Q2.

Answer the following:

1. What is network?Explain adv and dis

Introduction: Networking
 A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that
are connected in
order to share the components of your network (its resources) and the
information
you store there, as shown in figure.
 The most basic computer network (which consists of just two
connected computers)
can expand and become more usable when additional computers join
and add their
resources to those being shared.
 The first computer is commonly referred to as your local computer.
It is more likely to
be used as a location where you do work, a workstation, than as a
storage or
controlling location called as a server. As more and more computers are
connected to
a network and share their resources, the network becomes a more
powerful tool.
Using a network with more information and more capability are able to
accomplish
more through those added computers or additional resources.
 One network can be connected to another network and become a
more powerful tool
because of the greater resources.
 Advantages
1. File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that
is allows file
sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation that
is
connected to a network can easily see files present on another
workstation,
provided he is authorized to do so.
2. Resource sharing: All computers in the network can share
resources such as
printers, fax machines, modems and scanners.
3. Communications: It allows users to connect and communicate
with each other
easily. Various communication applications included e-mail and
groupware are
used. Though e-mail, members of a network can send message and
ensure safe
delivery of data to other members.
4. Internet access: Computer networks provide internet service over
the entire
network. Every single computer attached to the network can experience
the high
speed internet.
5. Entertainment: Many games and other means of entertainment
are easily
available on the internet. Furthermore, LAN offers and facilitates other
ways of
enjoyments, such as many players are connected through LAN and play a
particular game with each other from remote location.
6. Inexpensive system: Shared resources mean reduction in
hardware costs. Shared
files mean reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means
reduction in
file storage expenses. A particular software can be installed only once on
the
server and made available cross all connected computers at once. This
saves the
expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for as
many
users.
7. Flexible access: A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the
network and
access his files. This offers flexibility to the users as to where he should
be during
the course of his routine.
8. Multiple access: Many of users can access the same information
at the same time.Unit-1 Introduction to Network
Network Technologies
Page 3
 Disadvantages:
1. Lack of data security and privacy: Because there would be a
huge number of
people who would be using a computer network to get and share some
of their
files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk.
There might
even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful
about and
aware of.
2. Presence of computer viruses and malwares: If even one
computer on a network
gets affected by a virus, there is a possible threat for the other system
getting
affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the
interconnectivity of workstations.
3. Lack of Independence: since most networks have a centralized
server and
dependent clients, the client users lack any freedom whatsoever.
Centralized
decision making can sometimes hinder how a client user wants to use
his own
computer.
4. Lack of robustness: If a computer network’s main server breaks
down, the entire
system would become useless. Also if it has a bridging device or a central
linking
server that fails, the entire network would also become useless.
5. Need an efficient handler: for a computer network to work
efficiently, it requires
high technical skills.
2. explain working of intranet.
 The intranet is a private network that belongs to a particular
organization. It is
designed for the exclusive use of an organization and its associates, such
as
employees, customers, and other authorized people.
 It offers a secure platform to convey information and share data with
authorized
users. Confidential information, database, links, forms, and applications
can be made
available to the staff through the intranet.
 So, it is like a private internet or an internal website that is operating
within an
organization to provide its employees access to its information and
records. Each
computer in intranet is identified by a unique IP Address.
 It is based on internet protocols (TCP/IP) and is protected from
unauthorized access
with firewalls and other security systems. The firewall monitors the
incoming and
outgoing data packets to ensure they don't contain unauthorized
requests.
 So, users on the intranet can access the internet, but the internet users
can't access
the intranet if they are not authorized for it. Furthermore, to access the
intranet, the
authorized user is required to be connected to its LAN (Local Area
Network).
 Intranet basically comprises three components: a web server, an
intranet platform,
and applications. The web server is hardware that contains all the
intranet software
and data. It manages all requests for files hosted over the server and
finds the
requested files and then delivers it to the user's computer.
 The intranet platform, which is software, allows communication tools,
collaboration
apps, and databases to work seamlessly with each other. It is tailored to
the specific
needs of a business.
 The applications are required to enable users to work smoothly. They
are the
computing tools that allow users to do their work, communicate, and
coordinate with
each other and retrieve and store information.
Advantages:
 It is cheap and easy to implement and run, and is more safe than the
internet
and extranet.
 It streamlines communication that enables the company to share its
data,
information, and other resources among employees without any delay.
The entire
staff can receive company's announcements, ask questions, and access
internal
documents.
 It provides a secure space to store and develop applications to support
business
operations.
 It improves the efficiency of the company by speeding up workflow
and reducing
errors. Thus, it helps achieve targets by completing the tasks on time.
 It offers a testing platform for new ideas before they are uploaded on
the company's
internet webpage. Thus, it helps maintain the credibility of the company
 Information is shared in real-time, or updates are reflected
immediately to all the
authorized users.
 Modern intranets also offer a mobile app that allows employees to
stay connected on
the go.
 It aids in project management and tracking workflow and teams'
progress.
 It can work with mobile devices, which means it can provide
information that exists
on intranet directly to mobile devices of employees such as phones,
tablets, etc.
 It can also be used to motivate employees, facilitate employee
recognition, and to
reward them for performing beyond expectations.
Disadvantages:
 It may be costly to set up an Intranet due to hidden costs and
complexity.
 If the firewall does not work properly or not installed, it can be hacked
by someone
 High-security passwords are required, which cannot be guessed by
outside users
 There is always a fear of losing control over the intranet
 Sometimes document duplication may happen which can cause
confusion among
employees
 You have to give access to multiple users, so you may find it hard to
control this
network.

