
• In Circular coils, the wires are wound in circles around the same axis. Select a group
of edges forming a circle or a part of a circle around the coil’s axis. From the selected
edges, the coil axis is computed, and the direction of the wires is taken to be the
azimuthal direction around the axis. The coil length used is computed as the coil
volume divided by the coil cross-sectional area, unless the Use robust geometry
analysis method box is checked. When the robust method is used, the coil length is
simply the length of the selected edges.
Select the Use robust geometry analysis method check box to use an alternative
algorithm for the computation of the coil axis and direction. This method works
even in models without geometry (for example, with an imported mesh), but
requires that the selected edges form a complete circle.

COIL GEOMETRY
• The direction of the coil is shown in the Graphics window with a red arrow. Select
the Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the coil.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 331

 • The length of the coil is computed from the length of the selected edges. To
manually specify the length, select the Override length of the edges check box, and
enter the Total length of the edges Ledges (SI unit: m).
• In domain features, the average cross-section area of the domain is computed
automatically from the domain volume and the length of the edges. The
cross-section area is used, for example, to compute the coil current density. To
manually specify a cross-section area, select the Override domain area check box, and
enter the Average domain cross section area Adomain (SI unit: m2)
• If the model represents only a part of a geometry obtained from symmetry cuts (for
example, a quarter of a circle), use the settings under Symmetry specification to
specify appropriate correction factors. Enter the Coil length multiplication factor FL
and Coil area multiplication factor FA (dimensionless integer numbers). The actual
length of the coil, used to compute the coil voltage and resistance, is then computed
as the product FL·Ledges. The cross-section area of the coil is computed as
FA·Adomain.

• See Using Coils in 3D Models in the modeling section to learn more

about this node.
• The Magnetic Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface

User Defined Coil Geometry

The User Defined Coil Geometry subnode is available for Coil if the Conductor model of
the parent feature is Homogenized multiturn and the Coil type is set to User defined.
Specify in this feature an arbitrary vector field that defines the direction of the wires in
the coil. Such field can be an analytic expression or can be computed using, for
example, a Curvilinear Coordinates physics.

For domain features, information on the input/output boundaries is necessary to

complete the setup of the coil feature. Use the Input and Output subfeatures to this
node to select the input/output boundaries of the coils, external boundaries where the
vector field representing the wire direction has a nonzero normal component. The
selection can be left empty if there are no such boundaries, for example in the case of
a closed-loop coil. This operation is necessary in time dependent and frequency
domain studies if the Accurate voltage calculation is active in the parent feature.

332 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

COIL GEOMETRY
• Enter the Coil current flow ecoil, a vector field representing the local direction of the
wires, which can be an analytic expression, or the solution of another physics (for
example, Curvilinear Coordinates). The vector field will be normalized by dividing
the local field by the volume average of the field norm. This keeps local variations
intact, while scaling the average norm to unity.
• Enter the Domain length Ldomain (for domain features) or the Boundary length
Lboundary (for boundary features). The SI unit is meters. This value should
correspond to the average length of the wires in the coil, before any symmetry
correction.
• If the model represents only a part of a geometry obtained from symmetry cuts (for
example, a quarter of a circle), use the settings under Symmetry specification to
specify appropriate correction factors. Enter the Coil length multiplication factor FL
and Coil area multiplication factor FA (dimensionless integer numbers). The actual
length of the coil, used to compute the coil voltage and resistance, is then computed
as the product FL·Ldomain(or F·Lboundary for boundary features). The cross-section
area of the coil is computed as FA·Adomain.

Input (for User Defined Coil Geometry)

The Input subnode is added by default as subnode of the User Defined Coil Geometry
node, and is used to provide more information on the coil geometry. Use it to specify
the boundaries where the wires (the vector field specified in the parent User Defined
Coil Geometry feature) enter the domain. The selection can be left empty in case of a
closed-loop coil.

This node should be used in combination with the Output (for User Defined Coil
Geometry) node.

Output (for User Defined Coil Geometry)

The Output subnode is added by default as subnode of the User Defined Coil
Geometry node and is used to provide more information on the coil geometry. Use it
to specify the boundaries where the wires (the vector field specified in the parent User
Defined Coil Geometry feature) leave the domain. The selection can be left empty in
case of a closed-loop coil.

This node should be used in combination with the Input (for User Defined Coil
Geometry) node.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 333

 Override Coil Inlet/Outlet
The Override Coil Inlet/Outlet subnode is available at both the domain and boundary
level from the context menu (right-click the Coil parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu. This is an advanced feature, and is normally not required.

This feature is available if the Accurate coil voltage calculation functionality is enabled in
the Stabilization section of the parent feature. This functionality performs a current
filtering to improve the accuracy of the computed electric field and coil voltage in time
dependent and frequency domain studies. For this filtering to work properly, special
conditions must be defined on the inlet/outlet boundaries, where the wire direction
has a nonzero normal component. For Linear and Circular coils, the geometry analysis
algorithm detects automatically these boundaries, but the Override Coil Inlet/Outlet
feature can be used in case the detection fails. For Numeric coils, or when the Conductor
model is Single conductor, the subnodes of the Geometry Analysis feature are used to
identify the inlets/outlets. For User defined coils, the User Defined Coil Geometry can be
used to select the inlets/outlets instead.

See Accurate Coil Voltage Calculation in the modeling section to learn

more about this node.

Geometry Analysis
In 3D components, when Conductor model of the parent feature is Homogenized
multiturn and Numeric is selected as Coil type, or if Conductor model of the parent feature
is Single conductor in the Coil node, the Geometry Analysis subnode is added by default.
To this, an Input (for Geometry Analysis) subnode is also added by default.

This subnode is needed to set up the automatic analysis of the coil geometry that can
determine the direction of the wires (and of the current flow). The inlet and outlet
boundaries for the wires are specified using the Input (for Geometry Analysis) and
Output (for Geometry Analysis) subnodes.

To complete the setup for the computation of the coil direction, a Coil Geometry
Analysis study step must be added to the study before the main study step.

If the model represents only a part of a geometry obtained from symmetry cuts (for
example, a quarter of a circle), use the settings under Symmetry specification to specify
appropriate correction factors. Enter the Coil length multiplication factor FL and Coil
area multiplication factor FA (dimensionless integer numbers). The actual length of the

334 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

coil, used to compute the coil voltage and resistance, is then computed as the product
FL·L, where L is the length of the domain. The cross-section area of the coil is
computed as FA·A, where A is the cross-section area of the domain. The values of L
and A are computed automatically during the Coil Geometry Analysis study step.

• Using Coils in 3D Models

• Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis
• The Magnetic Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Input (for Geometry Analysis)

The Input subnode is added by default as subnode of the Geometry Analysis node. Use
it to specify the boundaries where the wires enter the domain or, in the case of a
closed-loop coil, an interior boundary crossed by the wires. Used in combination with
the Output (for Geometry Analysis) node, it also defines the direction of the current
flow in an open coil (from Input to Output).

When applied on one or more boundaries, a red arrow in the Graphics window will
show the direction of the wire. Select the Reverse direction check box to reverse the
direction of the wires.

SLANTED CUT
When using the default settings, the wire direction is forced to be orthogonal to the
boundary. In some cases, however, the natural direction of the current (or the wires)
is at an angle with respect to the input or output normal. A typical example is a helical

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 335

 coil, where the input and output boundaries represent periodicity planes (see
Figure 5-3).

Figure 5-3: A helical coil with slanted ends. The slanted cut represents a periodicity plane.

To accommodate this case, the Slanted cut check box allows you to relax the constraints
used for determining the coil geometry (it applies the boundary constraint “on
average” rather than locally).

For this reason, this setting should not be used when you want to excite multiple
separate coils having different shapes using the same input feature. If you have
multiple coils with a slanted cut connected in parallel, the recommended approach is
to use a separate coil feature for each one of them, and connect the coils in parallel
using a circuit (or something equivalent to a circuit).

For an open coil, the Input subnode should never be added to boundaries
that are interior to the coil’s domain selection. Note also that an open coil
should have its start (Input) and end (Output) on boundaries that are
exterior to the domain selection of the parent physics (for example,
Magnetic Fields) and of a type that supports closure of the coil by means of
an induced surface current density. The latter condition means Magnetic
Insulation and, in the frequency domain, Impedance Boundary Condition.

Output (for Geometry Analysis)

The Output subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Geometry
Analysis parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use it to specify

336 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

the boundaries where the wires exit the domain in an open coil. Used in combination
with the Input (for Geometry Analysis) node, it defines the direction of the current
flow (from Input to Output). No Output subnode is required in a closed-loop coil.

When using the default settings, the wire direction is forced to be orthogonal to the
boundary. Use the Slanted cut check box to allow for an angle between the wire
direction and the output normal (see section Slanted Cut).

For an open coil, the Input subnode should never be added to boundaries
that are interior to the coil’s domain selection. Note also that an open coil
should have its start (Input) and end (Output) on boundaries that are
exterior to the domain selection of the parent physics (for example,
Magnetic Fields) and of a type that supports closure of the coil by means of
an induced surface current density. The latter condition means Magnetic
Insulation and, in the frequency domain, Impedance Boundary Condition.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

• Using Coils in 3D Models

• Automatic Coil Geometry Analysis
• The Magnetic Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields Interface
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Electric Insulation (for Geometry Analysis)

The Electric Insulation subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Geometry Analysis parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It is
particularly useful for interior boundaries (when the coil is compacted, and the turns

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 337

 touch, see Figure 5-4). It applies to the coil direction field generated by the Coil
Geometry Analysis study step.

Figure 5-4: A coil geometry with turns that are geometrically unified, yet electrically
separated. The electric insulation boundary condition can be used to override the electrical
continuity that applies to interior boundaries by default.

• When the Conductor model of the Coil feature is set to Single conductor,
the Electric Insulation affects the externally applied currents only, not
the currents resulting from electromagnetic induction in the model
itself. For this reason, the single conductor with electric insulation
should be used in the (quasi) static regime only.
• When the Conductor model of the Coil feature is set to Homogenized
multiturn, the Electric Insulation works for higher frequencies as well, as
both external and induced currents are forced along the same path.
• For low frequencies, the Homogenized multiturn option can be
considered as an approximation of the Single conductor one. For higher
frequencies, you should consider having a gap between the turns, or
using the Contact Impedance boundary feature available in The
Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface.

Connected Boundaries
The Connected Boundaries subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Geometry Analysis parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It can

338 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

be used to mark two or more boundaries as being electrically connected for the
purpose of the Coil Geometry Analysis preprocessing step.

The vector field computed in the Coil Geometry Analysis step (which corresponds to
the current flow or the wire direction, according to the Conductor model selected) will
have zero total flux into the selected boundaries. For example, if two nonconnected
boundaries are selected, the feature will enforce the condition that the current entering
one boundary must be equal to the current leaving the other boundary.

The feature models an electrical connection between the selected boundaries, and can
therefore be used for coils constituted of multiple series-connected domains.

The Connected Boundaries functionality enforces current continuity as part

of the Coil Geometry Analysis that computes the normalized DC current
density. For Frequency Domain and Time Dependent studies the induced
current density will not be subject to any restrictions by this functionality.
Instead it is recommended to set up the model with one coil per wire
segment and enforce current continuity by connecting to The Electrical
Circuit Interface. An alternative in the Frequency Domain is to use The
Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface and assign connected boundaries
to the same Floating Potential subfeature to Magnetic Insulation.

Single Conductor Coil

The Single Conductor Coil node is available both as a domain and as a boundary feature.
It models a conductive (for example, metallic) domain or boundary subject to a
lumped excitation, such as a total voltage or current. The excitation specified is
translated into a conduction current flowing in the domain (as a current density) or
the boundary (as a surface current density). The Single Conductor Coil domain node is
a contributing feature, it is applied on top of an Ampère’s Law feature that provides
the material model (electrical conductivity and relative permittivity). The boundary
node is instead exclusive, since the material model is provided in its Thin Layer section.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 339

 In 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the Single Conductor Coil feature can be
turned into a Coil group by selecting the corresponding check box in the Settings
window.

The Single Conductor Coil feature is obsolete in the Magnetic Field and
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic features and will be removed in future
versions. The recommended alternative is to use a Coil feature with the
Conductor model set to Single conductor.

See Modeling Coils in the modeling section to learn more about using
this node.

This node is not available in 3D for The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface and
The Induction Heating Interface. In 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the
direction of the applied electric field is assumed to be out-of-plane. The settings specify
how to compute the electric field and the relative current density.

The approach for 3D components is different than for 2D and 2D axisymmetric

components. An additional dependent variable Vcoil, with the dimension of an electric
potential, is defined in the domain and the current continuity equation is added to the
system of equations. The problem solved in the domain becomes effectively an A-V
formulation of Maxwell’s equation and current conservation, similar to the one used
in the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

For 3D components add boundary conditions for the coil potential. The
Gap Feed (at the domain level only), Boundary Feed, Ground, and
Floating Potential subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Use these to define the geometry of the coil.

A typical setup is to add a Gap Feed, if the coil is closed in a loop, or a

Boundary Feed and a Ground, if the coil is open. In order to avoid
unphysical current distribution in the Boundary Feed and Ground case, the
boundary conditions should be applied on external boundaries. The Gap
Feed subnode is not available for the boundary node for topological
reasons.

340 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 The 3D Single Conductor Coil is applicable only in Stationary and
Frequency Domain studies, since it is a local application of the physical
model used in the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

THIN LAYER (2D AND 2D AXISYMMETRIC COMPONENTS)

This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components at the boundary
level. Specify here the properties of the material constituting the thin conductive layer.

Select a Coil conductivity coil (SI unit: S/m) — From material (the default) or User
defined. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the
characteristics of the coil conductivity, and then enter values or expressions in the field
or matrix. The default is 1 S/m.

Select a Coil relative permittivity r,coil (dimensionless) — From material (the default)
or User defined. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on
the characteristics of the coil relative permittivity, and then enter values or expressions
in the field or matrix. The default is 1.

Enter the Thickness ds (SI unit: m) of the thin conductive layer. The default is 1 mm.

SINGLE CONDUCTOR COIL

3D Components
For 3D components, the parameters Coil conductivity and Coil relative permittivity
define the material model to be used with the current continuity equation. Normally,
these parameters should be the same used in the Ampère’s Law feature active in the
domain.

Select a Coil conductivity coil (SI unit: S/m) — From material or User defined. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the
coil conductivity, and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.

Select a Coil relative permittivity r,coil (dimensionless) — From material or User defined.
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics
of the coil relative permittivity, and then enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

When defining this node on a boundary, also enter a Thickness ds (SI unit: m). The
default is 1 mm.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 341

 2D and 2D Axisymmetric Components
In 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the direction of the applied electric field is
assumed to be out-of-plane. In these space dimensions, the Coil group check box is
available. Select the check box to activate the Coil group functionality.

The settings specifying coil name and excitation are the similar to the ones for the Coil
node. See the section Coil for a description of these settings.

Gap Feed
The Gap Feed subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Single
Conductor Coil parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu for 3D
components (at the domain level). Gap Feed is used to excite the coil from an interior
boundary. It applies a discontinuity in the coil potential across a boundary to enforce
a potential difference or a prescribed current. This feature must be applied to an
interior boundary in the coil domain, and is typically used to excite a closed loop.

SINGLE CONDUCTOR COIL

See Single Conductor Coil for all settings.

This node should be used with caution in frequency-domain studies. See

Using Coils in 3D Models in the modeling section to learn more about
this node.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Boundary Feed
The Boundary Feed subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Single
Conductor Coil parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu for 3D
components. The Boundary Feed node excites the coil acting on the coil potential
variable. The feature must be applied to an external boundary.

SINGLE CONDUCTOR COIL

See Single Conductor Coil for all settings.

342 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

See Using Coils in 3D Models in the modeling section to learn more

about this node.

Ground
The Ground subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Single
Conductor Coil parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu for 3D
components. The Ground subnode enforces the condition Vcoil = 0 on a boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

See Using Coils in 3D Models in the modeling section to learn more

about this node.

Floating Potential
The Floating Potential subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Single Conductor Coil parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It
can be used to model a boundary at a constant, unknown, coil potential. If applied on
multiple non connected boundaries, it models an electrical connection between them.
The feature can be used for coils constituted of multiple series-connected domains.
Unlike the corresponding feature in other AC/DC physics, this feature only allows
zero total current flowing in the boundary. This is to ensure that all currents in the
coils are excited by the Boundary Feed or Gap Feeds and are properly accounted for in
the postprocessing variables.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 343

 Domain Group/Boundary Group
This feature is available as a subnode of a 2D Coil in which the Coil group functionality
has been activated. This feature is available both for domain and boundary coil
features. The Domain Group/ Boundary Group subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Domain Group/Boundary Group feature is used to group together a number of

domains/boundaries for the purposes of the coil set up. The selected domains/
boundaries will be considered as one by the coil. Normally, when the Coil group check
box is selected, each domain/boundary in the parent’s selection is considered as
series-connected to all the other domains/boundaries.

Coil Groups

Reversed Current Direction

This feature is available as a subnode of a Coil or Single Conductor Coil in which the
Coil group functionality has been activated. This feature is available both for domain
and boundary coil features. The Reversed Current Direction subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

Use this subnode to mark domains or boundaries in which the coil current flows in a
reversed direction, that is antiparallel to the out-of-plane direction (z or azimuthal
direction). This subnode can be used in any combination with the Domain Group/
Boundary Group subnode.

Coil Groups

Loss Calculation
This feature is available as a subnode of an Ampère’s Law, domain Coil, Faraday’s Law,
Magnetic Flux Conservation, Magnet, or Multiphase Winding feature. This feature is
used to calculate the copper loss due to the resistive heating or the iron loss due to the
Hysteresis, eddy current and other effects. The feature is available with both Time

344 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Dependent and Frequency Domain studies. For Time Dependent studies, the loss
calculation has to be used in combination with the Time to Frequency Losses study
step. The Time to Frequency Losses is typically added after a Time Dependent study.
Note that the Loss Calculation subnode needs to be added before the Time Dependent
study is computed.

LOSS MODEL
Select a model to compute the cycle averaged loss density Q (W/m3). The default loss
model is computed directly from the resistive heating. If the Loss Calculation subnode
is added to specific features and the Constitutive Relation B-H is set to appropriate
relations, additional empirical models such as the Steinmetz and Bertotti models are
available. The specific features include the Ampère’s Law, the Faraday’s Law and the
Magnetic Flux Conservation but not the Coil. The appropriate relations include the
B-H curve, the Effective B-H curve and the Hysteresis Jiles-Atherton model. The
expressions of the loss density Q for different loss models are introduced as follows.

From resistive heating

Te
1
Q = ----
T T –T J  E dt
e

where Te, T, J, and E are the end time, electrical period (1/f), current density and
electric field, respectively.

