CS 341: Foundations of Computer Science II

Prof. Marvin Nakayama

Homework 4

1. Use the procedure described in Lemma 1.55 to convert the regular expression (((00)∗ (11))∪
01)∗ into an NFA.

Answer:

0
0

1
1

0 ε 0
00

1 ε 1
11

0 ε 1
01

ε 0 ε 0
(00)∗

ε
1 ε 1
(00)∗(11) ε ε
0 ε 0
ε

1
 1 ε 1
(00)∗(11) ∪ 01 ε ε
0 ε 0
ε ε

ε
ε 0 ε 1

1 ε 1
((00)∗(11) ∪ 01)∗ ε ε
0 ε 0
ε ε
ε
ε
ε 0 ε 1

2. Use the procedure described in Lemma 1.60 to convert the following DFA M to a
regular expression.
a
a, b
1 2

a b b

Answer: First convert DFA M into an equivalent GNFA G.

2
 a
s ε a∪b
1 2

ε b
a b

t ε 3

Next, we eliminate the states of G (except for s and t) one at a time. The order
in which the states are eliminated does not matter. However, eliminating states in a
different order from what is done below may result in a different (but also correct)
regular expression. We first eliminate state 3. To do this, we need to account for the
paths

• 2 → 3 → 1, which will create an arc from 2 to 1 labelled with ba;

• 2 → 3 → 2, which will create an arc from 2 to 2 labelled with bb; and
• 2 → 3 → t, which will create an arc from 2 to t labelled with bε = b.

We combine the previous arc from 2 to 2 labelled a with the new one labelled bb to
get the new label a ∪ bb.

a∪b a ∪ bb
s ε
1 2
ba
ε
b

We next eliminate state 1. To do this, we need to account for the following paths:

• s → 1 → 2, which will create an arc from s to 2 labelled with ε(a ∪ b) = a ∪ b.

• s → 1 → t, which will create an arc from s to t labelled with εε = ε.
• 2 → 1 → 2, which will create an arc from 2 to 2 labelled with ba(a ∪ b). We
combine this with the existing 2 to 2 arc to get the new label a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b).
• 2 → 1 → t, which will create an arc from 2 to t labelled with baε = ba. We
combine this arc with the existing arc from 2 to t to get the new label b ∪ ba.

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 a∪b a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b)
s 2

ε b ∪ ba

Finally, we eliminate state 2 by adding an arc from s to t labelled (a ∪ b)(a ∪ bb ∪

ba(a ∪ b))∗ (b ∪ ba). We then combine this with the existing s to t arc to get the new
label ε ∪ (a ∪ b)(a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b))∗ (b ∪ ba).

ε ∪ (a ∪ b)(a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b))∗ (b ∪ ba)

So a regular expression for the language L(M ) recognized by the DFA M is

ε ∪ (a ∪ b)(a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b))∗ (b ∪ ba).

Writing this as

∪ (a ∪ b) (a ∪ bb ∪ ba(a ∪ b))∗ ∪ ba)

ε
|{z} | {z } | {z } (b
| {z }
stay in 1 1 to 2 (2 to 2)∗ end in 3 or 1

should make it clear how the regular expression accounts for every path that starts in
1 and ends in either 3 or 1, which are the accepting states of the given DFA.
a
a, b
1 2

a b b

3. Prove that the following languages are not regular.

(a) A1 = { www | w ∈ {a, b}∗ }

Answer: Suppose that A1 is a regular language. Let p be the “pumping length”
of the Pumping Lemma. Consider the string s = ap bap bap b. Note that s ∈ A1