3. define topology.explain bus topologies and mesh topologies

 The way in which the connections are made is called the topology of
the network.
 There are
o Physical topology
o Logical topology
 Physical Topology :
 It specifically refers to the physical layout of the network. It refers to
the location of
the computers and how the cable is run between them.
 The physical topology you choose for your network influences and its
influenced by
several factors:
o Office layout
o Troubleshooting techniques
o Cost of installation
o Type of cable used
 Logical topology :
 Logical or electrical topologies describe the way in which a network
transmits
information from one node to the next node, not the way the network
looks.
 There are following types of topologies :
o Bus topology
o Ring topology
o Star topology
o Mesh topology
o Hybrid topology
Bus topology
 Every workstation can send out information in a package called a
packet.
 Each time a node on the network has data for another node. The
sending node
broadcasts the data to the entire network. The various nodes hear it and
look to see if
the data is for them. If so they keep the data. If not, they ignore the data.
 Before a workstation broadcast to the network, it listens to see if
anyone else is using
the network. If coast is clear then the workstation broadcast.
 The biggest problem with the broadcast method of bus network is
distance. If the
distance between two computers A and B on the same network is too
great, they may
not hear each other on the line.
 If they could not hear each other then node A could not tell whether
node B is
transmitting or not.
 Thinking that all is quiet, node A may begin its transmission when node
B is already
transmitting data. If this happens and two nodes transmit at the same
time, an event
called a packet collision occur and it cause a frequency “ripple” on the
cable. The first
node detect this increased frequency ripple and it will send a high
frequency signal
that will cancel out all other signals.
 This signal tells all nodes that a collision has occurred and that all
nodes on the
network should stop sending packets. At this point, each node waits a
random
amount of time and then tries broadcasting again.

 Advantages :
o It is cost effective.
o Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
o Used in small networks.
o It is easy to understand.
o Easy to expand joining two cables together.
 Disadvantages :
o If it is not terminated correctly, then your network can not transmit
properly.
o Malfunctioning nodes and cable breaks can cause problem for all
computer.
o If the cable is damaged at some point along the way, the network
won’t work,
and it can be time consuming to figure out where that break took place.
o If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the
network
decreases.
o Cable has a limited length.
o It is slower than the ring topology.
Mesh Topology
 In this layout, every system is connected to every other system.
 The main advantage of this topology is high availability. The main
disadvantage of this
topology is cost, both administrative and physical.
 Because each system is connected to each other, the amount of
cabling and
maintenance necessary , especially in larger networks.
 The formula for determining the amount of cable needed in a mesh
network is:
(N x (N – 1))/2,
where N is the number of systems to be interconnected.
 In our example in Figure, we have six systems that require 15 cables to
create a mesh
network.
 This topology is mainly used in Wide Area Network environments.
 Advantages
o No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which
means the link is only available for those two devices.
o Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t
affect other
links and the communication between other devices on the network.
o Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
o Fault detection is easy.
 Disadvantages
o Expensive
o Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number
of I/O
ports required must be huge.
o Difficult to implement
o Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large
number of
devices with a dedicated point to point link.

4. Discuss responsibilties of network and session layer link layer

 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the
source pc to the destination pc.
 The network layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery
of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the datalink layer
oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links),
the
network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final
destination.
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need
for a
network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks
(links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is
often a need
for the network layer to accomplish source to destination delivery.
 Following figure shows the relationship of the network layer to the
data link and
transport layer.