Steinmetz
 B 
Q = k h  ----------------  ------------
f
 1  Hz   1  T 

where f and B are the frequency and magnetic flux density, respectively; kh, , and 
are coefficients.

Bertotti
B  1.5 B 1.5
Q = k h  ----------------  ------------ + k c f B + 8 GSV 0  ----------------  ------------
f 2 2 f
 1  Hz   1  T   1  Hz   1  T 

where  is the bulk conductivity of the laminated material; G is a constant with a value
of 0.1356; S denotes the typical magnetic circuit section area; V0 is the excess losses
fitting coefficient; and kc is the classical losses term coefficient. kc can be computed
from the lamina thickness d with the relation kc=2d2/6 or be defined by the user.
Note that the Bertotti model uses the material properties such as the bulk conductivity
set in the interface, instead of the material data from the Material node.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 345

 User defined
This is an advanced setting where the loss power density as a function of the frequency
(freq) and magnetic flux density (normfftB) is defined by the user.

Generator in 2D: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/generator_2d

Modeling of an Electric Generator in 3D: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/sector_generator_3d

Permanent Magnet Motor in 3D: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/pm_motor_3d

E-Core Transformer: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Inductive/ecore_transformer

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port condition to apply a uniform electric field between two metallic
boundaries. The excitation at the port can be expressed as a voltage or as a current, or
via the connection to a circuit interface. The use of this feature is justified in
frequency-domain studies when the distance between the metallic boundaries is much
smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation. Subject to the same
requirements it can also be used in the time domain as a convenient way to excite a
model.

• See About Lumped Ports and Lumped Port Parameters for more
information.
• In the time domain, use the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface when
the excitation has DC components or when the current conservation
needs to be solved (for instance in modeling conducting fluids).

An operation named as Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the

parent node. The operation is useful when there are several lumped port boundaries
that are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will automatically
generate several Lumped Port nodes where each selection is geometrically connected.

The geometry of the port is specified by the Type of lumped port. A Uniform lumped
port applies a constant electric field between the metallic electrodes. A Coaxial lumped

346 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

port applies a radial electric field between two concentric circular metallic boundaries.
For these two cases, the dimension of the port is computed automatically by analyzing
the geometry. Generally, select User defined to manually specify the direction between
the lumped port terminals ah and the dimensions of the port: hport (Height of lumped
port) and wport (Width of lumped port), both with SI unit: m.

For 2D components, a Uniform port applies an in-plane electric field.

Therefore, the Uniform value is available for the Port type parameter only
if the in-plane vector potential is solved for, according to the settings in
the physics interface node. If the Components selected are Out-of-plane
vector potential, the Uniform lumped port is not available.

For 2D axisymmetric components, the radial direction is in-plane with

respect to the geometry. Therefore, the Coaxial value is available for the
Port type parameter only if the in-plane vector potential is solved for,
according to the settings in the physics interface node. If the Components
selected are Out-of-plane vector potential, the Coaxial lumped port is not
available.

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, if the Components selected in

the physics interface is Out-of-plane vector potential, the dimension of the
port cannot be obtained by analyzing the geometry and must be specified
manually by the user. Therefore, User defined is the only option available
for the Port type parameter. For this case the Direction between lumped
port terminals is assumed to be in the out-of-plane direction and the input
field is not available.

LUMPED PORT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped port name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is
used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

Type of Lumped Port

The geometry of the port is specified by the Type of lumped port. A Uniform lumped
port applies a constant electric field between the metallic electrodes. A Coaxial lumped
port applies a radial electric field between two concentric circular metallic boundaries.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 347

 For these two cases, the dimension of the port is computed automatically by analyzing
the geometry.

Select a Type of lumped port — Uniform, Coaxial, User defined, or Via.

The Type of lumped port options available depend on the Components

selected on the physics interface — Out-of-plane vector potential (the
default), In-plane vector potential, or Three-component vector potential.

• For Out-of-plane vector potential the Type of lumped port is User defined.
• For In-plane vector potential or Three-component vector potential select
a Type of lumped port — Uniform or User defined.

The Type of lumped port options available depend on the Components

selected on the physics interface — Out-of-plane vector potential (the
default), In-plane vector potential, or Three-component vector potential.

• For Out-of-plane vector potential the Type of lumped port is User defined.
• For In-plane vector potential or Three-component vector potential select
a Type of lumped port — Coaxial or User defined.

Select User defined for non uniform ports, for example, a curved port and enter values
or expressions in the fields for these additional settings:

• Height of lumped port hport (SI unit: m)

• Width of lumped port wport (SI unit: m)
• A three-dimensional vector specifying the Direction between lumped port terminals
ah (the direction of the applied electric field)

Select Via for excitation or termination of a cylindrical shape of a structure used in a

metalized via that is a plated through hole.

Terminal Type
For all Types of lumped ports, select a Terminal type — Cable for a voltage driven
transmission line, Current for a current driven port, or Circuit.

348 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Wave Excitation at this Port

This section is available if Cable is selected as the Terminal type.

Select On or Off from the Wave excitation at this port list to set whether it
is an inport or a listener port (connected to a passive transmission line).
For On enter a Voltage V0 (SI unit: V), and Port phase (SI unit: rad) for
the Voltage source type or enter a Power P0 (SI unit: W), that is the
average input power to the lumped port, for the Power source type.

The section is deactivated if a Port sweep is active, since in this case the
sweep controls the ports.

For the purpose of computing S-parameters, only one port at the time
should be excited, for example by performing a Port sweep. In other cases,
for example, when studying microwave heating, more than one inport
might be desired, but in this case the S-parameter variables cannot be
correctly computed. If several ports are excited at the same time, the
S-parameter variables are not available for postprocessing.

SETTINGS

This section is available if Cable or Current is selected as the Terminal type.

• For Cable enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: ).
• For Current enter a current I0 (SI unit: A).

Lumped Element
Use a Lumped Element node to mimic the insertion of a resistor, capacitor, inductor or
general impedance between two metallic boundaries. It is similar to the Lumped Port
but does not allow for an excitation and does not generate S-parameter output.

LUMPED ELEMENT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped element name. See Lumped Port for the rest of the settings.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 349

 SETTINGS
Select a Lumped element type — User defined (the default), Inductor, or Capacitor.

• For User defined enter a Lumped element impedance Zelement (SI unit: ; default
50 .)
• For Inductor enter a Lumped element inductance Lelement (SI unit: H; default 1 nH).
• For Capacitor enter a Lumped element capacitance Celement (SI unit: F; default 1 pF).

Edge Current
Use the Edge Current node to specify a line current along one or more edges. A positive
edge current flows in the direction marked by the red arrow.

Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or

click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

EDGE CURRENT
Specify the Edge current I0 (SI unit: A). The default is 0 A.

External Magnetic Vector Potential

This node is only available when solving a problem with a background

magnetic vector potential (Reduced field is selected from the Solve for list
under Background Field on the physics interface Settings window).

The External Magnetic Vector Potential boundary condition forces the reduced
magnetic vector potential to be zero on the boundary, or, equivalently, forces the total
field to be equal to the background field. Apply this boundary condition on external
boundaries that are at a distance far enough from the system so that its effect on the
background field is negligible.

Impedance Boundary Condition

This node is available with the Frequency Domain study type.

350 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Impedance Boundary Condition provides a boundary condition that is useful at
boundaries where the electromagnetic field penetrates only a short distance outside the
boundary.

0 r
-n  H + E –  n  E n =  n  E s n – E s
-----------------------------
 0  r – j  

The boundary condition approximates this penetration to avoid the need to include
another domain in the model. The material properties that appear in the equation are
those for the conductive material excluded from the model.

The skin depth (that is, the distance where the electromagnetic field has decreased by
a factor e1) is for a good conductor

2
 = -----------


The impedance boundary condition is a valid approximation if the skin depth is small
compared to the size of the conductor. The source electric field Es can be used to
specify a source surface current on the boundary.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

The impedance boundary condition is used on exterior boundaries representing the

surface of a lossy domain. The shaded (lossy) region is not part of the model. The
effective induced image currents are of reduced magnitude due to losses. Any current
flowing into the boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents as for the
perfect electric conductor boundary condition. The tangential electric field is generally
small but nonzero at the boundary.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 351

 Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

Use it to specify a perturbation source electric field.

IMPEDANCE BOUNDARY CONDITION

The following material properties can be defined for the domain outside the boundary,
which this boundary condition approximates. The default use the values From material.
For User defined enter different values or expressions.

• Relative permittivity, r (dimensionless)

• Relative permeability, r (dimensionless)
• Electrical conductivity,  (SI unit: S/m)

Based on space dimension, enter coordinate values or expressions for the Source electric
field Es (SI unit: V/m).

Transition Boundary Condition

This node is available with the Frequency Domain study type.

The Transition Boundary Condition is used on interior boundaries to model a sheet of a

highly conducting medium with a thickness relatively smaller than the characteristic
size, and curvature, of the objects being modeled. It can be used even if the thickness
is many times greater than the skin depth. Accounting for the material properties as
well as the thickness of the sheet, transfer and surface impedances are used to relate the
current flowing on the surface of either side to the discontinuity in the tangential
electric field. Mathematically it is described by a relation between the electric field
discontinuity and the induced surface current density:

352 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

  Z S E t1 – Z T E t2 
J s1 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
 Z S E t2 – Z T E t1 
J s2 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
– j 1
Z S = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z T = ------------- ---------------------
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

Where indices 1 and 2 refer to the different sides of the layer. See Ref. 7 for more
details.

TRANSITION BOUNDARY CONDITION

The Transition Boundary Condition section has the following material properties for the
thin layer, which this boundary condition approximates:

The defaults use the values From material, taking the properties from the material
specified for the boundary. For User defined, enter different values or expressions.

• Relative permittivity, r (dimensionless)

• Relative permeability, r (dimensionless)
• Electrical conductivity,  (SI unit: S/m)
• Surface thickness, ds (Si unit: m)

Layered Transition Boundary Condition

The Layered Transition Boundary Condition is an extension of the Transition Boundary
Condition that allows to model a sequence of thin metallic layers using a Layered
Material. It represents a discontinuity in the tangential electric field. For each layer in
the Layered Material, the transfer and surface impedances are obtained from the layer
thickness and material properties. The impedances are then used to relate the
discontinuity in the tangential electric field to the current flowing on the surface of
either side (up/down) of the corresponding layer. Mathematically this reads:

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 353

  Z S E t i – Z T E t i – 1 
J s up i = -----------------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
 Z S E t i – 1 – Z T E t i 
J s down i = -----------------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
– j 1
Z S = ------------- ----------------------
k tan  kd 
– j 1
Z T = ------------- ---------------------
k sin  kd 
k =    +     j   

where the index i = 1, 2,..., n refers to the layer number. The system of equations above
is solved for each layer in the Layered Material. The index i has been omitted from the
expressions of the impedances and the wave vector k in order to improve their
readability.

Figure 5-5: The layered material is composed of n layers. The surface currents on the up
and downside of each layer are determined from the transfer and surface impedances and
are functions of the tangential electric fields.

• For more information, see Layer and Interface Selection Tools.

• See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,
Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the
definition of layered materials.

SHELL PROPERTIES
The Shell Properties section displays which layered material(s) the Layered Transition
Boundary Condition is coupled to.

354 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Clear the Use all layers check box in order to select a specific layered material from the
list. The Layered Transition Boundary Condition feature is then applicable only on the
boundaries where the chosen material is defined.

You can visualize the selected layered material and the layers that constitute it by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

The thickness of the layered material should be set as follows, depending on the type
of material:

• In a Material node, the layer Thickness is set in the Material Contents section by adding
a Shell property group from the Material Properties section in the material Settings
window. This automatically adds a Shell subnode under the Material node,
transforming it into a layered material.
• When the layered material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Material
Contents section in the Settings window. Alternatively it can be set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell property group Settings window.
• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers may be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be
defined for each of them. The total thickness of the layered material is the sum of all
the layers thicknesses.

LAYERED TRANSITION BOUNDARY CONDITION

The Layered Transition Boundary Condition section lists the material properties of the
thin layered material that this boundary condition approximates:

• Relative permittivity, r (dimensionless)

• Relative permeability, r (dimensionless)
• Electrical conductivity,  (SI unit: S/m)
The defaults use the values From material, taking the properties from the layered
material specified for the boundary. Otherwise, choose User defined and enter different
values or expressions. In the latter case all layers constituting the layered material will
take on the same value for the selected property.

Layered Impedance Boundary Condition

The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition is an extension of the Impedance Boundary
Condition that allows to model a sequence of geometrically thin layers on top of a
substrate. It is used on exterior boundaries where the field is known to penetrate only

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 355

 a short distance outside the boundary. In brief, this feature combines a Layered
Transition Boundary Condition with an Impedance Boundary Condition of the type:

0 r
------------ n  H + E –  n  E n = 0 .
c

The layer stack is built using a Layered Material. For each layer in the Layered Material,
the transfer and surface impedances are obtained from the layer thickness and the
material properties. The impedances are then used to relate the discontinuity in the
tangential electric field to the current flowing on the surface of either side (up/down)
of the corresponding layer. The mathematical details relative to the field propagation
in the layer stack can be found in the Layered Transition Boundary Condition section.

• See Layered Material, Layered Material Link, Layered Material Stack,

Layered Material Link (Subnode), and Single Layer Materials in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for details on the
definition of layered materials.

The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition is based on the assumption

that in the thin layers and in the substrate the wave propagates essentially
in the normal direction. Thus, the wave could be incident in the normal
direction or the wave could be refracted to propagate in a direction close
to the normal direction. The latter condition is fulfilled for a good
conductor.

The thickness of the layer should be less than the radius of curvature for
the boundary.

SHELL PROPERTIES
The Shell Properties section displays which Layered Material is coupled to the Layered
Impedance Boundary Condition.

Clear the Use all layers check box in order to select a specific Layered Material from the
list. The Layered Impedance Boundary Condition feature is then applicable only on the
boundaries where the chosen Layered Material is defined.

You can visualize the selected Layered Material and the layers that constitute it by
clicking the Layer Cross Section Preview and Layer 3D Preview buttons.

356 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The thickness of the Layered Material should be set as follows, depending on the type
of material:

• For a general Layered Material, added through a Layered Material Link or a Layered
Material Stack, the Thickness is set in the Layer Definition section of the Settings
window. Several layers may be defined in the table, and the Thickness should be
defined for each of them. The total thickness of the Layered Material is the sum of
all the layers thicknesses.
• When the Layered Material is a Single Layer Material, the Thickness is set in the Material
Contents section in the Settings window. Alternatively it can be set in the Layer
Definition section of the Shell property group Settings window.

• In a Material node, the layer Thickness is set in the Material Contents section by adding
a Shell property group from the Material Properties section in the material Settings
window. This automatically adds a Shell subnode under the Material node,
transforming it into a Layered Material.

LAYER PROPERTIES
The Layer Properties section specifies the material properties of the thin layers
constituting the stack located on top of the substrate. The defaults use the values From
material. In this case, the material properties are taken layer by layer from the Layered
Material existing on those boundaries where the Layered Impedance Boundary Condition
feature is enabled. Otherwise, choose User defined and enter a value or an expression.
In the latter case all layers constituting the chosen Layered Material will take on the
same given value for the selected material property.

SUBSTRATE PROPERTIES
The Substrate Properties section specifies the material properties of the thick domain
that is not included in the model, being approximated by an Impedance Boundary
Condition. Select a Substrate Material from the list of materials that have been
introduced in the model previously. The defaults use the values From material. In this
case, the material properties are taken from the specified Substrate Material. Otherwise,
choose User defined and enter a value or an expression.

Surface Current Density (Subnode)

The Surface Current Density subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Transition Boundary Condition parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 357

 Attributes menu. It adds a surface current density on upside and downside of the
transition boundary.

SURFACE CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the Surface Current Density on upside Js0u and
downside Js0d (SI unit: A/m) coordinates. The defaults are 0 A/m.

Thin Low Permeability Gap

Use the Thin Low Permeability Gap boundary condition to model gaps in magnetic
materials filled with another material with smaller relative permeability. This feature
applies the condition

d
n   H 1 – H 2  =  t  ------------  t  A
0 r

This boundary condition is only applicable on interior boundaries and pair

boundaries.Use this boundary condition to model, for example, air gaps in magnetic
circuits.

THIN LOW PERMEABILITY GAP

The default Relative permeability r (dimensionless) is taken From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the
relative permeability, and then enter a value or expression in the field or matrix.

Enter a Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m) for the gap. The default is 1 m.

Magnetic Point Dipole

Apply a Magnetic Point Dipole M (SI unit: m2A) to points. This represents the limiting
case of when the cross-section area a of a circular current loop carrying uniform
current I approaches zero at while maintaining the product between I and a finite. The
dipole moment is a vector entity with the positive direction set by the curl of the
current. Magnetic point dipoles are available with 2D and 3D components. See
Magnetic Point Dipole (on Axis) for the 2D axisymmetric settings.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

358 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
If Magnitude and direction is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for
the Magnetic dipole moment direction nm and the Magnetic dipole moment, magnitude m
(SI unit: m2A).

If Dipole moment is selected under Dipole Specification, enter coordinates for the
Magnetic dipole moment m (SI unit: m2A).

Magnetic Point Dipole (on Axis)

Use the Magnetic Point Dipole (on Axis) to apply a point dipole to points on a 2D
axisymmetric component. See Magnetic Point Dipole for settings for 2D and 3D
components.

MAGNETIC POINT DIPOLE (ON AXIS)

Enter a Magnetic dipole moment in z direction mz (SI unit: m2A).

Magnetic Shielding
The Magnetic Shielding node adds a boundary condition for magnetic shielding. It
describes a thin layer of a highly permeable medium that shields the magnetic field.
Because of the presence of this thin layer, the tangential components of the magnetic
field and vector potential have discontinuities given by:

n   H1 – H2  = n  Ht  Bt 
A1 – A2
B t = n   --------------------
ds

In this equation, ds is the surface layer thickness and the relation between the
tangential magnetic field Ht and flux density Bt inside the layer can be linear and given
by a relative permeability or nonlinear and given by the B-H curve of the layer material.

The Magnetic Shielding model uses a magnetostatic approach and can

only be used in a Stationary study step. For a frequency-domain model of
a similar physical object (thin layer) use the Transition Boundary
Condition node instead.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 359

 MAGNETIC SHIELDING
Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m). Select a
Magnetization model, either Relative permeability (the default), or B-H curve.

Relative Permeability
Select Relative permeability r (dimensionless) to use the constitutive relation
B  0rH. The default uses values From material. For User defined, enter another value
or expression.

B-H Curve
Select B-H curve to use a curve that relates the magnetic flux density B and the
magnetic field H as B  fH. The Magnetic field norm setting can take the values
From material or User defined.