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 since s = (ap b)3 , and |s| = 3(p + 1) ≥ p, so the Pumping Lemma will hold.
Thus, we can split the string s into 3 parts s = xyz satisfying the conditions
i. xy i z ∈ A1 for each i ≥ 0,
ii. |y| > 0,
iii. |xy| ≤ p.
Since the first p symbols of s are all a’s, the third condition implies that x and y
consist only of a’s. So z will be the rest of the first set of a’s, followed by bap bap b.
The second condition states that |y| > 0, so y has at least one a. More precisely,
we can then say that
x = aj for some j ≥ 0,
y = ak for some k ≥ 1,
z = am bap bap b for some m ≥ 0.
Since ap bap bap b = s = xyz = aj ak am bap bap b = aj+k+mbap bap b, we must have
that j + k + m = p. The first condition implies that xy 2 z ∈ A1 , but
xy 2 z = aj ak ak am bap bap b
= ap+k bap bap b
since j + k + m = p. Hence, xy 2 z 6∈ A1 because k ≥ 1, and we get a
contradiction. Therefore, A1 is a nonregular language.
(b) A2 = { w ∈ {a, b}∗ | w = w R }.
Answer: Suppose that A2 is a regular language. Let p be the “pumping length”
of the Pumping Lemma. Consider the string s = ap bap . Note that s ∈ A2 since
s = sR , and |s| = 2p + 1 ≥ p, so the Pumping Lemma will hold. Thus, we can
split the string s into 3 parts s = xyz satisfying the conditions
i. xy i z ∈ A2 for each i ≥ 0,
ii. |y| > 0,
iii. |xy| ≤ p.
Since the first p symbols of s are all a’s, the third condition implies that x and
y consist only of a’s. So z will be the rest of the first set of a’s, followed by bap .
The second condition states that |y| > 0, so y has at least one a. More precisely,
we can then say that
x = aj for some j ≥ 0,
y = ak for some k ≥ 1,
z = am bap for some m ≥ 0.
Since ap bap = s = xyz = aj ak am bap = aj+k+mbap , we must have that j +
k + m = p. The first condition implies that xy 2 z ∈ A2 , but
xy 2 z = aj ak ak am bap
= ap+k bap

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 since j + k + m = p. Hence, xy 2 z 6∈ A2 because (ap+k bap )R = ap bap+k 6=
ap+k bap since k ≥ 1, and we get a contradiction. Therefore, A2 is a nonregular
language.

(c) A3 = { a2n b3n an | n ≥ 0 }.

Answer: Suppose that A3 is a regular language. Let p be the “pumping length”
of the Pumping Lemma. Consider the string s = a2p b3p ap . Note that s ∈ A3 ,
and |s| = 6p ≥ p, so the Pumping Lemma will hold. Thus, we can split the
string s into 3 parts s = xyz satisfying the conditions
i. xy i z ∈ A3 for each i ≥ 0,
ii. |y| > 0,
iii. |xy| ≤ p.
Since the first p symbols of s are all a’s, the third condition implies that x and y
consist only of a’s. So z will be the rest of the first set of a’s, followed by b3p ap .
The second condition states that |y| > 0, so y has at least one a. More precisely,
we can then say that

x = aj for some j ≥ 0,
y = ak for some k ≥ 1,
z = am+p b3p ap for some m ≥ 0.

Since a2p b3p ap = s = xyz = aj ak am+p b3p ap = aj+k+m+pb3p ap , we must have

that j + k + m + p = 2p, or equivalently, j + k + m = p, so j + k ≤ p. The
first condition implies that xy 2 z ∈ A3 , but

xy 2 z = aj ak ak am+p b3p ap
= a2p+k b3p ap

since j + k + m = p. Hence, xy 2 z 6∈ A3 because k ≥ 1, and we get a

contradiction. Therefore, A3 is a nonregular language.

(d) A4 = { w ∈ {a, b}∗ | w has more a’s than b’s }.

Answer: Suppose that A4 is a regular language. Let p be the “pumping length”
of the Pumping Lemma. Consider the string s = bp ap+1 . Note that s ∈ A4 , and
|s| = 2p + 1 ≥ p, so the Pumping Lemma will hold. Thus, we can split the
string s into 3 parts s = xyz satisfying the conditions
i. xy i z ∈ A4 for each i ≥ 0,
ii. |y| > 0,
iii. |xy| ≤ p.
Since the first p symbols of s are all b’s, the third condition implies that x and y
consist only of b’s. So z will be the rest of the b’s, followed by ap+1 . The second

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 condition states that |y| > 0, so y has at least one b. More precisely, we can then
say that

x = bj for some j ≥ 0,
y = bk for some k ≥ 1,
z = bm ap+1 for some m ≥ 0.