 Other responsibility of the network layer include the following :

o Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the
data link
layer and it handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes
the
network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish
the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to
the
packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes
the
logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
o Routing: when independent networks or links are connected to
create
internetworks (networks of networks) or a large network, the
connecting
devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their
final
destination.
 Protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP
 Devices: Router, Brouter, Layer3 switch
Session Layer :
 The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
 The services provided by the first three layer (physical, data link and
network) are
not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog
controller.
 It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating
systems.
 Following figure represents the relationship of the session layer to the
transport
and presentation layers.

 The session layer include the following responsibilities :

o Dialog control: The session layer allows two system to enter into a
dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in
either
half duplex or full duplex mode.
o Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. E.g., if a system is sending a
file
of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages
to
ensure that each 100 page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery
are
pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent

5. What is manet
Concepts and types of MANET (Mobile Ad
hoc network)
 A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring,
self-organizing,
infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected without wires.
It is
sometimes known as "on-the-fly" networks or "spontaneous networks".
 A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together
to form a
network as needed, without any support from any existing internet
infrastructure or
any other kind of fixed stations.
 A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or
MSs(also serving as
routers) connected by wireless links, the union of which forms a
communication
network modelled in the form of an arbitrary communication graph.
 This is in contrast to the well-known single hop cellular network model
that supports
the needs of wireless communication between two mobile nodes relies
on the wired
backbone and fixed base stations.
 In a MANET, no such infrastructure exists and network topology may
be changed
dynamically in an unpredictable manner since nodes are free to move
and each node
has limiting transmitting power, restricting access to the node only in
the
neighbouring range.
Types of MANET
 Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANETs) –
 It can be defined as an intelligent component of transport system as
vehicle are able
to communicate with each other as well as roadside base station.
Intelligent vehicular
ad hoc networks(InVANETs) deals with another vehicle or with roadside
equipment.
 a network created in an ad-hoc manner where different moving
vehicles and other
connecting devices come in contact over a wireless medium and
exchange useful
information to one another
 Whatever information the nodes possess is transferred to all other
nodes. Similarly all
the nodes after transferring their set of data receive the data being
transmitted by
other nodes. After accumulating all of such data, nodes then work to
generate useful
information out of the data and then again transmit the information to
other devices.
 The communication between devices expands in such as way that the
where nodes
are free to join and leave the network i.e. it is an open network.
Smart Phone Ad hoc Network (SPANC) –
 Smartphone ad hoc networks (SPANs) are wireless ad hoc networks
that
use smartphones. Once embedded with ad hoc networking technology,
a group of
smartphones in close proximity can together create an ad hoc network.
 Smart phone ad hoc networks use the existing hardware (primarily
Bluetooth and Wi
Fi) in commercially available smartphones to create peer-to-peer
networks without
relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or traditional
network
infrastructure.
 Here peers can join or leave the network without destroying it.
Flying Ad hoc Network (FANETs) – This is composed of
unmanned aerial vehicles
(commonly known as drones). Provides links to remote areas and
mobility.

6. Explain utp
1. Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP)

 Unshielded twisted pair :

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone wire. Office
buildings, by
universal practice, are prewired with excess unshielded twisted pair,
more than is
needed for simple telephone support.
 This is the least expensive of all the transmission media commonly
used for local area
networks and is easy to work with and easy to install.
 Unshielded twisted pair is subject to external electromagnetic
interference, including
interference from nearby twisted pair and from noise generated in the
environment.
Q3.Do as directed

1. Explain ip addres with its class.

IP Address
 IP address” is a shorter way of saying “Internet Protocol address.” IP
addresses are
the numbers assigned to computer network interfaces. Although we use
names to
refer to the things we seek on the Internet, such as www.example.org,
computers
translate these names into numerical addresses so they can send data to
the right
location. So when you send an email, visit a web site, or participate in a
video
conference, your computer sends data packets to the IP address of the
other end of
the connection and receives packets destined for its own IP address.
 IP Addressing system is divided into five classes of IP Addresses. All the
five classes are
identified by the first octet of IP Address