360 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Magnetic and Electric Fields
Interface
The Magnetic and Electric Fields (mef) interface ( ), found under the
AC/DC>Electromagnetic Fields>Vector Formulations branch when adding a physics
interface, is used to compute magnetic field and current distributions when the
exciting current is driven by an applied voltage. Stationary, time-dependent and
frequency-domain modeling are supported in 2D and 3D. Note that in most cases,
using the Magnetic Fields interface with its dedicated coil modeling features is the
preferred choice over using the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

The physics interface solves Maxwell’s equations formulated using the magnetic vector
potential and the scalar electric potential as the dependent variables.

In three-dimensional components, if the conduction current in the

modeled system is confined only in some regions (for example, a metallic
coil) and most of the domains are nonconductive, it is recommended to
use the Magnetic Fields interface and apply the Single Turn Coil domain
node on the conductive regions, instead of using this physics interface.

Use the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface when the current continuity equation
is needed everywhere in the simulation domain.

The main node is the Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation feature, which adds the
equation for the electric potential and magnetic vector potential and provides an
interface for defining the constitutive relations and their associated properties such as
the relative permeability, relative permittivity, and electrical conductivity.

The Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation feature can be overridden with an
Ampère’s Law feature or a Coil feature, that are identical to the ones in the Magnetic
Fields interface, removing the electric potential and the current conservation equation
from the selected domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation, Magnetic Insulation (the default
boundary condition for the magnetic vector potential), and Initial Values. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 361

 conditions and external currents. You can also right-click Magnetic and Electric Fields to
select physics features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

Except where described below, most Settings windows are the same as for
the Magnetic Fields, Electrostatics, and Electric Currents interfaces. Also
see About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary
Conditions for more information.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mef.

BACKGROUND FIELD
The only option available from the Solve for list is Full field.

362 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

COMPONENTS

For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, select Components —

Out-of-plane vector potential (the default), In-plane vector potential, or
Three-component vector potential. From the practical viewpoint this choice
is equivalent to deciding in what directions the electric current is allowed
to flow (out-of-plane currents, in-plane currents or currents flowing in all
three coordinate directions).

In 2D axisymmetric dimension, The Covariant Formulation is used.

THICKNESS

Enter a value or expression for the Out-of-plane thickness d. The default

value of 1 unit length is typically not representative for a thin domain.
Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical
to the equation used for 3D components.

INPUT SWEEP SETTINGS

Enter a Reference impedance Zref (SI unit: ). The default is 50 . This impedance is
used by Terminal features (when the Terminal Type is set to Terminated) and the
Touchstone file export functionality.

Select the Activate input sweep check box to switch on the sweep and invoke a
parametric sweep over the Lumped ports or the Terminal nodes.

Select an option from the Sweep on list — Terminals or Ports. This setting controls
which features are activated during the sweep.

Enter a Sweep parameter name to indicate the name of the model parameter that
controls the terminal or port activated in each step of the sweep. The default is
PortName. The name given must match the model parameter, defined under Global
Definitions, that is the object of a Parametric Sweep node in the current Study.

The lumped parameters computed can be subject to a Touchstone file export. To

activate this functionality, enter a file path or Browse for a file. Select a Parameter format
(value pairs) for the Touchstone export — Magnitude and angle (MA) (the default),
Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and imaginary parts (RI). Select an option from
the If file exists list — Overwrite or Create new. Create new is useful when the model is

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 363

 solved multiple times with different settings. Select a Parameter to export — Z (the
default), Y, or S.

When Terminals is selected under Sweep on, also select a Parameter to export — Z (the
default), Y, or S. When the sweep is carried on Ports, the exported parameter is always S.

ERROR CHECK
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

When the Check applicability of features in study check box is selected, any features that
are incompatible with the study will generate an error message when trying to solve or
show the default solver. No solver will be generated. Deselect it and you will be able
to run the model, possibly with runtime errors instead. It is available to allow the
advanced user to tweak any feature and use it outside of its intended study scope.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric potential V and Magnetic
vector potential A. The name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent
variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic vector potential dependent variable — Linear,
Quadratic (the default), or Cubic and for the Electric potential dependent variable —
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic. For more information about the
Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary

Conditions
• Computing Lumped Parameters
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic and
Electric Fields Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface

364 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 • Magnetic Brake: Application Library path ACDC_Module/
Devices,_Transducers_and_Actuators/magnetic_brake
• Inductance of a Power Inductor: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Devices,_Inductive/power_inductor

About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary

Conditions
The Magnetic and Electric Fields interface boundary conditions are applied in a
two-step procedure. This is because only some combinations of electric and magnetic
boundary conditions are physically relevant whereas others can lead to nonphysical
models that violate the current conservation law.

The basic steps for this are to add the magnetic boundary conditions from
the Physics toolbar. Then right-click these magnetic boundary condition
nodes to add compatible electric boundary conditions as subnodes.

STEP 1: MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

With no surface currents present the physics interface conditions

n2   A1 – A2  = 0
n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because the physics interface solves for A, the tangential
component of the magnetic potential is always continuous, and thus the first condition
is automatically fulfilled. The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary
condition and is hence also fulfilled unless surface currents are explicitly introduced.

STEP 2: ELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Depending on specific modeling problems, different electric boundary conditions
should be used. To include the modeling of the full-wave effect, for instance, in the
frequency domain studies, the most general exterior electric boundary condition is the
Ground; that is,

V = 0

In some other cases where conducting current is more significant, other electric
boundary conditions can be used. For example, at exterior boundaries between

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 365

 conducting and non-conducting materials, the general boundary condition is the
Electric Insulation, expressed as

nJ = 0

which is a natural boundary condition.

A default Ground subnode is also added under the default Magnetic

Insulation node. This is to ensure that default boundary conditions are
always specified both for the magnetic vector potential and the electric
potential. Additional subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Table 5-3 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface.
TABLE 5-3: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

MAGNETIC BOUNDARIES

Impedance Boundary Condition x

Lumped Port x x
Magnetic Continuity x
Magnetic Field x
Magnetic Insulation x x
Magnetic Potential x x
Magnetic Shielding x
Perfect Magnetic Conductor x x
Surface Current x x
Thin Low Permeability Gap x
Transition Boundary Condition x
Coil x
ELECTRIC BOUNDARIES

Contact Impedance x
Electric Insulation x x
Electric Potential x x
Electric Shielding x

366 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

TABLE 5-3: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

Floating Potential x x
Ground x x
Normal Current Density x
Periodic Condition x

BOUNDARY CONDITION COMBINATIONS

Table 5-4 shows the possible combination of magnetic and electric boundary
conditions, with an explanation of the physical model represented by the more
advanced combinations.
TABLE 5-4: POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

MAGNETIC FEATURE ELECTRIC FEATURE PHYSICAL MODEL

Magnetic Insulation Electric Insulation

Electric Potential
Ground
Floating Potential
Terminal
Normal Current Density
Magnetic Continuity <none> <no effect>
Electric Insulation Thin nonconducting, nonmagnetic
layer, such as an air gap or crack in a
metal. It can be used to model
internal insulation.
Contact Impedance Thin resistive, nonmagnetic layer,
such as an oxide layer in a metal.
Magnetic Shielding <none> Magnetic (high-r) layer with same
conductive properties as the
surrounding medium.
Electric Shielding Thin magnetic, highly conductive
layer (high-r, high-).
Electric Insulation Thin nonconducting magnetic layer.
Contact Impedance Thin resistive magnetic layer.

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 367

 TABLE 5-4: POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE

MAGNETIC FEATURE ELECTRIC FEATURE PHYSICAL MODEL

Surface Current <none> Externally imposed surface current

density.
Electric Shielding Thin nonmagnetic, highly conductive
layer along which a surface current
density flows, that is automatically
included in the parent node.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic
and Electric Fields Interface
The Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

Also see About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary Conditions and
Table 5-2 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

These nodes are described in this section:

• Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation • Magnetic Shielding

• Initial Values • RLC Coil Group
• Magnetic Continuity • Surface Current
• Magnetic Insulation

368 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The following nodes are described for the Magnetic Fields or Electric Currents
interfaces,

• Ampère’s Law • Lumped Element

• Override Coil Inlet/Outlet • Lumped Port
• Contact Impedance • Magnetic Field
• Edge Current • Magnetic Point Dipole
• Electric Insulation • Magnetic Potential
• Electric Point Dipole • Coil
• Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) • Normal Current Density
• Electric Potential • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Electric Shielding • Periodic Condition
• External Current Density • Single Conductor Coil
• Floating Potential • Terminal
• Force Calculation • Thin Low Permeability Gap
• Gauge Fixing for A-Field • Transition Boundary Condition
• Ground • Velocity (Lorentz Term)
• Impedance Boundary Condition

• Sector Symmetry
• Infinite Elements, Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 369

 Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation
The Ampère’s Law and Current Conservation node adds Ampère’s law and the equation
of continuity for the electric current. It provides an interface for defining the
constitutive relations and their associated properties.

This feature can be overridden with an Ampère’s Law feature or a Coil

feature, which are identical to the ones in the Magnetic Fields interface,
removing the electric potential and the current conservation equation
from the selected domains.

MATERIAL TYPE
The Material type setting decides how materials behave and how material properties are
interpreted when the mesh is deformed. Select Solid for materials whose properties
change as functions of material strain, material orientation and other variables
evaluated in a material reference configuration (material frame). Select Nonsolid for
materials whose properties are defined only as functions of the current local state at
each point in the spatial frame, and for which no unique material reference
configuration can be defined. Select From material to pick up the corresponding setting
from the domain material on each domain.

The Constitutive Relation Jc-E and Constitutive Relation B-H settings are the
same as Ampère’s Law for the Magnetic Fields interface. The Constitutive
Relation D-E settings are the same as for Current Conservation for the
Electric Currents interface.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential and
electric potential that can serve as an initial value for a transient simulation or as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A
(SI unit: Wb/m) and initial value of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V). The default
values are 0 Wb/m and 0 V, respectively.

370 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node is the default magnetic boundary condition for the
Magnetic and Electric Fields interface and sets the tangential components of the
magnetic potential to zero at the boundary n  A = 0. Electric boundary conditions
can be applied by adding subnodes to the Magnetic Insulation node. The default electric
boundary condition, added under each Magnetic Insulation node, is Ground. The
Electric Potential, Electric Insulation, Floating Potential, Terminal, or Normal Current
Density subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

About the Magnetic and Electric Fields Interface Boundary Conditions

Surface Current
The Surface Current node adds a boundary condition for a surface current density Js.

An externally applied surface current density can be specified directly in the Settings
window for the node. Alternatively, the Electric Shielding subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. Use the subnode to model a thin conductive layer (a layer whose electrical
conductivity s is higher than in the surrounding domains). In this case, the electric
current flows preferably along the conductive boundary, and the resulting surface
current density is automatically incorporated in the parent Surface Current node to act
as a source for the magnetic field.

SURFACE CURRENT
Enter values or expressions for the Surface current density Js0 (SI unit: A/m)
coordinates.

Magnetic Shielding
The Magnetic Shielding node adds a boundary condition for magnetic shielding. By
itself, this feature represents a geometrically thin layer with a relative permeability
substantially higher than the surrounding material, that shields the magnetic field.

Subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use the subnodes to provide an electrical model

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 371

 on top of the Shielding magnetic model. The available subnodes are Electric Shielding,
Electric Insulation, and Contact Impedance subnodes. The possible combinations are:

• Magnetic Shielding with no subnode: this represents a highly magnetic layer with no
special electrical properties.
• Magnetic Shielding and Electric Shielding: this combination represents a layer in which
both the relative permeability r and the electrical conductivity  are much higher
than in the adjacent domain. This layer shields the magnetic field and the current
preferentially flows along it. The resulting surface current density is incorporated in
the model as a source for the magnetic field.
• Magnetic Shielding and Electric Insulation: this combination represents a
nonconductive magnetic layer. The layer shields the magnetic field and there is no
current flowing through it. The electric potential is discontinuous across the
boundary.
• Magnetic Shielding and Contact Impedance: this combination represents a resistive
magnetic layer. The layer shields the magnetic field and the current flows preferably
orthogonally to the layer. The electric potential is discontinuous across the
boundary.

MAGNETIC SHIELDING
The default Relative permeability r (dimensionless) uses values From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full and enter other values or
expressions. For anisotropic material, the relative permeability is a tensor.

Enter a value or expression for the Surface thickness ds (SI unit: m).

Magnetic Continuity
The Magnetic Continuity node does not apply any condition or constraint to the model.
Its purpose is to allow the application of electrical boundary conditions by means of
the subnodes Electric Insulation and Contact Impedance. The subnodes are available
from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. Use this feature to model thin layer with particular electrical
properties but with the same magnetic properties of the surrounding medium.

372 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

RLC Coil Group

This node is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components. This

node also can only be applied on domains where an Ampère’s Law feature
is active.

The RLC (Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive) Coil Group node is an advanced coil feature

that takes advantage of the A-V formulation of the Magnetic and Electric Fields
features to take into account in-plane electric current flow in the coil’s current balance.
This feature combines the magnetic model of a Single Turn Coil (in Coil group mode)
with a multiple-terminal electrical model for the in-plane current. This node can be
used to approximate in 2D a coil in which (due to capacitive coupling or other
phenomena) there is relatively significant current flow in the in-plane directions.

Apply this feature to a group of domains representing the cross sections of the coil
turns on the modeling plane. Since the electric potential is assumed to be constant in
the cross section of each turn, the V variable must be removed in the selected domains
by applying an Ampère’s Law node. The feature applies an external current density
flowing orthogonally to the plane, and also imposes a voltage constraint on the
boundary of each cross section, computed from the coil and the excitation properties.
The feature also enforces a balance of the current flowing out-of-plane and the current
leaking in the plane between the coil turns.

The approximation applied by this feature is valid only under the

assumption that the current flowing in-plane is relatively small compared
with the current in the coil. If this condition is not fulfilled, the model
cannot be considered two-dimensional and a full 3D component is
required.

DOMAINS LATTICE
In order to apply the correct voltage at each coil turn, it is necessary to precisely define
the order in which the domains are connected. The RLC Coil Group feature assumes
that all domains are of the same shape and are disposed on a two-dimensional Bravais
lattice; that is, that there exist two vectors a and b (called primitive vectors) such that
given two lattice points r1 and r2 the following relation holds:

r 1 – r 2 = na + mb

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 373

 with n and m being integers. One-dimensional lattices (linear lattices) are also
supported by this feature.

The RLC Coil Group node can automatically determine two lattice vectors (or one, in
the case of a linear lattice) from the geometry and position of the selected domains.
The choices Row-wise and Column-wise in the Ordering settings use this functionality.
The two choices control how the vectors a and b are chosen.

Since the primitive vectors of a Bravais lattice are not unique, the lattice recognition
algorithm could find two vectors different from the desired one. In this case, it is
possible to manually specify User defined lattice vectors.

DOMAIN ORDERING
By default, the RLC Coil Group feature assigns the first turn index (closest to the
reference potential) to the turn with the smallest n and m. When using the automatic
recognition algorithm, this usually corresponds to the coil turn with smallest x and y
(or r and z in axisymmetry). The other coil turns are numbered in order of increasing
m first, and then increasing n. Refer to the diagram in the node’s Settings window for
a visual explanation.

If Winding is set to Alternated, the direction of increasing m is reversed each time n

changes value. Again, refer to the diagram for a visual explanation.

RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE COIL MODEL

The RLC Coil Group feature expands the model applied by a Single Conductor Coil
domain feature by including a current balance for each turn and constraints for the
voltage. The feature introduces n  1 voltages (where n is the number of coil turns)
with the interpretation of electric potential values at the turn end terminals: V0, V1,...,
Vn, where V0 is the value specified as the Ground voltage in the Settings window. The
cross section shown in the interface corresponds to the midsection of the turns, that is
half way between the end terminals. The i-th coil turn (i = 1,..., n) has an applied
potential difference

d
Vi = Vi – Vi – 1

that drives an out-of-plane external current density computed as in the Single

Conductor Coil case:

374 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

 d
Vi
J e =  ------- e z in 2D
d
d
Vi
J e =  ---------- e  in 2D axisym.
2r

On the boundaries of the turn domain the electric potential variable V is constrained
to the value  V i + V i – 1   2 , that is the mean of the electric potential values of its end
terminals.

The current flowing in-plane is balanced with the difference of the currents between
two adjacent turns. If Ii is the out-of-plane current flowing in the i-th turn,

Ii =  J  e
i

then the current balance for the coil turns is

Ii –   J  n  – Ii + 1 = 0 i = 1  n – 1
 i

In –   J  n  – I Coil = 0
 n

The coil current ICoil is computed from the coil excitation in the same way as for the
Single Conductor Coil feature.

RLC COIL GROUP

The settings in this section is very similar to the ones described in the Single Conductor
Coil node. The only addition is the Ground voltage input. Specify in the text box the
voltage at one end of the coil (SI unit: V). The voltage at the other end depends on
the excitation type. This setting is useful, for example, to connect in series two coil
groups.

GEOMETRY
This section specifies the information needed to identify the Bravais lattice on which
the coil turns are placed The feature automatically detects the two primitive vectors of
the lattice if Ordering is set as Row-wise (the default) or Column-wise. For User defined
use the diagram as a guide to manually enter the Primitive vectors a and b (SI unit: m)
of the lattice. The diagram shows how the domains are ordered for each choice.

THE MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS INTERFACE | 375

 Select a Winding style — Regular (the default) or Alternated. Look at the diagram for an
illustration of these options.

376 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Magnetic Field Formulation
Interface
The Magnetic Field Formulation (mfh) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electromagnetic Fields>Vector Formulations branch when adding a physics interface,
is used to compute magnetic fields and induced current distributions. It is especially
suitable for time-domain magnetic modeling of materials with a strongly nonlinear E-J
characteristic such as superconductors. Stationary, frequency-domain, small-signal
analysis and time-domain modeling are supported in 2D and 3D. Note that the
formulation requires a nonzero conductivity everywhere.

The physics interface solves Maxwell’s equations formulated using the magnetic field
as the dependent variable.

The main node is Faraday’s Law, which adds the equation for the magnetic field and
provides an interface for defining the constitutive relations and its associated properties
such as the relative permeability.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Magnetic Field Formulation, Faraday’s Law, Magnetic Insulation (the default
boundary condition), Initial Values, and Magnetic Gauss’ Law. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
external currents. You can also right-click Magnetic Field Formulation to select physics
features from the context menu.

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear
the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain, will
be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 377

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mfh.

COMPONENTS

This section is only available in 2D and 2D axially symmetric components.

The electric currents and the electric field vectors are orthogonal to the
magnetic field. This setting also controls the direction in which applied
and induced currents can flow in the model. The default option is to solve
for the in-plane components only, allowing an out-of-plane current flow.

Select Components — Out-of-plane magnetic field, In-plane magnetic field (the default),
or Three-component magnetic field for the magnetic field. This choice affect also the
directions in which the electric current is allowed to flow: the magnetic field and
electric currents are orthogonal.