Since bp ap+1 = s = xyz = bj bk bm ap+1 = bj+k+map+1 , we must have that

j + k + m = p. The first condition implies that xy 2 z ∈ A4 , but

xy 2 z = bj bk bk bm ap+1
= bp+k ap+1

since j + k + m = p. Hence, xy 2 z 6∈ A4 because it doesn’t have more a’s

than b’s since k ≥ 1, and we get a contradiction. Therefore, A4 is a nonregular
language.

4. Suppose that language A is recognized by an NFA N , and language B is the collection

of strings not accepted by some DFA M . Prove that A ◦ B is a regular language.

Answer: Since A is recognized by an NFA, we know that A is regular since a language

is regular if and only if it is recognized by an NFA (Corollary 1.20). Note that the
DFA M recognizes the language B, the complement of B. Since B is recognized by a
DFA, by definition, B is regular. We know from a problem on the previous homework
that B being regular implies that its complement B is regular. (B is the complement
of the complement of B.) But B = B, so B is regular. Since A and B are regular,
their concatenation A ◦ B is regular by Theorem 1.23.

5. (a) Prove that if we add a finite set of strings to a regular language, the result is a
regular language.
Answer: Let A be a regular language, and let B be a finite set of strings.
We know from class (see page 1-95 of Lecture Notes for Chapter 1) that finite
languages are regular, so B is regular. Thus, A ∪ B is regular since the class of
regular languages is closed under union (Theorem 1.22).

(b) Prove that if we remove a finite set of strings from a regular language, the result
is a regular language.
Answer: Let A be a regular language, and let B be a finite set of strings with B ⊆
A. Let C be the language resulting from removing B from A, i.e., C = A − B.
As we argued in the previous part, B is regular. Note that C = A − B = A ∩ B.
Since B is regular, B is regular since the class of regular languages is closed
under complement. We proved in an earlier homework that the class of regular
languages is closed under intersection, so A ∩ B is regular since A and B are
regular. Therefore, A − B is regular.

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 (c) Prove that if we add a finite set of strings to a nonregular language, the result is
a nonregular language.
Answer: Let A be a nonregular language, and let B be a finite set of strings.
We want to add B to A, so we may assume that none of the strings in B are
in A, i.e., A ∩ B = ∅. Let C be the language obtained by adding B to A, i.e.,
C = A ∪ B. Suppose for a contradiction that C is regular, and we now show
this is impossible. Since A ∩ B = ∅, we have that A = C − B. Since C and
B are regular (the latter because B is finite), the previous part of this problem
implies that C − B = C ∩ B must be regular, but we assumed that A = C − B
is nonregular, so we get a contradiction.

(d) Prove that if we remove a finite set of strings from a nonregular language, the
result is a nonregular language.
Answer: Let A be a nonregular language, and let B be a finite set of strings,
where B ⊆ A. Let C be the language obtained by removing B from A, i.e.,
C = A − B. Suppose that C is regular, and we now show this is impossible.
Since we removed B from A to get C, we must have that C ∩ B = ∅, so
A = C ∪ B. Now C is regular by assumption and B is regular since it’s finite,
so C ∪ B must be regular by Theorem 1.25. But we assumed that A = C ∪ B
is nonregular, so we get a contradiction.

6. Consider the following statement: “If A is a nonregular language and B is a language

such that B ⊆ A, then B must be nonregular.” If the statement is true, give a proof.
If it is not true, give a counterexample showing that the statement doesn’t always hold.

Answer: The statement is not always true. For example, we know that the language
A = { 0j 1j | j ≥ 0} is nonregular. Define the language B = {01}, and note that
B ⊆ A. However, B is finite, so we know that it is regular.