When In-plane magnetic field or Three-component magnetic field is selected, the

Magnetic Gauss’ Law node becomes available, and is added as default.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the Magnetic field H. You can change both its field name and
the individual component variable names. If the new field name coincides with the
name of another magnetic vector potential field in the model, the interfaces share
degrees of freedom and component names. The new field name must not coincide with
the name of a field of another type or with a component name belonging to some other
field. Component names must be unique within a model, except for fields of the same
type sharing a common field name.

DIVERGENCE CONSTRAINT
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

378 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The Activate divergence constraint check box is selected by default, which enables the
default Magnetic Gauss’ Law node. Click to clear the check box to disable the
Magnetic Gauss’s Law node and remove it from the physics interface.

ERROR CHECK
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

When the Check applicability of features in study check box is selected, any features that
are incompatible with the study will generate an error message when trying to solve or
show the default solver. No solver will be generated. Deselect it and you will be able
to run the model, possibly with runtime errors instead. It is available to allow the
advanced user to tweak any feature and use it outside of its intended study scope.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic field dependent variable — Linear, Linear type
2, Quadratic (the default), Quadratic type 2, Cubic, or Cubic type 2. For more
information about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization
Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Field
Formulation Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Field Formulation Interface

Superconducting Wire: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Superconducting/superconducting_wire

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Field
Formulation Interface
The Magnetic Field Formulation Interface has these domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 379

 About the Boundary Conditions
With no surface currents present the physics interface conditions

n2   H1 – H2  = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because H is being solved for, the tangential component of the
magnetic field is always continuous, and thus the condition is automatically fulfilled.

Table 5-5 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface.
TABLE 5-5: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION
INTERFACE

NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

Electric Field x x
Impedance Boundary Condition x
Magnetic Field x x
Magnetic Insulation x x
Perfect Magnetic Conductor x x
Surface Magnetic Current Density x x

Available Nodes
These nodes are available for this physics interface and listed in alphabetical order. Also
see Table 5-5 for the list of interior and exterior boundary conditions.

• Electric Field • Magnetic Gauss’ Law

• Faraday’s Law • Magnetic Insulation
• Initial Values • Magnetic Field
• Surface Magnetic Current Density

380 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

These nodes are described for the Magnetic Fields or Electrostatics interface (listed in
alphabetical order):

• External Current Density • Perfect Magnetic Conductor

• Force Calculation • Velocity (Lorentz Term)
• Impedance Boundary Condition

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Faraday’s Law
The Faraday’s Law node adds Faraday’s law for the electric field and provides an
interface for defining the constitutive relation and its associated properties such as the
relative permeability as well as electric properties.

Except for two extra options; Resistivity and E-J characteristic, in the Constitutive
Relation Jc-E settings, and the important notes listed below, see Ampère’s Law for the
rest of the settings.

If E-J characteristic is selected in the Conduction Current settings, the

External Current Density node cannot be used to drive currents in that
domain selection.

In order to obtain a closed system of equations with this physics interface,

the Electrical conductivity (defined under Conduction Current) must be
nonzero in all domains.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 381

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic field H that can serve as
an initial value for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the Magnetic field H (SI unit: A/m) components. The
defaults are 0 A/m.

Magnetic Gauss’ Law

The Magnetic Gauss’ Law node is used to impose the condition

B = 0

on the magnetic flux density by introducing an auxiliary dependent variable  with the
corresponding equation.

MAGNETIC GAUSS’ LAW

The variable is used to impose a condition on the derivatives of the magnetic flux
density, so its absolute value does not have particular significance; only its gradient
enters the equations (the variable  acts more or less like a potential). The absolute
value of the variable can be set by entering the Enter a value or expression for the
Divergence condition variable scaling 0 (SI unit: A). The default is 1 A, which is
appropriate in most cases.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

This section allows a more fine control on the boundary conditions for  applied by
the Magnetic Gauss’ Law feature. The domain equation for  only imposes a condition
on the gradient, so it is important to constrain the absolute value of  to ensure a
nonsingular model. Select the Constrain variable in at least one point to ensure that
there is always a constraint set on the value of the divergence condition variable . The
feature also sets up automatically the appropriate boundary conditions for  Use the
Method combo box to select the approach used to enforce the boundary condition:
Constrain value (the default) or Constrain tangential gradient.

382 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node is the default boundary condition for the Magnetic Field
Formulation interface. In this formulation, this condition corresponds to setting the
tangential components of the electric field to zero at the boundary n  E = 0.

For more information and the settings, see Magnetic Insulation as

described for the Magnetic Fields interface.

Electric Field
The Electric Field boundary condition

n  E = n  E0

specifies the tangential component of the electric field. This feature can be used to
specify a source electric field on the boundary of the conductor.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Electric field E0 (SI unit: V/
m). The defaults are 0 V/m.

Surface Magnetic Current Density

The Surface Magnetic Current Density node adds a boundary condition for a surface
magnetic current density Jms (a flow of magnetic charges along a boundary):

– n  E = J ms
n   E 1 – E 2  = J ms

These expressions apply to exterior and interior boundaries, respectively. On exterior

boundaries, the condition is equivalent to an Electric field boundary condition where
the electric field is specified as Jms n.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 383

 Add a contribution as a Harmonic Perturbation by right-clicking the parent node or
click Harmonic Perturbation on the Physics toolbar. For more information see
Harmonic Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the Surface magnetic current density Jms, 0 (SI unit V/
m) coordinates. The defaults are 0 V/m.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field boundary condition

n  H = n  H0

specifies the tangential component of the magnetic field. As the equation suggests, the
boundary condition only guarantees that the tangential components of H and H0 are
equal. Their normal components might deviate depending on specific situations.

The Harmonic Perturbation subnode (it is of the exclusive type) is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or on the Physics toolbar, click the
Attributes menu and select Harmonic Perturbation. For more information see Harmonic
Perturbation — Exclusive and Contributing Nodes in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Magnetic field H0 (SI unit: A/
m). The defaults are 0 A/m.

Magnetic Fields Formulation Magnetic Fields No Currents Coupling

The Magnetic Fields Formulation Magnetic Fields No Currents Coupling multiphysics node
assures continuity of the normal magnetic flux density and the tangential magnetic
field across boundaries between The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface and The
Magnetic Field Formulation Interface. The Magnetic Fields Formulation Magnetic Fields
No Currents Coupling is available from the Multiphysics menu in the Physics toolbar or
by right-clicking the Multiphysics Couplings node in Model Builder, if both The
Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface and The Magnetic Field Formulation
Interface are available.

384 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
Select Manual or All boundaries from the Selection list. Make additional edits to the
list of boundary entity numbers using the Selection toolbar buttons. When All
boundaries is selected from the Selection list, the boundaries exterior to The Magnetic
Fields, No Currents Interface that intersect the exterior boundaries to The Magnetic
Field Formulation Interface are available in the boundary entity number list.

COUPLED INTERFACES
Select The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface as Primary interface and The
Magnetic Field Formulation Interface as Secondary interface.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD FORMULATION INTERFACE | 385

 The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only
Interface
The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only (mfco) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Magnetic Fields>Vector Formulations branch when adding a physics interface, is used
to compute magnetic fields from currents under the assumption that all regions have
a uniform relative magnetic permeability of one. It is designed to support both
divergence-free and non-divergence-free currents. In free space it returns the value of
the Biot–Savart integral. The interface only supports stationary and stationary source
sweep study steps in 3D.

The physics interface solves Ampère’s law using the magnetic vector potential as the
dependent variable. The main node is the Free Space feature which solves Ampère’s law
in free space. It is designed to efficiently compute the lumped inductance matrix of
complex circuits. Due to the support of modeling non-divergence-free currents, this
interface is able to calculate the partial contributions of magnetic fields generated from
open conductors.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Magnetic Fields, Currents Only, Free Space, Exterior Boundaries (the default
boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, additional boundary conditions and point
conditions. You can also right-click Magnetic Fields, Currents Only to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mfco.

386 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic vector potential A. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic vector potential dependent variable — Linear,
Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic. For more information about the Discretization
section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface
• Theory for the Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface

• Magnetic Field of a Helmholtz Coil: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Devices,_Inductive/helmholtz_coil
• Inductance Matrix Calculation of PCB Coils: Application Library
path ACDC_Module/Devices,_Inductive/inductance_matrix_pcb_coils

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface
The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface has these domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, CURRENTS ONLY INTERFACE | 387

 AVAILABLE NODES
These nodes are available for this physics interface and listed in alphabetical order. Also
see Table 5-6 for a list of interior and exterior boundary conditions.

• Conductor • Initial Values

1
• Electric Insulation (Subnode) • Magnetic Continuity
• Exterior Boundaries • Magnetic Insulation1
• External Current Density • Magnetic Potential
• Free Space • Passive Conductor
• Ground (Subnode)1 • Terminal (Subnode)
1 Described for another physics interface in this user guide.

Table 5-6 lists the interior and exterior boundary conditions available with this physics
interface.
TABLE 5-6: INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, CURRENTS ONLY
INTERFACE

PHYSICS NODE INTERIOR EXTERIOR

Exterior Boundaries x
Magnetic Potential x
Magnetic Insulation x
Terminal (Subnode) x x
Ground (Subnode) x x
Electric Insulation (Subnode) x x

Free Space
The Free Space node is the default domain feature of the Magnetic Fields, Currents
Only interface. It adds the Ampère’s law in free space and assumes that all domains
have a uniform relative magnetic permeability of one. Also see Theory for the
Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface.

Exterior Boundaries
The Exterior Boundaries node is the default boundary condition of the Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only interface. It is usually used with the Stationary Source Sweep with

388 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Initialization study step. The Exterior Boundaries adds a constraint over the boundaries
of the model to the value of an equivalent source based on a monopole and dipole
expansion of the physical sources, expressed as

 0  Q m  D m –  Q m  r    r
A = ------  --------- + ----------------------------------------------------
4  r r
3


where r = x-xs, and xs is the point that an equivalent point source is placed. Qm and
Dm are the source contributions from the magnetic monopole and dipole, respective.
They are computed as integrals over current sources expressed as

Qm = J

Dm =  J  r

The Exterior Boundaries feature is designed to efficiently compute the

lumped inductance matrix with the Stationary Source Sweep with
Initialization study step. For other studies such as the Stationary study, it
is computationally heavier. In these cases, to improve the efficiency, switch
the Exterior Field Equivalent Source to User defined or use the Magnetic
Insulation boundary condition to override it. One can also use the Infinite
Element feature to remove the constraint over adjacent Exterior
Boundaries.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A
(SI unit: Wb/m).

Conductor
The Conductor node adds the continuity equation for the electrical potential and
provides an interface for defining the electric conductivity. Use it as an easy way to

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, CURRENTS ONLY INTERFACE | 389

 apply current sources, especially in connection with the Stationary Source Sweep with
Initialization study step. The Conductor feature has several subnodes (Terminal,
Ground, Electric Insulation) that can be used to define the boundary conditions for the
current conservation.

Instead of using the Conductor node to compute the current flow field,
one can also use the External Current Density feature. The current can be
either defined by an expression or imported from other interfaces such as
the The Electric Currents Interface.

An operation named as Split by Connectivity ( ) is available by right-clicking the

parent node. The operation is useful when there are several conductor domains that
are not geometrically connected. Clicking the operation node will automatically
generate several Conductor nodes where each selection is geometrically connected.

Terminal (Subnode)
The Terminal subnode provides an interface to define the total current flowing in the
conductor (parent node).

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears on the right-hand side of the equation that The Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface defines.

Magnetic Potential
The Magnetic Potential node adds a boundary condition for the magnetic vector
potential:

A = A0

MAGNETIC POTENTIAL
Enter a value or expression for the Magnetic vector potential A0 (SI unit: Wb/m)
coordinates.

390 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Magnetic Continuity
The Magnetic Continuity node adds a continuity pair feature for the magnetic vector
potential. This node is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries match.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
The selection list in this section shows the boundaries for the selected pairs.

PAIR SELECTION
Select the pairs where you want to impose continuity across the pair boundaries by
clicking the Add button ( ) and choose the pairs to add from the list in the Add dialog
box that opens; then click OK. Also see Identity and Contact Pairs.

Passive Conductor
The Passive Conductor node adds a simplified version of the Conductor feature, which
does not require specification of terminal and ground boundaries, and is not swept
over by source sweep studies. It is used to model a conductor without feeding. It is still
possible to add an Electric Insulation subfeature that can be used to define the
boundary conditions for the current conservation.

PASSIVE CONDUCTOR
The settings in this section are identical to the ones in the Conductor feature, except
for that you cannot enter a name. This is not needed in the Passive Conductor feature,
since it is not used in source sweeps.

THE MAGNETIC FIELDS, CURRENTS ONLY INTERFACE | 391

 The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic
Interface
The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic (rmm) interface ( ), found under the AC/
DC>Electromagnetics and Mechanics branch when adding a physics interface, is used for
design and analysis of electric motors and generators. Stationary and time-domain
modeling is supported in 2D and 3D.

The physics interface solves Maxwell's equations formulated using a combination of

magnetic vector potential and magnetic scalar potential as the dependent variables. For
a theoretical discussion, see The A Formulation, The Vm Formulation, and The A–Vm
Formulation.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Electric Field Transformation, Ampère’s Law, Mixed Formulation Boundary,
Magnetic Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions
and point conditions. You can also right-click Rotating Machinery, Magnetic to select
physics features from the context menu.

• The physics interface only works correctly if the geometry is created as

an assembly pair from individual composite objects for the rotor and
stator parts. An Identity Boundary Pair feature must also be defined for
the rotor-stator physics interface boundaries under the
Model>Definitions node in the Model Builder. This is usually done by
choosing Form Assembly in the finalization node of the geometry
sequence.
• It is important to avoid having scalar potential regions that surround
vector potential regions in which non-closed currents can flow. For a
detailed analysis, see this blog post https://www.comsol.com/blogs/
how-to-model-rotating-machinery-in-3d/

Physics-Controlled Mesh
The physics-controlled mesh is controlled from the Mesh node’s Settings window (if the
Sequence type is Physics-controlled mesh). There, in the table in the Physics-Controlled
Mesh section, find the physics interface in the Contributor column and select or clear

392 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

the check box in the Use column on the same table row for enabling (the default) or
disabling contributions from the physics interface to the physics-controlled mesh.

Information from the physics, such as the presence of an infinite elements domain or
periodic condition, will be used to automatically set up an appropriate meshing
sequence.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see the

Physics-Controlled Mesh section for more information about how to
define the physics-controlled mesh.

Only nodes unique to the Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interface are

described in this section. Most nodes are described for The Magnetic
Fields Interface or The Magnetic Fields, Currents Only Interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rmm.

BACKGROUND FIELD
Select an option from the Solve for list — Full field (the default) or Reduced field. For
Reduced field specify a Background magnetic vector potential Ab (SI unit: Wb/m). The
entered expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

The total field used in the physics and equations are given by the sum of the reduced
and background fields.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, MAGNETIC INTERFACE | 393

 COMPONENTS
For 2D components, select the Components — Out-of-plane vector potential (the
default), In-plane vector potential, or Three-component vector potential.

THICKNESS
For 2D components, enter a value or expression for the global Out-of-plane thickness d
(SI unit: m). The default value of 1 m is typically not representative for a thin domain.
Instead it describes a unit thickness that makes the 2D equation identical to the
equation used for 3D components.

PORT SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep check box and enter a Sweep parameter name in the field.
The default is PortName.

The lumped parameters computed can be subject to a Touchstone file export. To

activate this functionality, enter a file path or click Browse to navigate to a file. Select a
Parameter format (value pairs) for the Touchstone export — Magnitude and angle (MA)
(the default), Magnitude in dB and angle (DB), or Real and imaginary parts (RI). Select
the desired operation to perform from the If file exists list — Overwrite (the default) or
Create new. The latter is useful when the model is solved multiple times with different
settings. Enter a Reference impedance, Touchstone file export Zref (SI unit: ). The
default is 50 .

ERROR CHECK
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

When the Check applicability of features in study check box is selected, any features that
are incompatible with the study will generate an error message when trying to solve or
show the default solver. No solver will be generated. Deselect it and you will be able
to run the model, possibly with runtime errors instead. It is available to allow the
advanced user to tweak any feature and use it outside of its intended study scope.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the magnetic vector potential A and the
magnetic scalar potential Vm. The name can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

394 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

DISCRETIZATION
Select the shape order for the Magnetic vector potential and the Magnetic scalar potential
dependent variables — Linear, Quadratic (the default), or Cubic. For more information
about the Discretization section, see Settings for the Discretization Sections in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating
Machinery, Magnetic Interface

• Generator in 2D: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/generator_2d
• Rotating Machinery 3D Tutorial: Application Library path
ACDC_Module/Devices,_Motors_and_Generators/
rotating_machinery_3d_tutorial

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating
Machinery, Magnetic Interface
The Rotating Machinery, Magnetic Interface has these boundary, edge, pair, and point
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, MAGNETIC INTERFACE | 395

 LINKS TO FEATURE NODE INFORMATION
These domain nodes are described in this section:

• Electric Field Transformation • Arkkio Torque Calculation

• Initial Values • Multiphase Winding
• Mixed Formulation Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

396 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

The following nodes are described for the Magnetic Fields or Magnetic Fields, No Currents
interfaces:

• Ampère’s Law1 • Magnetic Field1

• Boundary Feed • Magnetic Flux Conservation2
• Override Coil Inlet/Outlet • Magnetic Flux Density2
• Edge Current • Magnetic Potential1
• Electric Point Dipole • Magnetic Point Dipole
• Electric Point Dipole (on Axis) • Magnetic Scalar Potential2
• External Current Density1 • Magnetic Shielding1
• External Magnetic Vector Potential • Coil1
• Force Calculation • Passive Conductor
• Gap Feed • Perfect Magnetic Conductor1
• Ground • Periodic Condition
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane) • Sector Symmetry
1
• Lumped Element • Single Conductor Coil1
• Lumped Port1 • Surface Current1
• Magnet3 • Thin Low Permeability Gap1
• Magnet4 • Velocity (Lorentz Term)1
• Zero Magnetic Scalar Potential2
1
Select this from the Magnetic Fields submenu for this interface.
2
Select this from the Magnetic Fields, No Currents submenu for this interface.
3 This feature is called Conducting Magnet in this interface.

4
This feature is called Nonconducting Magnet in this interface.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A
(SI unit: Wb/m).

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, MAGNETIC INTERFACE | 397

 Electric Field Transformation
The Electric Field Transformation node imposes suitable transformations to the electric
field definitions in all domains depending on rotational velocity.

Magnetic Insulation
The Magnetic Insulation node is the default external boundary condition for the
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interface. It adds a boundary condition that, on
boundaries with magnetic vector potential (Ampère’s Law domains) sets the tangential
components of the magnetic potential to zero at the boundary n  A = 0. On external
boundaries with magnetic scalar potential (Magnetic Flux Conservation domains) it
sets the normal component of the magnetic flux density to zero n B  0.

As external boundary condition, it is useful at boundaries confining a

surrounding region of air or to model symmetry cuts.

For the magnetic vector potential, Magnetic insulation is a special case of the magnetic
potential boundary condition that sets the tangential component of the magnetic
potential to zero and can be used for the modeling of a lossless metallic surface, for
example, a ground plane or as a symmetry type boundary condition. The Magnetic
Insulation node can also be applied on interior boundaries in vector potential domains.
For more details on this, see also the corresponding documentation section in the
Magnetic Fields interface on Magnetic Insulation.

Mixed Formulation Boundary

The Mixed Formulation Boundary node imposes continuity between the magnetic scalar
potential on one side of the boundary and the magnetic vector potential on the other
side. This feature is added by default and is applied automatically to all appropriate
boundaries.

Arkkio Torque Calculation

Use the Arkkio Torque Calculation node to define globally available torque variables for
the selected domains, which is the air gap. Compared with the Force Calculation feature,
the Arkkio Torque Calculation requires a much coarser mesh for the same accuracy. For
a theoretical discussion, see the section Computing Forces and Torques.

398 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

TORQUE CALCULATION
Enter a Torque name, which is then appended to global variables. This feature also gives
access to the azimuthal and radial force density and magnetic flux density. The
computed torque is made available as a global scalar variable with name
<name>.Tark_<torque name>, where <name> is the Name of the physics interface.

The Arkkio Torque Calculation node has to be used together with Continuity, Sector
Symmetry, or Arkkio Extra Circular Boundaries features. The Arkkio parameters and
Number of sectors default to be automatically retrieved in most cases. Otherwise, User
defined options are available.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

This section enables you to set a Tolerance for automatic entity identification when
Arkkio parameters is set to Automatic.

Arkkio Extra Circular Boundaries

Use the Arkkio Extra Circular Boundaries node to specify extra circular boundaries that
are not defined by the Continuity or Sector Symmetry for the Arkkio Torque Calculation
feature. This could be useful when modeling electric motors without using Assembly.

APPLICABLE PAIR REGION

In Allowed region section, select Fallback and nonpair regions, Nonpair region, or All
regions to specify different pair regions to the selected boundaries.

Multiphase Winding
A coil, or group of coils, carrying the same current at the same phase angle is
commonly referred to a phase within a system where there are coils having different
phase angles. In the context of electrical machines a system of coils of different phases
is often referred to as a winding. The Multiphase Winding feature simplifies the
excitation of a system of coils having multiple phase angles. It is also possible to add a
Loss Calculation subfeature in order to compute induced losses.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, MAGNETIC INTERFACE | 399

 MULTIPHASE WINDING

Winding Name
Enter a Winding name. This name is appended to the variables defined by this winding.

Peak Phase Current

Enter the Peak phase current, which is the peak value of the current applied to all
phases.

Initial Electrical Angle

Enter the Initial electrical angle, which is an angular offset applied to all phases of the
system. Typically, the excitation in a multiphase system needs to be adjusted in order
to be in a particular angular position relative to other components of the overall
system.

Frequency for Time Dependent Studies

Enter the Frequency for time dependent studies, which is the electrical frequency of
excitation that defines the speed of a moving or rotating magnetic field.

Winding Layout Configuration

Select the Winding layout configuration to be used. The layout of a winding is the
pattern in which the coils are arranged with regard to phase and geometrical position.
The different options supported by the Multiphase Winding feature are User defined and
Automatic three phase. When User defined is selected, multiple Phase subfeatures can be
added, in which domains representing coils of each phase can be selected. Select
Automatic three phase to instead configure the domains of all phases under the
assumption that the winding is a balanced three phase system where all coils are of
equal shape and number of turns, and that all coil positions or slots are fully utilized.

Number of Poles
This field is only available when Automatic three phase is chosen as the Winding layout
configuration. Specify the Number of poles of the magnetic field to be excited by the
winding.

Number of Slots
This field is only available when Automatic three phase is chosen as the Winding layout
configuration. Specify the Number of slots available for all coils of the winding.

Number of Coils Per Slot

This field is only available when Automatic three phase is chosen as the Winding layout
configuration. Specify the Number of coils per slot, which is how many coils each slot can
accommodate. The automatic winding layout supports either one or two coils per slot.

400 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES

Add Phases
This button is only available when Automatic three phase is chosen as the Winding layout
configuration. When this button is clicked, a check will first be made to see if the
number of poles, slots, and coils per slot are valid under the assumptions described for
the Automatic three phase setting. If this check passes, three Phase subfeatures will be
added under the Multiphase Winding node, with selections of coil domains and
corresponding phase angles automatically configured.

SECTOR SETTINGS

Sector Settings
This section is only available when Automatic three phase is chosen as the Winding layout
configuration. This setting allows for custom configuration of sector periodicity in
models where only a part of the full geometry is included. The two different options
in this section are Automatic and User defined. If Automatic is chosen, the settings will
automatically match those in any Continuity or Sector Symmetry feature that is present
in the model. When User defined is chosen, the options become identical to those in
the Sector Symmetry feature.

HOMOGENIZED MULTITURN CONDUCTOR

This section is identical to the corresponding section in the Coil feature.

Phase
This subnode can be added under the Multiphase Winding node in order to select
domains representing coils with the same Phase offset angle. If using the Automatic
three phase winding layout is used, three copies of this feature will be generated
automatically.

PHASE

Phase Offset Angle

Enter the Phase offset angle for this phase.

Reversed Current Direction

This feature can be added as a subnode under the Phase node, and is used to select
domains representing parts of coils where the current direction is opposite to the
normal direction (out of plane).

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, MAGNETIC INTERFACE | 401

402 | CHAPTER 5: MAGNETIC FIELD INTERFACES
 6

The Electrical Circuit Interface

The Electrical Circuit interface, found under the AC/DC branch ( ) when adding
interfaces, has the equations for modeling electrical circuits with or without
connections to a distributed field model, solving for the voltages, currents and
charges associated with the circuit elements.

In this chapter:

• The Electrical Circuit Interface

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface
• SPICE Import and Export

403
 The Electrical Circuit Interface
The Electrical Circuit (cir) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model currents and voltages in circuits including
voltage and current sources, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and semiconductor
devices. Models created with the Electrical Circuit interface can include connections
to distributed field models. The physics interface supports stationary,
frequency-domain and time-domain modeling and solves Kirchhoff’s conservation
laws for the voltages, currents and charges associated with the circuit elements.

When this physics interface is added, it adds a default Ground Node feature and
associates that with node zero in the electrical circuit.

Circuit nodes are nodes in the electrical circuit (electrical nodes) and
should not be confused with nodes in the Model Builder tree of the
COMSOL Multiphysics software. Circuit node names are not restricted
to numerical values but can contain alphanumeric characters.

Inductor in an Amplifier Circuit: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Electromagnetics_and_Circuits/inductor_in_circuit

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cir.

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL TO PN JUNCTIONS

For numerical stability, a large resistance is added automatically in parallel to the pn
junctions in diodes and BJT devices. Enter a default value for the Resistance in parallel
to pn junctions Rj (SI unit: ). The default value is 1·1012 

404 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

CREATE UNIQUE NODES FOR NEW DEVICES
When this setting is selected (the default), newly added devices will be assigned unused
node names. The devices will be disconnected from the rest of the circuit and the
nodes should be updated to reflect the actual circuit connections. When this setting is
deselected, new devices will be connected to the lowest-numbered nodes starting from
0.

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

• Connecting to Electrical Circuits

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT TOOLBAR

The following nodes are available from the Electrical Circuit ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Electrical Circuit context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the
context menu (all users):

For step-by-step instructions and general documentation

descriptions, this is the Electrical Circuit toolbar.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 405

 • Ground Node • Subcircuit Definition
• Voltmeter • Subcircuit Instance
• Ampère Meter • Mutual Inductance
• Resistor • Transformer
• Capacitor • NPN BJT and PNP BJT2
• Inductor • n-Channel MOSFET and
• Voltage Source p-Channel MOSFET2

• Current Source • External I vs. U3

• Diode • External U vs. I3

• Switch • External I-Terminal3

• Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source1 • SPICE Circuit Import

• Voltage-Controlled Current Source1 • SPICE Circuit Export

• Current-Controlled Voltage Source1

• Current-Controlled Current Source1
1
Selected from the Dependent Sources submenu when you right-click main node.
2
Selected from the Transistors submenu when you right-click main node.
3 Selected from the External Couplings submenu when you right-click main node.

Ground Node
The Ground Node ( ) feature adds a ground node with the default node number zero
to the electrical circuit. This is the default node in the Electrical Circuit interface. More
ground nodes can be added but those must have unique node numbers and are by
default given higher node numbers.

GROUND CONNECTION
Set the Node name for the ground node in the circuit. The convention is to use 0 (zero)
for the ground node. If adding more ground nodes, each must have a unique node
name (number).

Voltmeter
The Voltmeter ( ) feature connects a voltmeter (voltage measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A voltmeter behaves electrically as an open
circuit. The voltmeter node adds a Probe sampling the voltage across it.

406 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

Ampère Meter
The Ammeter ( ) feature connects an ammeter (current measurement device)
between two nodes in the electrical circuit. An ammeter behaves electrically as a short
circuit. The ammeter node adds a Probe sampling the current through it.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Resistor
The Resistor ( ) feature connects a resistor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Capacitor
The Capacitor ( ) feature connects a capacitor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the capacitor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Capacitance of the capacitor.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 407

 Inductor
The Inductor ( ) feature connects an inductor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the inductor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Inductance of the inductor.

Voltage Source
The Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Delay td (default value: 0s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary

408 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

 studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in Frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Current Source
The Current Source ( ) feature connects a current source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows through the
source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
General source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending
on the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a General source, the Current isrc (default value: 1 A). General sources are active
in Stationary, Time-Dependent and Frequency Domain studies.
• For an AC-source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A) and the Phase  (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase  (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Delay td (default value: 0 s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 s), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 s).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 409

 studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time dependent.

Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source

The Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the voltage source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

The Voltage-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the current source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive voltage reference terminal or the one from where the current
flows through the source to the second node.

410 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control voltage and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
voltage multiplied by the gain (SI units: S). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Current-Controlled Voltage Source

The Current-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set two Node names for the connection nodes for the voltage source. The first node in
a pair represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting voltage. The Use gain method defines the resulting voltage to be the control
current multiplied by the gain (SI units: ). The Custom expression method can define
the relationship with an arbitrary expression.

Current-Controlled Current Source

The Current-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
There are two options to define the relationship between the control current and
resulting current. The Use gain method defines the resulting current to be the control
current multiplied by the gain. The Custom expression method can define the
relationship with an arbitrary expression.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 411

 Switch
The Switch ( ) feature is used to connect or disconnect the conducting path in a
circuit under specific conditions.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

SWITCH CONDITIONS
There are three types of conditions, Voltage controlled, Current controlled, and Custom
expressions. For each type of condition there are two conditions, one for turn on and
one for turn off. The on condition is true if the On condition expression is larger than
zero, while the off condition is true if the Off condition is less than zero.

The Initial state list has three options, Use on condition, Use off condition, and Boolean
expression. The two former options mean that the switch will have an initial state
matching to the on or off condition. The third option makes the switch's initial state
match a custom Boolean expression. Separating on, off, and initial states makes the
switch more flexible and can support Schmitt-trigger style switches and various latches.

For the Voltage controlled switch, it is necessary to specify two nodes that defines the
voltage sens.v that the switch state depends on. The conditions must be written as a
function of this variable. Similarly, for the Current controlled switch it is necessary to
specify a two-pin device that defines the current sens.i that the switch state depends
on.

SWITCH PARAMETERS
When the switch is in the on state it has a non-zero resistance specified by the On
resistance expression. For the off state no current flows through the switch (infinite
resistance). There is also a transition time for the switch to turn on and off set by the
Switching time expression. The switch triggers an implicit event that updates a discrete
state variable (with suffix _state).

Subcircuit Definition
The Subcircuit Definition ( ) feature is used to define subcircuits, which can be
inserted as devices into the main circuit using Subcircuit Instance nodes. Create the

412 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

subcircuit by adding subnodes to the Subcircuit Definition node, either by using the
Physics toolbar, or by right-clicking the Subcircuit Definition.

SUBCIRCUIT PINS
Define the Pin names at which the subcircuit connects to the main circuit or to other
subcircuits when referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The Pin names refer to
circuit nodes in the subcircuit. The order in which the Pin names are defined is the
order in which they are referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The devices
constituting the subcircuit should be connected only to the subcircuit’s pins and to
themselves.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

Subcircuit Instance
The Subcircuit Instance ( ) feature represents an instance of a subcircuits defined by
a Subcircuit Definition feature.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subcircuit link from the list of defined subcircuits in the circuit model
and the circuit Node names at which the subcircuit instance connects to the main circuit
or to another subcircuit if used therein.

INPUT PARAMETERS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. Specify input parameters to a subcircuit that can be changed from a
subcircuit instance. These input parameters can be used in all expression-style edit
fields that affect the parameters of a device, for example, resistance, capacitance, and
current gain. In this way, a subcircuit can represent a parameterized custom device
model.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 413

 NPN BJT and PNP BJT
The NPN BJT ( ) and the PNP BJT ( ) device models are large-signal models for
bipolar junction transistors (BJT). It is an advanced device model and no thorough
description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted here. Many
device manufacturers provide model input parameters for this BJT model. For any
particular make of BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify three Node names for the connection nodes for the BJT device. These represent
the collector, base, and emitter nodes for the NPN transistor, and the emitter, base, and
collector nodes for the PNP transistor.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Bipolar Transistors.

n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET

The n-Channel MOSFET ( ) and the p-Channel MOSFET ( ) device models are
large-signal models for, respectively, an n-Channel MOS field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) and p-Channel MOSFET. These are advanced device models and no
thorough description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted
here. Many device manufacturers provide model parameters for the MOSFET models.
For any particular make of MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary
source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names for the connection nodes for the n-Channel MOSFET or
p-Channel MOSFET device. These represent the drain, gate, source, and bulk nodes,
respectively.

414 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see MOSFET Transistors.

Mutual Inductance
The Mutual Inductance allows specifying a coupling between two existing Inductor
features in the circuit. The mutual inductance of the coupling is

M = k L1 L2

where k is the coupling factor and L1 and L2 are the inductances of the inductors.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The value must be between 0 and 1, and the
default is 0.98.
• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H) and Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). These must
be set to two different Inductor features in the circuit.

Transformer
The Transformer feature represents either a combination of two Inductor and a Mutual
Inductance features, or an ideal transformer.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Enter or edit the table in the Node names column for the primary and secondary node
connections.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Choose a Transformer model — Specify inductors (the default) or Ideal transformer.

For Specify inductors enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The default is 0.98.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 415

 • First inductance L1 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.
• Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.

For Ideal transformer enter values or expressions for the Winding ratio N1/N2
(dimensionless). The default is 10.

Diode
The Diode device model ( ) is a large-signal model for a diode. It is an advanced
device model and no thorough description and motivation of the many input
parameters are attempted here. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more
details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many device manufacturers
provide model parameters for this diode model. For any particular make of diode, the
device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the positive and negative nodes for the Diode device.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
diode, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Diode.

External I vs. U
The External I vs. U ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage measurement (for
example, a circuit terminal or circuit port boundary or a coil domain from another
physics interface) as a voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The
resulting circuit current from the first node to the second node is typically coupled
back as a prescribed current source in the context of the voltage measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first
node represents the positive reference terminal.

416 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit or current excited terminals or circuit ports
are defined on boundaries or domains or a multiturn coil domains is defined in other
physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also select the User defined
option and enter your own voltage variable, for example, using a suitable coupling
operator. For inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models, the voltage
measurement must be performed as an integral of the electric field because the electric
potential only does not capture induced EMF. Also the integration must be performed
over a distance that is short compared to the local wavelength.

Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, circuit port, or coil, the

current flow variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical
circuit to the context of the voltage measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a current excited terminal. The name of this current variable
follows the convention cirn.IvsUm_i, where cirn is the tag of the
Electrical Circuit interface node and IvsUm is the tag of the External I vs.
U node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External U vs. I
The External U vs. I ( ) feature connects an arbitrary current measurement (for
example, a coil domain from another physics interface) as a current source between
two nodes in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit voltage between the first node
and the second node is typically coupled back as a prescribed voltage source in the
context of the current measurement.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The
current flows from the first node to the second node.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 417

 EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Current. Voltage excited terminals or lumped ports defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces are natural candidates but do not appear as
options in the Voltage list because those do not have an accurate built-in current
measurement variable. A User defined option must be selected and a current variable
entered, for example, using a suitable coupling operator.

The voltage variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical

circuit to the context of the current measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a voltage excited terminal or lumped port. The name of this
voltage variable follows the convention cirn.UvsIm_v, where cirn is the
tag of the Electrical Circuit interface node and UvsIm is the tag of the
External U vs. I node. The tags are typically displayed within curly
brackets {} in the Model Builder.

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External I-Terminal
The External I-Terminal ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage-to-ground
measurement (for example, a circuit terminal from another physics interface) as a
voltage-to-ground assignment to a node in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the node is typically coupled back as a prescribed current source in the
context of the voltage measurement. This node does not apply when coupling to
inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models because then voltage must be
defined as a line integral between two points rather than a single point measurement
of electric potential. For such couplings, use the External I vs. U node instead.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the connecting node for the voltage assignment.

EXTERNAL TERMINAL
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit- or current-excited terminals are defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also

418 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

select the User defined option and enter a voltage variable, for example, using a suitable
coupling operator.

• Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, the current flow variable

must be manually coupled back in the electrical circuit to the context
of the voltage measurement. This applies also when coupling to a
current excited terminal. The name of this current variable follows the
convention cirn.termIm_i, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical
Circuit interface node and termIm is the tag of the External I-Terminal
node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.
• When connecting the finite element model between two circuit nodes
that both are not grounded, the External I-Terminal node cannot be
used. In this case, use External I vs. U or External U vs. I instead.

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Nonlocal Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SPICE Circuit Import

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to import an existing SPICE netlist
(select Import Spice Netlist). A window opens — enter a file location or browse your
directories to find one. The default file extension for a SPICE netlist is .cir. The
SPICE circuit import translates the imported netlist into Electrical Circuit interface
nodes so these define the subset of SPICE features that can be imported.

See SPICE Import about the supported SPICE commands.

SPICE Circuit Export

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to export the current circuit to the
SPICE netlist file format (select Export Spice Netlist ). A window opens — enter a

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 419

 file location or browse your directories to find one. The default file extension for a
SPICE netlist is .cir. The compatible circuit nodes are exported as SPICE devices

See SPICE Export for more details on the supported SPICE commands.

420 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface
The Electrical Circuit Interface theory is discussed in this section:

• Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

• Bipolar Transistors
• MOSFET Transistors
• Diode
• Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

Electrical circuit modeling capabilities are useful when simulating all sorts of electrical
and electromechanical devices ranging from heaters and motors to advanced plasma
reactors in the semiconductor industry. There are two fundamental ways that an
electrical circuit model relates to a physical field model.

• The field model is used to get a better, more accurate description of a single device
in the electrical circuit model.
• The electrical circuit is used to drive or terminate the device in the field model in
such a way that it makes more sense to simulate both as a tightly coupled system.

The Electrical Circuit interface makes it possible to add nodes representing circuit
elements directly to the Model Builder tree in a COMSOL Multiphysics model. The
circuit variables can then be connected to a physical device model to perform
co-simulations of circuits and multiphysics. The model acts as a device connected to
the circuit so that its behavior is analyzed in larger systems.

The fundamental equations solved by the Electrical Circuit interface are Kirchhoff’s
circuit laws, which in turn can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. The supported
study types are Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 421

 There are three more advanced large-signal semiconductor device features available in
the Electrical Circuit interface. The equivalent circuits and the equations defining their
non-ideal circuit elements are described in this section. For a more complete treatise
on semiconductor device modeling see Ref. 1.

Bipolar Transistors
Figure 6-1 illustrates the equivalent circuit for the npn bipolar junction transistor.

Figure 6-1: A circuit for the bipolar transistor.

The pnp transistor model is similar in all regards to the npn transistor, with the
difference that the polarities of the currents and voltages involved are reversed. The
following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and voltages
in the circuit.

422 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

 R B – R BM
v rb = ----  R BM – -------------------------- i b
1
A  f bq 

 v be
 --------------
v bc
--------------  
  – 1
NF VT NR VT
= -----------------------------------------------  1 + 1 + 4I S  ----------------------- + ------------------------ 
1 e –1 e
f bq
v v   KF I A I A  
2  1 – ----------- – ----------- 
bc be KR
 V AF V AR    
v be v be
 I S  -------------
N V
-
  --------------
N V 
i be = A  -------  e F T – 1 + I SE  e E T – 1 
B
 F   
v bc v bc
 I S  --------------
N V   --------------
N V 
i bc = A  --------  e R T – 1 + I SC  e C T – 1 
B
 R   
v be v bc
 I S  -------------
N V
- --------------
N V 
i ce = A  -------  e F T + e C T 
f
 bq  
k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

There are also two capacitances that use the same formula as the junction capacitance
of the diode model. In the parameter names below, replace x with C for the
base-collector capacitance and E for the base-emitter capacitance.

 v bx  –M Jx
 1 – ---------
 -
 V Jx v bx  F C V Jx
C jbx = AC Jx  
 v bx  v bx  F C V Jx
  1 – F  – 1 – MJx  1 – F  1 + M  + M ---------
-
 C  C Jx Jx V 
Jx

The model parameters are listed in the table below.

TABLE 6-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BF 100 Ideal forward current gain

BR 1 Ideal reverse current gain
CJC 0 F/m2 Base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
CJE 0 F/m2 Base-emitter zero-bias depletion capacitance
FC 0.5 Breakdown current
IKF Inf (A/m2) Corner for forward high-current roll-off

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 423

 TABLE 6-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

IKR Inf (A/m2) Corner for reverse high-current roll-off

IS 10-15 A/m2 Saturation current
2
ISC 0 A/m Base-collector leakage saturation current
2
ISE 0 A/m Base-emitter leakage saturation current
MJC 1/3 Base-collector grading coefficient
MJE 1/3 Base-emitter grading coefficient
NC 2 Base-collector ideality factor
NE 1.4 Base-emitter ideality factor
NF 1 Forward ideality factor
NR 1 Reverse ideality factor
2
RB 0 m Base resistance
2
RBM 0 m Minimum base resistance
RC 0 m2 Collector resistance
2
RE 0 m Emitter resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VAF Inf (V) Forward Early voltage
VAR Inf (V) Reverse Early voltage
VJC 0.71 V Base-collector built-in potential
VJE 0.71 V Base-emitter built-in potential

424 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

MOSFET Transistors
Figure 6-2 illustrates an equivalent circuit for the n-channel MOSFET transistor. The
p-channel MOSFET transistor is treated similarly, but the polarities of the involved
voltages are reversed.

Figure 6-2: A circuit for the MOSFET transistor.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 425

  KP
 W  1 + v ds v ds  2v th – v ds  v ds  v th
- -------
 ----
L 2

i ds =  W KP 2
 ----- -------  1 + v ds v th v ds  v th
 L 2
 0 v ds  v th  0

v th = v gs –  V TO +    – v bs –   
v bd
 -----------
NV
-

i bd = I S  e T – 1
 
v bs
 -----------
NV
-

i bs = I S  e T – 1
 
k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

There are also several capacitances between the terminals

C gd = C gd0 W
C gs = C gs0 W

1 – v
–MJ
 bd
--------
-
  PB  v bx  F C P B
C jbd = C BD  
 v bx v bx  F C P B
  1 – F  – 1 – MJ  1 – F  1 + M  + M -------
-
 C  C J JP 
B

The model parameters are as follows:

TABLE 6-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

CBD 0 F/m Bulk-drain zero-bias capacitance

CGDO 0 F/m Gate-drain overlap capacitance
CGSO 0 F/m Gate-source overlap capacitance
FC 0.5 Capacitance factor
IS 1e-13 A Bulk junction saturation current
KP 2e-5 A/V2 Transconductance parameter
L 50e-6 m Gate length
MJ 0.5 Bulk junction grading coefficient

426 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

TABLE 6-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

N 1 Bulk junction ideality factor

PB 0.75 V Bulk junction potential
RB 0 Bulk resistance
RD 0 Drain resistance
RDS Inf () Drain-source resistance
RG 0 Gate resistance
RS 0 Source resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VTO 0V Zero-bias threshold voltage
W 50e-6 m Gate width
0.5
(GAMMA) 1V Bulk threshold parameter
 (PHI) 0.5 V Surface potential
 (LAMBDA) 0 1/V Channel-length modulation

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 427

 Diode
Figure 6-3 illustrates equivalent circuit for the diode.

Figure 6-3: A circuit for the diode.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

428 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

 i d = i dhl + i drec + i db + i c
vd
 -----------
NV
-
 1
i dhl = I S  e T – 1 ---------------------------------------------------
  vd
I S  -----------
NV T
-

1 + ---------  e – 1
I KF  
vd
 --------------
N V 
i drec = I SR  e R T – 1
 
vd + BV
– ------------------
N BV V T
i db = I BV e

 vd  –M
  1 – ------
- vd  FC VJ
  V J
C j = C J0  
 – 1 – M vd
  1 – FC  1 – F C  1 + M  + M ------- v d  F C V J
  V J


k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

where the following model parameters are required.

TABLE 6-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS.

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BV Inf (V) Reverse breakdown voltage

CJ0 0F Zero-bias junction capacitance
FC 0.5 Forward-bias capacitance coefficient
IBV 1e-09 A Current at breakdown voltage
IKF Inf (A) Corner for high-current roll-off
IS 1e-13 A Saturation current
M 0.5 Grading coefficient
N 1 Ideality factor
NBV 1 Breakdown ideality factor
NR 2 Recombination ideality factor
RS 0 Series resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VJ 1.0 V Junction potential

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 429

 Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface
1. P. Antognetti and G. Massobrio, Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice, 2nd
ed., McGraw-Hill, 1993.

430 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

S P I C E I m po r t an d E xp ort
SPICE Import
The circuit definition in COMSOL Multiphysics adheres to the SPICE format
developed at the University of California, Berkeley (Ref. 1). SPICE netlists can be
imported and the corresponding circuit nodes are generated in the COMSOL
Multiphysics model. Most circuit simulators can export to this format or some version
of it.

The Electrical Circuit interface supports the following device models:

TABLE 6-4: SUPPORTED SPICE DEVICE MODELS

STATEMENT DEVICE MODEL

R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
V Voltage Source
I Current Source
E Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
F Current-Controlled Current Source
G Voltage-Controlled Current Source
H Current-Controlled Voltage Source
D Diode
Q NPN BJT and PNP BJT
M n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET
X Subcircuit Instance

Statements corresponding to multiple devices are resolved by parsing the associated

.model statement. The physics interface also supports the .subckt statement, which
is represented in COMSOL by a Subcircuit Definition node, and the .include
statement. SPICE commands are interpreted case-insensitively. The statement defining
each device is also interpreted as the Device name.

According to SPICE specification, the first line in the netlist file is assumed to be the
title of the netlist and it is ignored by the parser.

SPICE IMPORT AND EXPORT | 431

 SPICE Export
The SPICE Export functionality creates a SPICE netlist file containing a description of
the circuit represented by the physics interface. This functionality can be accessed from
the physics interface context menu (right-click the physics interface node and select
Export SPICE Netlist). After specifying a filename, the circuit is exported and messages
from the export process display in the Messages window. During the export process, a
series of operations are performed:

• In order to avoid conflicts, each component must be identified by a unique Device

name. If one or more components have the same device name, the export operation
fails and an error message is displayed. All characters in a Device name that are not
letters, digits or underscores are replaced by underscores.
• According to the SPICE specification, each circuit must have a node with name 0,
which is assumed to be the only ground node. When exporting a circuit, any node
with name 0 that is not connected to a Ground component is exported with a
different node name. All nodes that are connected to a Ground components are
exported as a merged node with name 0. The Messages window shows a log message
if these operations are performed, showing the name of the renamed or merged
nodes.
• All characters in node names that are not letters, digits or underscores are replaced
by underscores.
• Some components (most notably, the External components used to couple to other
physics interfaces) cannot be exported to a SPICE netlist. These components are
ignored during the export process, and a message is shown in the Messages window.
Note that this can change the exported circuit, since some components are then
missing.
• Subcircuit definitions are added as .subckt statements in the netlist.
Semiconductor devices (such as MOSFETs, BJTs, and diodes) are exported as a
SPICE device with a corresponding .model statement.

The title of the exported netlist file is the model’s filename, and the time, date, and
version of COMSOL Multiphysics is added as a comment in the netlist file.

Reference
1. http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/IcBook/SPICE/

432 | CHAPTER 6: THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE

 7

Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The AC/DC Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces to facilitate easy

setup of models with the most commonly occurring couplings. When adding a
multiphysics interface, two or more physics interfaces are added to the model,
together with one or more multiphysics couplings.

Given that your model already contains two interfaces that support a certain
multiphysics coupling, you can also add this coupling separately. Some multiphysics
couplings can only be added this way, and are not part of a multiphysics interface.

In this chapter:

• Overview of Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces

• Overview of Electromagnetics-Structure Interaction Interfaces
• Overview of Electromagnetics-Fluid Interaction Interfaces
• Overview of Electromagnetics-Particle Interaction Interfaces
• Overview of Multiphysics Couplings

| 433
 Overview of Electromagnetic Heating
Interfaces
The Model Wizard and the Add Physics window contain a number of multiphysics
interfaces for modeling electromagnetic heating, all available under the Electromagnetic
Heating branch ( ). The branch includes multiphysics interfaces that combine
electromagnetics with heat transfer or heat transfer and structural mechanics. The
multiphysics interfaces for electromagnetic heating are described in the subsequent
sections:

• The Joule Heating Interface ( ): It combines all features from the Electric
Currents interface with the Heat Transfer interface to model resistive heating and
heating due to dielectric losses. The predefined multiphysics couplings add the
electromagnetic power dissipation as a heat source, and the electromagnetic
material properties can depend on the temperature.
• The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface ( ): It combines thermal,
electric, and structural multiphysics effects. The predefined interaction adds the
electromagnetic losses from the electric current as a heat source. In addition, the
temperature from the Heat Transfer in Solids interface acts as a thermal load for the
Solid Mechanics interface, causing thermal expansion. It requires either the
Structural Mechanics Module or the MEMS Module license.
• The Induction Heating Interface ( ): It combines all features from the Magnetic
Fields interface in the time-harmonic formulation with the Heat Transfer interface
to model induction and eddy current heating. The predefined multiphysics
couplings add the electromagnetic power dissipation as a heat source, and the
electromagnetic material properties can depend on the temperature. This physics
interface is based on the assumption that the magnetic cycle time is short compared
to the thermal time scale (adiabatic assumption).
• The Pyroelectricity Interface ( ): It combines Heat Transfer in Solids and
Electrostatics interfaces together with the constitutive relationships required to
model pyroelectricity. Both the direct pyroelectric and inverse electrocaloric effects
can be modeled. It requires the MEMS Module license.

434 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Joule Heating Interface
The Joule Heating interface ( ) is used to model resistive heating and, depending on
additional licensed products, dielectric heating in devices where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device. This
multiphysics interface adds an Electric Currents interface and a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic power dissipation as a
heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can depend on the
temperature.

Depending on the licensed products, stationary modeling, time-domain modeling are

supported in all space dimensions. In addition, combinations of frequency-domain
modeling for the Electric Currents interface and stationary modeling for the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface, called frequency-stationary and frequency-transient
modeling, are supported.

When a predefined Joule Heating interface is added from the AC/DC>Electromagnetic

Heating or Heat Transfer>Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or
Add Physics windows, Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added
to the Model Builder. In addition, The Multiphysics Branch is added, which
automatically includes the multiphysics coupling feature Electromagnetic Heating.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electric Currents interface computes electric field, current and potential
distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.
Depending on the licensed products, time and frequency domain formulations that
account for capacitive effects are also provided. The Electric Currents interface solves
a current conservation equation based on Ohm's law using the scalar electric potential
as the dependent variable.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by
default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a
fluid domain, is also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains

THE JOULE HEATING INTERFACE | 435

 corresponds to the differential form of the Fourier's law that may contain additional
contributions like heat sources.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Joule Heating was added to the Model Builder. Now, a
predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used, improving the
flexibility and design options for your modeling. For specific details, see
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Joule
Heating, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the coupling
features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
the COMSOL Multiphysics software adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you
right-click this node, you can choose Electromagnetic Heating from the available
coupling features, but the modified settings are not included.
TABLE 7-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A JOULE HEATING INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Electric Currents No changes.

Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Electromagnetic Heating The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior and interior
boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics
interfaces.
The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Coupled Interfaces section.

PHYSICS INTERFACE AND COUPLING FEATURE

Coupling Feature
The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics coupling node is described in this section.

436 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (macOS or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

• The available physics features for the heat transfer interfaces are listed in the sections
Domain Features, Boundary Features, and Edge and Point Features.
• For information about the available physics features for the Electric Currents
interface, see The Electric Currents Interface.

If you have an add-on module, such as the Heat Transfer Module or AC/
DC Module, there are additional specialized physics nodes available and
described in the individual module documentation.

Thermal Microactuator Simplified: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Multiphysics/thermal_actuator_simplified

Electromagnetic Heating
The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics coupling ( ) adds the source term Qe (SI
unit: W/m3) to account for resistive heating in the heat equation:

T
C p ------- –    kT  = Q e (7-1)
t

The resistive heating (ohmic heating) due to the electric current is

Qe = J  E

where J is the current density (SI unit: A/m2), and E is the electric field strength
(SI unit: V/m).

In addition, it maps the electromagnetic surface losses as a heat source on the

boundary (SI unit: W/m2) in the heat transfer part of the model.

THE JOULE HEATING INTERFACE | 437

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is emh1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the electromagnetic heat
source or select All domains as needed.

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding a Joule Heating or Joule

Heating and Thermal Expansion interface, the selection is the same as for the
participating interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled Interfaces
section can be selected.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries to define the electromagnetic
boundary heat source or select All boundaries as needed.

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding a Joule Heating or Joule

Heating and Thermal Expansion interface, the selection is the same as the exterior and
interior boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics interfaces.

Only boundaries that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled
Interfaces section can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Electromagnetic list to apply the Heat
transfer to its physics interface to establish the coupling.

438 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Electromagnetic Heating node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder (for
example, Heat Transfer in Solids is deleted), then the Heat transfer list defaults to None
as there is nothing to couple to.

Click the Go to Source button ( ) to move to the main physics interface node for the
selected physics interface.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics interface
again from the Heat transfer or Electromagnetic lists. This is applicable to all
multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present
physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow.

THE JOULE HEATING INTERFACE | 439

 The Joule Heating and Thermal
Expansion Interface
The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion interface ( ) combines thermal, electric,
and structural multiphysics effects. The predefined interaction adds the
electromagnetic losses from the electric current as a heat source. In addition, the
temperature from the Heat Transfer in Solids interface acts as a thermal load for the
Solid Mechanics interface, causing thermal expansion.

You can use this multiphysics coupling for coupled thermal, electrical, and structural
analysis of, for example, the movement of some actuator, where an electric current
causes a temperature increase, which in turn leads to a displacement through thermal
expansion.

When a predefined Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion interface is added from the
Structural Mechanics branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Solid
Mechanics, Electric Currents, and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added to the
Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling nodes Thermal Expansion and Electromagnetic Heating.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

• The Electric Currents interface is described in The Electric Currents Interface.
• The Solid Mechanics interface is described in The Solid Mechanics Interface.
• The Heat Transfer in Solids interface is described in The Heat Transfer in Solids
Interface.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion was added to the
Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is
used, improving the flexibility and design options for your modeling. For
specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and Multiphysics Modeling
Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

440 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example Joule
Heating and Thermal Expansion, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces
and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Solid Mechanics, Electric Currents, and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are added, COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. You
can then choose from the available coupling features, Thermal Expansion, and
Electromagnetic Heating, but the modified settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics Couplings
menu.

TABLE 7-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A JOULE HEATING AND THERMAL EXPANSION INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS

COUPLING FEATURE

Solid Mechanics For the Solid Mechanics interface, under Structural

Transient Behavior, the Structural transient behavior is set
to Quasi static.
Electric Currents No changes.
Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Thermal Expansion The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Solid Mechanics and Heat Transfer in
Solids interfaces are preselected in the Thermal Expansion
section.
Electromagnetic Heating The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in
Solids interfaces are preselected in the Electromagnetic
Heating section.

THE JOULE HEATING AND THERMAL EXPANSION INTERFACE | 441

 PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help.

Coupling Features
• Thermal Expansion coupling feature node is described for The Thermal Stress, Solid
Interface.
• The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics coupling nodes is described for The
Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (macOS or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• The available physics features for The Solid Mechanics Interfaceare listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for Solid Mechanics.
• The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
the section Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface.
• The available physics features for The Electric Currents Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents
Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

If you have an add-on module, such as the Heat Transfer Module or AC/
DC Module, there are additional specialized physics nodes available and
described in the individual module documentation.

442 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Induction Heating Interface
The Induction Heating interface ( ) is used to model induction heating and eddy
current heating. This multiphysics interface adds a Magnetic Fields interface and a
Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic
power dissipation as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can
depend on the temperature.

Depending on the licensed products, stationary modeling and time-domain modeling

are supported in 2D and 3D. In addition, combinations of frequency-domain
modeling for the Magnetic Fields interface and stationary modeling for the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface, called frequency-stationary and, similarly,
frequency-transient modeling, are supported.

When a predefined Induction Heating interface is added from the AC/DC>Electromagnetic

Heating or Heat Transfer>Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or
Add Physics windows, Magnetic Fields and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added to
the Model Builder. A Multiphysics Couplings node is also added, which automatically
includes the multiphysics coupling feature Electromagnetic Heating.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Magnetic Fields interface is used to compute magnetic field and induced current
distributions in and around s, conductors and magnets. Depending on the licensed
products, stationary, frequency-domain, and time-domain formulations are supported
in 2D and 3D. Note that the frequency and time domain formulations become
ill-posed when approaching the static limit. One may extend the useful frequency
range downward by adding a low electric conductivity. The Magnetic Fields interface
solves Maxwell's equations formulated using the magnetic vector potential and,
optionally for s, the scalar electric potential as the dependent variables.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by
default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a
fluid domain, is also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 443

 corresponds to the differential form of Fourier's law that may contain additional
contributions like heat sources.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Induction Heating was added to the Model Builder. Now,
a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used, improving the
flexibility and design options for your modeling. For specific details, see
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Induction Heating, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Magnetic Fields and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics Couplings node. You can choose
Electromagnetic Heating from the available coupling features but the modified settings
are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics Couplings node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics
menu.

TABLE 7-3: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR AN INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Magnetic Fields No changes.

Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Electromagnetic Heating The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
physics interfaces.
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior and interior
boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics
interfaces.
The corresponding Magnetic Fields and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Coupled Interfaces section.

444 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

 A side effect of adding physics interfaces one at a time is that four study
types — Frequency-Stationary; Frequency-Transient;
Frequency-Stationary, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating; and
Frequency-Transient, One-Way Electromagnetic Heating — are not
available for selection until after at least one coupling feature is added. In
this case, it is better to initially not add any study at all, then add the
coupling features to the Multiphysics node, and lastly, open the Add Study
window and add a study sequence below the Preset Studies for Selected
Multiphysics heading.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Feature
The Electromagnetic Heating coupling feature node is described in this section.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• The available physics features for The Magnetic Fields Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Magnetic Fields
Interface.
• See The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
for information about the available physics features for heat transfer.

Inductive Heating of a Copper Cylinder: Application Library path

ACDC_Module/Electromagnetic_Heating/inductive_heating

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 445

 See The Heat Transfer Interfaces and The Joule Heating Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for other Heat Transfer
interface and feature node settings.

Electromagnetic Heating
The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics coupling node represents the
electromagnetic losses, Qe (SI unit: W/m3), as a heat source in the heat transfer part
of the model. It is given by

Q e = Q rh + Q ml

where the resistive losses are

1 *
Q rh = --- Re  J  E 
2

and the magnetic losses are

1 *
Q ml = --- Re  iB  H 
2

In addition, it maps the electromagnetic surface losses as a heat source on the

boundary (SI unit: W/m2) in the heat transfer part of the model.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling in the model) is emh1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the electromagnetic heat
source or select All domains as needed.

446 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding an Induction Heating
interface, the selection is the same as for the participating interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled Interfaces
section can be selected.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries to define the electromagnetic
boundary heat source or select All boundaries as needed.

When Electromagnetic Heating is added as an effect of adding an Induction Heating

interface, the selection is the same as the exterior and interior boundaries of the Domain
Selection of the participating physics interfaces.

Only boundaries that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled
Interfaces section can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics
coupling. By default, the applicable physics interface is selected in the Electromagnetic
list to apply the Heat transfer to its physics interface to establish the coupling.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Electromagnetic Heating node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example Heat Transfer in Solids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics interface
again from the Heat transfer or Electromagnetic lists. This is applicable to
all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the once
present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 447

 Overview of
Electromagnetics-Structure
Interaction Interfaces
The Model Wizard and the Add Physics window contain a number of multiphysics
interfaces for modeling of structure interaction with magnetic and electromagnetic
fields, all available under the Electromagnetics and Mechanics branch ( ) within the
AC/DC branch ( ). Most of the multiphysics interfaces require an AC/DC Module
license and the addition of either a Structural Mechanics Module or a MEMS Module
license. This section gives an overview introduction to these multiphysics interfaces.
For detailed descriptions, click the hyperlinks of the interface names listed below:

• The Electromechanics Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and

Electrostatics with a moving mesh functionality to model the deformation of
electrostatically actuated structures.
• The Electromechanics, Boundary Elements Interface ( ): It combines the
functionality of Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics to model the deformation of
electrostatically actuated structures. The coupling is a boundary load caused by the
Maxwell Stress at the interface of the solid domains and nonsolid voids, where the
electric field is computed using the boundary element method. The backward
coupling to Electrostatics is due to the deformations of the boundaries.
• The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and
Electrostatics together with the constitutive relationships required to model
piezoelectrics. Both the direct and inverse piezoelectric effects can be modeled and
the piezoelectric coupling can be formulated using the strain-charge or stress-charge
forms.
• The Piezoelectricity, Layered Shell Interface ( ): It combines structural layered
shells and electric currents in shells together with the constitutive relationships
required to model the direct and inverse piezoelectric effects. The piezoelectric
coupling can be formulated using either the strain-charge or stress-charge forms.
• The Pyroelectricity Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics, Electrostatics,
and Heat Transfer in Solids together with the constitutive relationships required to
model piezoelectric applications, in which the temperature variation and electric
charge are coupled. This interface requires the MEMS Module license.

448 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

• The Electrostriction Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and Electrostatics
together with the constitutive relationships required to model electrostriction in
electrostatically actuated structures in regimes when the electric polarization can be
assumed to vary linear with the applied electric field. Both the direct and inverse
electrostrictive effects can be modeled.
• The Ferroelectroelasticity Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and
Electrostatics together with the constitutive relationships required to model
nonlinear electromechanical interaction in ferroelectric and piezoelectric materials.
Electric polarization in such materials depends nonlinearly on the applied electric
field including possible hysteresis and saturation effects. In addition, the
polarization and mechanical deformations in such materials can be strongly coupled
due to the electrostriction effect.
• The Nonlinear Magnetostriction Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and
Magnetic Fields together with the constitutive relationships required to model
magnetostrictive materials and devices. Both the direct and inverse magnetostriction
effects can be modeled.
• The Piezomagnetism Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and Magnetic
Fields together with the constitutive relationships required to model linear
magnetostrictive materials and devices. Both the direct and inverse piezomagnetic
effects can be modeled.
• The Magnetomechanics Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics and
Magnetic Fields interfaces together with a moving mesh functionality. The interface
can be used for modeling deformation of magnetically actuated structures, which
includes interaction of magnetic fields with magnetic materials and current carrying
elements such as coils and wires.
• The Magnetomechanics, No Currents Interface ( ): It combines Solid Mechanics
and Magnetic Fields, No Currents interfaces with a moving mesh functionality to
model the deformation of magnetostatically actuated structures. The interface is
suitable in cases when induction and conduction effects such as eddy currents are
negligible within the structure.
• The Piezoresistivity, Domain Currents Interface ( ): It combines the Solid
Mechanics and Electric Currents interfaces to simulate the piezoresistive effect. The
physics interface is appropriate for situations when the thicknesses of the conducting
and piezoresistive layers are resolved by the mesh.
• The Piezoresistivity, Boundary Currents Interface ( ): It combines the Solid
Mechanics interface with electric current flow within a thin layer of the solid to

OVERVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS-STRUCTURE INTERACTION INTERFACES | 449

 model piezoresistance. The interface is appropriate for situations in which the
thickness of the piezoresistive layer is much less than that of the structural layer.
• The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface ( ): It combines structural shells with electric
current flow on a thin layer within the shell to simulate the piezoresistive effect. The
physics interface is used when the structural layer is thin enough to be treated by the
Shell interface, but the conducting and piezoresistive layers are still much thinner
than the structural layers. This physics interface requires the addition of the
Structural Mechanics Module.

450 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Overview of Electromagnetics-Fluid
Inte r a c t i o n In t erfaces
The Model Wizard and the Add Physics window contain a number of multiphysics
interfaces for modeling fluid interaction with magnetic and electromagnetic fields, all
available under the Electromagnetics and Fluids branch ( ) within the AC/DC
branch ( ). This section gives an overview introduction to these multiphysics
interfaces. The multiphysics interfaces for electromagnetics-fluid interaction are
described in the subsequent sections:

• The Magnetohydrodynamics Interface ( ): Combines the Magnetic and Electric

Fields and Laminar Flow to model the interaction of magnetic fields and conducting
fluids in 3D. The magnetic fields are solved with the Magnetic and Electric Fields
interface, which includes the solving of a current conservation equation.
• The Magnetohydrodynamics, In-Plane Currents interface ( ): Available in 2D and
2D axisymmetric, it has the same settings as The Magnetohydrodynamics Interface.
• The Magnetohydrodynamics, Out-of-Plane Currents interface ( ): Available in 2D
and 2D axisymmetric, it shares most of the settings with The
Magnetohydrodynamics Interface. The difference is that the magnetic field is
computed with the Magnetic Fields interface, which does not solve a current
conservation equation. This interface is used here since it is computationally cheaper
than the Magnetic and Electric Fields interface.

OVERVIEW OF ELECTROMAGNETICS-FLUID INTERACTION INTERFACES | 451

 The Magnetohydrodynamics Interface
The Magnetohydrodynamics interface ( ) is used to model the interaction between
moving conducting fluids and magnetic fields. This multiphysics interface adds the
Magnetic and Electric Fields and the Laminar Flow interfaces. The interface can be used
to model a variety of magnetohydrodynamics phenomena in astrophysics, geophysics,
metallurgy, and electrolytes. To model equilibrium discharges, use the dedicated
Equilibrium Discharges interfaces in the Plasma Module.

Stationary and transient modeling are supported in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D.
Also supported are combinations of frequency-domain modeling for the Magnetic
Fields interface and stationary/transient modeling for the Laminar Flow interface,
called frequency-stationary and frequency-transient modeling.

When a predefined Magnetohydrodynamics interface is added from the

AC/DC>Electromagnetics and Fluids branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics
windows, Magnetic and Electric Fields and Laminar Flow interfaces are added to the Model
Builder. In addition, The Multiphysics Branch is added, which automatically includes
the multiphysics coupling feature Magnetohydrodynamics.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Magnetic and Electric Fields interface computes electric field, current, and
magnetic field distributions in conducting fluids. By default, it solves Ampère’s Law
and current conservation equations in the computation domain.

The Laminar Flow interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and momentum
in fluids.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURE

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Magnetohydrodynamics, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

In contrast, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if separate Electromagnetics and Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are
added, COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click

452 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

 this node, you can choose Magnetohydrodynamics from a list of available coupling
features but the modified settings are not included.
TABLE 7-4: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A JOULE HEATING INTERFACE.

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Magnetic and Electric The discretization of the dependent variables is set to linear in
Fields 3D.
Laminar Flow No changes.
Magnetohydrodynamics The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
physics interfaces
The corresponding Magnetic and Electric Fields and Laminar
Flow interfaces are preselected in the Coupled Interfaces
section.

PHYSICS INTERFACE AND COUPLING FEATURE

Coupling Feature
The Magnetohydrodynamics multiphysics coupling node is described in the next
section.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (on Windows), the Physics
context menu (on macOS and Linux), or by right-clicking to access the context menu
(all platforms).

Magnetohydrodynamics
The Magnetohydrodynamics ( ) multiphysics coupling feature is used to model the
interaction of magnetic fields and conducting fluids. It couples one of the magnetic
field interfaces and the Laminar Flow interface. The supported magnetic field interfaces
are the Magnetic Fields, Magnetic and Electric Fields, Magnetic Field Formulation, and
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interfaces in the AC/DC Module. By default, the
coupling feature passes the Lorentz force F  J  B from the magnetic field interface
to the Laminar Flow interface and the electromotive force (the induced electric field)
E  v  B from the Laminar Flow interface to the magnetic field interface.

The Magnetohydrodynamics feature is available in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D

geometries and is allowed for both Stationary and Time Dependent studies (including
Frequency-Stationary and Frequency-Transient studies). When the deformation of the
conducting fluids cannot be neglected (that is, when topology changes are important),

THE MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS INTERFACE | 453

 the Moving Mesh feature (added from the Definitions) is usually used together with the
Magnetohydrodynamics feature.

The Magnetohydrodynamics feature cannot be used to model

magnetizable fluids (ferrohydrodynamics). In magnetizable fluids, the
magnetization forces can be much larger than the Lorentz force. In such
cases, add a Force Calculation feature from the magnetic field interface and
a Volume Force feature from the Laminar Flow interface. Note that the
Force Calculation feature includes the force contribution not only from
magnetic polarization but also from the Lorentz force, that is, the total
electromagnetic force. Therefore, when the coupling between the
magnetic field interface and Laminar Flow interface is implemented with
the Force Calculation feature and the Volume Force feature, the
Magnetohydrodynamics feature should not be used in the same domain.

SETTINGS
The Label is the multiphysics coupling feature name. The default Label (for the first
multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is Magnetohydrodynamics 1.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mhd1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The
Electromagnetic and Fluid flow lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

When the Magnetohydrodynamics node is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows
users), Physics contextual toolbar (macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all
users), then the first physics interface of each type in the component is selected as the
default.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Magnetohydrodynamics node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for

454 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

example Solid Mechanics is deleted, then the list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present interface.
See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

COUPLED SETTINGS
The coupling behavior can be easily controlled by selecting or clearing the Include
Lorentz force and Include electromotive force check boxes. For example, if Include
Lorentz force is selected and Include electromotive force is cleared, only the Lorentz
force is considered and the electromotive force is neglected. This is usually valid when
the magnetic Reynolds number is very low.

There are several library examples that demonstrate its usage:

Hartmann Boundary Layer: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Electromagnetics_and_Fluids/hartmann_boundary_layer

Magnetohydrodynamics Pump: Application Library path ACDC_Module/

Electromagnetics_and_Fluids/magnetohydrodynamics_pump

THE MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS INTERFACE | 455

 Overview of
Electromagnetics-Particle Interaction
Interfaces
The Model Wizard and the Add Physics window contain a number of multiphysics
interfaces for modeling electromagnetics-particle interaction, all available under the
Particle Tracing branch ( ) within the AC/DC branch ( ). The multiphysics
interfaces under this branch requires a Particle Tracing Module license. This section
gives an overview introduction to these multiphysics interfaces. For detailed
descriptions, click the hyperlinks of the interface names listed below:

• The Charged Particle Tracing Interface ( ): Use it to model charged particle

orbits under the influence of electromagnetic forces. In addition, it can also model
two-way coupling between the particles and fields. Some typical applications are
particle accelerators, vacuum tubes and ion implanters. The physics interface
supports time-domain modeling only in 2D and 3D. The interface solves the
equation of motion for charged particles subjected to electromagnetic forces.
• The Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic Interface ( ): Combines the
Charged Particle Tracing interface with the Electrostatics interface. The Electric
Particle Field Interaction multiphysics coupling feature is added automatically. The
Particle Field Interaction, Non-Relativistic interface is used to model beams of
charged particles at non-relativistic speeds. The particles generate a space charge
density term as they propagate through domains. The space charge density is then
used as a source term in the Electrostatics interface, and the resulting electric force
on the particles is computed.
• The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface ( ): Combines the Charged
Particle Tracing, Electrostatics, and Magnetic Fields physics interfaces. The Electric
Particle Field Interaction and Magnetic Particle Field Interaction multiphysics
coupling features are added automatically. The Particle Field Interaction,
Relativistic interface is used to model beams of relativistic charged particles. The
particles generate space charge density and current density terms as they propagate
through domains. The space charge density and current density are then used to
compute electric and magnetic forces, respectively, which are exerted on the
particles.

456 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Overview of Multiphysics Couplings
The AC/DC Module contains a number of Multiphysics Coupling features that can
couple electromagnetic domains to heat-transfer media, structures, and charged
particles to model a variety of multiphysics problems. Several of the coupling features
are used in predefined multiphysics interfaces but can also be added manually. Except
for the coupling features between AC/DC interfaces, most of the coupling features
require additional licenses of other modules such as the Structural Mechanics Module.

This section summarizes all Multiphysics Coupling features related to the AC/DC
Module. For detailed descriptions, click the hyperlinks of the feature names listed
below:

• Coupling features between AC/DC Interfaces:

- Electric Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling ( ): Assures continuity of the electric
potential across boundaries between The Electrostatics Interface and The
Electrostatics, Boundary Elements Interface.
- Magnetic Scalar-Scalar Potential Coupling ( ): Assures continuity of the
magnetic scalar potential across boundaries between The Magnetic Fields,
Currents Only Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary
Elements Interface.
- Magnetic Vector-Scalar Potential Coupling ( ): Assures continuity of the
magnetic flux density across boundaries between The Magnetic Fields Interface
and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents, Boundary Elements Interface.
- Electric Currents Solid to Shell Via Boundary ( ): Assures continuity of the
electric potential across boundaries between The Electric Currents Interface and
The Electric Currents in Shells Interface or The Electric Currents in Layered
Shells Interface.
- Magnetic Fields Formulation Magnetic Fields No Currents Coupling ( ):
Assures continuity of the normal magnetic flux density and the tangential

OVERVIEW OF MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 457

 magnetic field across boundaries between The Magnetic Field Formulation
Interface and The Magnetic Fields, No Currents Interface.
• Coupling features in predefined Electromagnetic Heating interfaces:
- Electromagnetic Heating ( ) in The Joule Heating Interface.
- Electromagnetic Heating ( ) and Thermal Expansion ( ) in The Joule
Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface.
- Electromagnetic Heating ( ) in The Induction Heating Interface.
- Pyroelectricity ( ) in The Pyroelectricity Interface and in The Piezoelectricity
and Pyroelectricity Interface.
• Coupling features in predefined Electromagnetics-Structure Interaction Interfaces:
- Electromechanical Forces ( ) in The Electromechanics Interface.
- The Electromechanics Interface ( ) in The Electromechanics, Boundary
Elements Interface.
- Piezoelectric Effect ( ) in The Piezoelectricity Interface, Solid.
- Layered Piezoelectric Effect ( ) in The Piezoelectricity, Layered Shell
Interface.
- Electrostriction ( ) in The Electrostriction Interface and in The
Ferroelectroelasticity Interface.
- Piezomagnetic Effect ( ) in The Piezomagnetism Interface.
- Nonlinear Magnetostriction ( ) in The Nonlinear Magnetostriction Interface.
- Magnetomechanical Forces ( ) in The Magnetomechanics Interface.
- Magnetic Forces ( ) in The Magnetomechanics, No Currents Interface.
- Piezoresistive Effect, Domain Currents ( ) in The Piezoresistivity, Domain
Currents Interface.
- Piezoresistive Effect, Boundary Currents ( ) in The Piezoresistivity, Boundary
Currents Interface.
- Piezoresistive Effect, Shell ( ) in The Piezoresistivity, Shell Interface.
• Coupling features in predefined Electromagnetics-Fluids Interaction Interfaces:
- Magnetohydrodynamics ( ) in The Magnetohydrodynamics Interface.

458 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

• Coupling features in predefined Electromagnetics-Particle Interaction Interfaces:
- Electric Particle Field Interaction ( ) in The Particle Field Interaction,
Non-Relativistic Interface.
- Electric Particle Field Interaction ( ) and Magnetic Particle Field
Interaction ( ) in The Particle Field Interaction, Relativistic Interface.
• Other Multiphysics Coupling features:
- Lorentz Coupling ( ): A multiphysics coupling feature between the Magnetic
Fields interface and the Solid Mechanics interface. It passes the Lorentz force
from the Magnetic Fields interface to the Solid Mechanics interface and, passes
the induced electric field from the Solid Mechanics interface to the Magnetic
Fields interface. The Lorentz force effect on a moving structure is similar to that
of the Rayleigh alpha-damping, where the damping coefficient is proportional to
the background magnetic field and the material electric conductivity.
- Electromagnetic Heating, Layered Shell ( ): Use it to account for
electromagnetic surface losses as a heat source in the heat equation in layered
materials represented by boundaries.
- Thermoelectric Effect, Layered Shell ( ): Use it to account for a Peltier heat
source or sink in layered materials represented by boundaries where electrical and
thermal models are defined.

OVERVIEW OF MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 459

460 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS
 8

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite element modeling terms in an

electromagnetics context. For mathematical terms as well as geometry and CAD
terms specific to the COMSOL Multiphysics® software and documentation, see
the glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to
more information about a term, see the index.

461
 Glossary of Terms
anisotropy Variation of material properties with direction.

constitutive relation The relation between the D and E fields and between the B and
H fields. These relations depend on the material properties.

eddy currents Induced currents normal to a time-varying magnetic flux in a

ferromagnetic material.

edge element See vector element.

electric dipole See electric currents point dipole, electrostatics point dipole, and
magnetic fields electric dipole.

electric currents point dipole Two equal and opposite point current sources +q and q
separated a short distance d. The electric current dipole moment is given by p = qd,
where d is a vector going from q to +q.

electrostatics point dipole Two equal and opposite charges +q and q separated a
short distance d. The electric dipole moment is given by p = qd, where d is a vector
going from q to +q.

gauge transformation A variable transformation of the electric and magnetic

potentials that leaves Maxwell’s equations invariant.

magnetic dipole A small circular loop carrying a current. The magnetic dipole
moment is m = IAe, where I is the current carried by the loop, A its area, and e a unit
vector along the central axis of the loop.

magnetic fields electric dipole The limiting case when the length d of a current
filament carrying uniform current I approaches zero while maintaining the product
between I and d.

Nedelec’s edge element See vector element.

phasor A complex function of space representing a sinusoidally varying quantity.

462 | CHAPTER 8: GLOSSARY

quasistatic approximation The electromagnetic fields are assumed to vary slowly, so
that the retardation effects can be neglected. This approximation is valid when the
geometry under study is considerably smaller than the wavelength.

vector element A finite element often used for electromagnetic vector fields. The
tangential component of the vector field at the mesh edges is used as a degree of
freedom. Also called Nedelec’s edge element or just edge element.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 463

464 | CHAPTER 8: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
A adiabatic assumption 119 rotating machinery, magnetic 395
air stress tensors single conductor coil 124
electromagnetics 99 single-turn coil domain 132
moving bodies 103 stress tensors 99
ammeter (node) 407 symmetries 117–118
Ampère’s law (node) 302, 309 terminal node 187
Ampère’s law and current conservation thin low permittivity gap 183
(node) 370 total forces 101
anisotropic materials 43 vector hysteresis modeling 49, 305
Application Libraries window 30 Archie’s law (node) 198
application library examples automatic current calculation (node) 334
boundary conditions 117 axial symmetry, cylindrical coordinates
Cartesian coordinates 115 115
connecting electrical circuits to phys-
B base node 414
ics interfaces 161
bipolar junction transistor 414
contact impedance 229
boundary conditions
cylindrical coordinates 116
electromagnetics theory 38
dielectric shielding comparison 181
forced voltage, port 149
dielectric shielding node 184
boundary current source (node) 221, 245
effective nonlinear magnetic curves 46
boundary element method 54
electric currents 212
boundary feed (node) 342
electric shielding 227
boundary group (node) 344
electrical circuits 161, 404
boundary nodes
electromagnetic forces 143
electric currents 213
electromagnetic losses 147
electric currents, shell 253
electrostatics 171
electrostatics 171
homogenized multi-turn coil 124
magnetic and electric fields 368
induction heating 445
magnetic field formulation 379
Joule heating 437
magnetic fields 299
magnetic and electric fields 365
magnetic fields, currents only 387
magnetic field formulation 93, 379
magnetic fields, no currents 277
magnetic fields 298
Brinell hardness 78
magnetic fields, currents only 387
bulk node 414
magnetic fields, no currents 276
magnetotellurics 315, 317 C calculating

permanent magnet 283 electromagnetic forces 95, 143

INDEX| 465
 electromagnetic losses 147 continuum mechanics forces 95
forces in moving objects 102 Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) corre-
S-parameters 159 lation 77
capacitance matrix, fixed charge 150 Coulomb gauge 85
capacitance matrix, forced voltage 149 coupling, to the electrical circuits inter-
capacitor (node) 407 face 162
Cartesian coordinates 27, 114 curl element 53
cementation exponent 74, 198 curl elements 92
change cross-section (node) 193 curl shape functions 318
change shell thickness (node) 256 current conservation (node)
change thickness (out-of-plane) (node) electric currents 215
193 electric currents, shell 254
charge conservation (node) 173, 205 current conservation, ungauged formula-
charge conservation, ferroelectric tions 87
(node) 193 current source (node)
charge conservation, piezoelectric electric currents 218
(node) 194 electric currents, shell 256
charge relaxation theory 57 electrical circuits 409
circuit import, SPICE 419 current sources, theory 59
circular coil 133 current-controlled current source
coenergy 104 (node) 411
coil (node) 323 current-controlled voltage source
coil geometry (node) 331 (node) 411
coil wires inlet/outlet (node) 334 cylindrical coordinates 27, 115
coil, single-turn 339
D device models, electrical circuits 422
collector node 414
dielectric losses 146
common settings 28
dielectric shielding (node) 184
complex permittivity 146
dielectrics and perfect conductors 39
complex relative permeability 146
diode (node) 416
conduction loss (time-harmonic) (node)
diode transistor model 428
175
dispersion (node) 194
conductive media 80
dispersive materials 44
conductor (node) 389
distributed capacitance (node) 189
conductor model (coil) 323
distributed impedance (node) 222
connected boundaries (node)
documentation 28
coil 338–339
domain group (node) 344
constitutive relations theory 37–38
domain nodes
contact impedance (node) 227
electric currents 213

466 | I N D E X
 electrostatics 171 electric point dipole (node)
magnetic and electric fields 368 electric currents 233
magnetic field formulation 379 magnetic fields 318
magnetic fields 299 electric point dipole (on axis) (node) 234
magnetic fields, currents only 387 electric potential 50
magnetic fields, no currents 277 electric potential (node) 179, 206
drain node 414 electric scalar-scalar potential coupling
(node) 208
E edge current (node) 350
electric shielding (node)
edge nodes
electric currents 226
electric currents 213
electric currents, shell 257
electric currents, shell 253
electrical circuit interface 404
electrostatics 171
theory 421
magnetic and electric fields 368
electrical circuits
effective medium (node) 198
modeling techniques 161
E-J characteristic 91
electrical conductivity, porous media 74
elastic material stress tensor
electrical contact (node) 229
electromagnetics 101
electrical size 113
moving bodies 104
electromagnetic energy, theory 41
elastic pure conductor 101, 103
electromagnetic forces and torques 141
electric coenergy 104
electromagnetic forces, calculating 95
electric currents in layered shells 249
electromagnetic heating (node) 437, 446
electric currents in shells 236
electromagnetic quantities 108
electric currents interface 210
electromagnetic sources 118
theory 75
electromagnetic stress tensors 99
electric currents solid to shell via bound-
electrostatic point dipole (node) 197
ary 248, 272
electrostatics 50
electric currents, layered shell interface
electrostatics interface 168
258
theory 56
electric currents, shell interface 250
electrostatics, boundary elements inter-
theory 80
face 200
electric displacement field (node) 181
emailing COMSOL 30
electric field (node) 383–384
emitter node 414
electric field transformation (node) 398
equation of continuity 57
electric fields theory 56
error message, electrical circuits 162
electric forces and torques 106
exporting
Electric Insulation 337
SPICE netlists 432
electric insulation (node)
exterior boundaries (node), magnetic
electric currents 219

INDEX| 467
 fields, currents only 388 G Galilei invariants and transformations
external current density (node) 102
electric currents 218 gap feed (node) 342
magnetic fields 310 gate node 414
magnetic fields, currents only 390 gauge fixing 86
external I vs. U (node) 416 gauge fixing for A-field (node) 318
external I-terminal (node) 418 gauge transformation 85
external magnetic flux density (node) 284 Gauss’ law and charge relaxation theory
external magnetic vector potential 57
(node) 350 Gauss’ law equation 60
external surface charge accumulation general elastic materials
(node) 180 electromagnetics 101
external U vs. I (node) 417 moving bodies 104
geometry, simplifying 114
F Faraday’s law 91
ground (node) 178, 206
Faraday’s law (node) 381
ground (node), single-turn coil domain
file, Touchstone 152
343
fixed current, ports 150
ground node (node) 406
floating potential (node)
electric currents 219 H harmonic perturbation (node), global
electrostatics 187, 206 330
single-turn coil 343 Helmholtz’s theorem 85
fluid saturation 198 homogenized multi-turn (coil) 324
force calculation (node) 177 homogenized shell 268
forced voltage, port 149 homogenized shell connection 268
forces I impedance boundary condition (node)
calculating 141 351
continuum mechanics and 95 importing
elastic solids, and 97 SPICE netlists 419, 431
electromagnetic, calculating 95 induction heating interface 443
in moving objects 102 inductor (node) 408
stationary fields 99 inhomogeneous materials 43
torque 98 initial values (node)
formation factor 74 electric currents 217
free space (node), magnetic fields, cur- electric currents, shell 245, 256
rents only 388 electrostatics 176
frequency domain study 76 magnetic and electric fields 370
force calculation and 177 magnetic field formulation 382
theory, electric currents 59 magnetic fields 310

468 | I N D E X
 magnetic fields, currents only 389 energy method 150
magnetic fields, no currents 279 fixed current 150
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary Ohm’s law and 148
elements 291 studying 151
rotating machinery, magnetic 397 lumped port (node) 346
input (node), coil 333 lumped ports 156
input (node), coil domains 335
M magnet (node)
interface current source 246, 271
magnetic fields 320
interlayer connection 247, 267
magnetic fields, no currents 280
internet resources 28
magnetic and electric fields interface 361
J Jiles–Atherton model 47 theory 89
Jiles-Atherton, hysteresis 47 magnetic coenergy 104
Joule heating and thermal expansion in- magnetic continuity (node) 372, 391
terface 440 magnetic field (node) 313
Joule heating interface 435 magnetic field formulation 52
magnetic field formulation interface 377
K Kirchhoff’s circuit laws 421
theory 91
knowledge base, COMSOL 31
magnetic fields interface 295
L layer current source 270
theory 82
layered impedance boundary condition
magnetic fields, currents only interface
(node) 355
386
layered shell 55, 245, 266
theory 94
layered transition boundary condition
magnetic fields, no currents interface 274
(node) 353
theory 81
line charge (node) 189
magnetic flux conservation (node) 279
line charge (on axis) (node) 190
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary
line charge (out-of-plane) (node) 191
elements 290
line current (on axis) (node) 317
magnetic flux density (node) 282
line current (out-of-plane) (node) 317
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary
line current source (node) 231
elements 292
line current source (on axis) (node) 232
magnetic forces and torques 105
linear coil 133
magnetic Gauss’ law 92
Lorentz force equation 43
magnetic Gauss’ law (node) 382
Lorentz forces, calculating 142
magnetic insulation (node)
Lorentz term 42
magnetic and electric fields 371
lumped element (node) 349
magnetic currents 312
lumped parameters
magnetic field formulation 383
converting 152
magnetic fields, no currents 280

INDEX| 469
 magnetic fields, no currents, boundary Maxwell capacitance 153
elements 291 Maxwell stress tensor, calculating 141
magnetic losses 146 Maxwell’s equations
magnetic point dipole (node) 358 dielectrics 39
magnetic point dipole (on axis) (node) electrical circuits and 421
359 theory 36
magnetic potential (node) 315 mesh resolution 120
magnetic potential (node), magnetic method of virtual work 105
fields, currents only 390 Mikic elastic correlation 79
magnetic scalar potential 51 mixed formulation 53
magnetic scalar potential (node) 280 mixed formulation boundary (node) 398
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary MPH-files 30
elements 291 multiphysics coupling
magnetic scalar potential discontinuity electromagnetic heating 437
(node) Joule heating 435
magnetic fields, no currents 285 Joule heating and thermal expansion
magnetic scalar-scalar potential coupling 440
(node) magnetohydrodynamics 452
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary multiphysics couplings
elements 292 induction heating 443
magnetic shielding (node) multi-turn, homogenized (coil) 324
magnetic and electric fields 371 mutual capacitance matrix 153
magnetic currents 359 mutual inductance (node) 415
magnetic fields, no currents 284
N n-Channel MOS transistor 414, 425
magnetic vector potential 52
n-Channel MOSFET (node) 414
magnetic vector-scalar potential coupling
netlists, SPICE 419, 431
(node)
nodes, common settings 28
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary
nonlinear materials 44
elements 293
normal current density (node)
magnetohydrodynamics interface 452
electric currents 221
magnetostatics 51
electric currents, shell 257
magnetostatics, no currents, boundary
NPN bipolar junction transistor 422
elements interface (node)
NPN BJT (node) 414
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary
numeric coil 133
elements 286
O Ohm’s law and charge relaxation theory
material properties
57
electromagnetics 43
output (node), coil 333
materials 44
output (node), coil domains 336

470 | I N D E X
P pair contact impedance (node) 227 ports, lumped 156
pair electrical contact (node) 229 potentials, scalar and magnetic 39
pair nodes power law, porous media
electric currents 213 conductivity 71
electric currents, shell 253 permeability 73
electrostatics 171 permittivity 72
magnetic field formulation 379 Poynting’s theorem 42
magnetic fields 299 predefined couplings, electrical circuits
magnetic fields, currents only 387 162
magnetic fields, no currents 277 principle of virtual displacement 105
pair thin low permeability gap (node) 285 pure conductor stress tensor 101, 103
p-Channel MOS transistor 414
Q quasistatic 84
p-Channel MOSFET (node) 414
quasi-static approximation 42
PDE formulations 40
perfect conductors and dielectrics 39 R reciprocal permeability, volume average

perfect magnetic conductor (node) 316 73

periodic condition (node) 181 reciprocal permittivity, volume average

Periodic Pair 317 72

phasors 45 resistance matrix 154

physics interface guide 19 resistor (node) 407

physics interfaces, common settings 28 RLC coil group (node) 373

PMC. see perfect magnetic conductor. robust geometry analysis method (coil)

PNP BJT (node) 414 133

point charge (node) 191 rotating machinery, magnetic interface

point charge (on axis) (node) 192 392

point current source (node) 232 S saturation coefficient 74

point current source (on axis) (node) saturation exponent 198
233 scattering parameters. see S-parameters
point dipoles, magnetic 358 sector symmetry (node) 230
point nodes selecting
electric currents 213 solvers 120
electric currents, shell 253 space dimensions 114
electrostatics 171 study types 118
magnetic and electric fields 368 semiconductor device models 422
magnetic field formulation 379 shape functions 318
magnetic fields 299 shift function 196
magnetic fields, currents only 387 single conductor (coil) 323
magnetic fields, no currents 277 single-turn coil (node) 339

INDEX| 471
 skin effects 120 electric currents 224
solver settings 120 electrostatics 185
solving models 114 electrostatics, boundary elements 207
source node 414 theory
space charge density (node) 176 constitutive relations 37–38
space dimension 114 electric currents interface 75
space dimensions, selecting 114 electric currents, shell 80
S-parameter calculations electric fields 56
electric field, and 158 electrical circuit interface 421
SPICE electromagnetics 36
exporting 432 electrostatics interface 56
SPICE capacitance matrix 153 lumped ports 156
SPICE netlists 419, 431 magnetic and electric fields 89
standard settings 28 magnetic field formulation 91
stationary fields, forces 99 magnetic fields interface 82
stationary source sweep (node) 154 magnetic fields, currents only 94
stress tensors 103 magnetic fields, no currents 81
electromagnetics 101 thin low permeability gap (node)
moving bodies 104 magnetic fields 358
study types magnetic fields, no currents 285
electric currents 76 thin low permittivity gap (node) 183
electromagnetic theory 40 thin shells, conductive media 80
physics interface availability 26 time dependent study 59, 76, 118
selecting 118 torque forces 98
subcircuit definition (node) 412 torques, calculating 141
subcircuit instance (node) 413 Touchstone and port sweeps 152
surface charge density (node) 179, 207 transformations, Galilei 102
surface current (node) transformer (node) 415
magnetic and electric fields 371 transient study 118
magnetic currents 314 transition boundary condition (node)
surface magnetic current density (node) 352
314, 383
U user defined coil 135
sweeps and lumped parameters 152
user defined coil geometry (node) 332
switch (node) 412
V vacuum stress tensors
symmetry plane (node) 181, 283, 315
electromagnetics 99
symmetry specification (coil) 133
moving bodies 103
T technical support, COMSOL 30
variables
terminal (node)
coil domains 130

472 | I N D E X
 physical quantities 108
S-parameters 159
varying thickness 270
velocity (Lorentz term) (node) 311
Vickers correlation coefficient 78
Vickers size index 78
voltage source (node) 408
voltage-controlled current source
(node) 410
voltage-controlled voltage source (node)
410
voltmeter (node) 406
volume average, permeability 73
volume average, permittivity 72
volume averages, porous media 71

W wavelength 120
websites, COMSOL 31
WLF shift functions 69, 196

Z zero charge (node) 178

zero charge, boundary elements (node)
208
zero magnetic scalar potential (node)
283
magnetic fields, no currents, boundary
elements 291

INDEX| 473
474 | I N D E X