Class A Address
 This class is for very large network such as a major international
company might have.
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (Zero). Thus the first octet
ranges from
1 to 126.
 First octet indicates Network address and last three octet indicates
host address.
 Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only.
 Class A IP address format is this:
0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
2. Define url explain type of url
URL and URL types (Absolute, Relative)
 URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. Any internet location
available on server
is called a web URL, web address or website.
 Each website or webpage has a unique address called URL.
 type: It specifies the type of the server in which the file is located.
 address: It specifies the address or location of the internet server.
 path: It specifies the location of the file on the internet server.
 Types of URL: URL gives the address of files created for webpages
or other
documents like an image, pdf for a doc file, etc.
 There are two types of URL:
 Absolute URL
 Relative URL
 Absolute URL: This type of URL contains both the domain name
and directory/page
path. An absolute URL gives complete location information. It begins
with a protocol
like “http://” and continues, including every detail.
 Relative URL: This type of URL contains the path excluding the
domain name.
Relative means “in relation to”, and a relative URL tells a URL location on
terms of
the current location. Relative path is used for reference to a given link of
a file that
exist within the same domain.
 For example, /images/img.jpg is telling the browser to go to the
domain, then look
for the images folder, then find the img.jpg file inside the images folder.
If you
update your domain your /images/img.jpg link does not need to be
updated
3. write diff between http and https
Difference between http and https
 HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol and HTTPS stands for
HyperText Transfer
Protocol Secure.
 In HTTP, URL begins with “http://” whereas URL starts with “https://”
 HTTP uses port number 80 for communication and HTTPS uses 443
 HTTP is considered to be insecure and HTTPS is secure
 HTTP Works at Application Layer and HTTPS works at Transport Layer
 In HTTP, Encryption is absent and Encryption is present in HTTPS as
discussed above
 HTTP does not require any certificates and HTTPS needs SSL
Certificates
 HTTP speed is faster than HTTPS and HTTPS speed is slower than HTTP
 HTTP does not improve search ranking while HTTPS improves search
ranking.
 HTTP does not use data hashtags to secure data, while HTTPS will have
the data
before sending it and return it to its original state on the receiver side
4. Explain SSl And FTP in detail. U-4
SSL
 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) provides security to the data that is
transferred between
web browser and server. SSL encrypts the link between a web server and
a
browser which ensures that all data passed between them remain
private and free
from attack.
Secure Socket Layer Protocols:
 SSL record protocol
 Handshake protocol
 Change-cipher spec protocol
 Alert protocol
SSL Protocol Stack:

SSL Record Protocol:

 SSL Record provides two services to SSL connection.
o Confidentiality
o Message Integrity
 In the SSL Record Protocol application data is divided into fragments.
The fragment
is compressed and then encrypted MAC (Message Authentication Code)
generated
by algorithms like SHA (Secure Hash Protocol) and MD5 (Message Digest)
is
appended. After that encryption of the data is done and in last SSL
header is
appended to the data.
FTP
 FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
 FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for
transmitting the
files from one host to another.
 It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator
to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
 It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
 It provides the sharing of files.
 It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
 It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
There are two types of connections in:

 Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple

rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command
or line of response at a time. The control connection is made between
the control
processes. The control connection remains connected during the entire
interactive
FTP session.
 Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as
data types may
vary. The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The
data
connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and
closes
when the file is transferred.
5. Explain working of email
Working of E-mail
 Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the
mailer i.e. the
mail application or mail program and server is a device that manages
emails.
 Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in
sending and
receiving emails and will give you a better understanding of working of
email system:
o Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
o Person A composes the messages using a mailer program(MUA – Mail
User
Agent) i.e. mail client and then select Send option.
o MUA push the mail using Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to sender
mail server.
o For example : Suppose person A’s mail address is [email protected] and
send
mail to Person B’s mail id [email protected]. So mail first push to sender
mail
server that is gmail server.
o That mail received by MSA (Mail submission Agent) at person A’s mail
server
and then send to MTA(Mail Transmission Agent) using Simple Mail
Transfer
Protocol.
o MSA and MTA are type of software installed at server. MSA is used to
check
error(mail id is correct or not etc.) in mail.
o The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to
MTA at person B’s
mail server.
o Then MTA at receiver side send mail to MDA (Mail Delivery Agent)
using SMTP
protocol and MDA store that mail to mailbox.
o Now, to read mail, MUA at receiver side use Post Office protocol
version
3(POP3) or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).
o This message is now stored on person B’s PC.
 The following diagram gives pictorial representation of the steps
discussed above:
6. What is email?Explain smtp protocol in detail
Concept of email
 Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic
mode over the
internet. It offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of
distributing
information among people.
SMTP
 SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
 SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to
transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol.
 It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users
based on e-mail
addresses.
 It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different
computers, and it
also supports:
o It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
o Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
o It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet
 The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules
between servers.
The servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing what
kind of
communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way of
handling the
errors such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient
address is wrong,
then receiving server reply with an error message of some kind.

Q4.short note.

1. Architecture of internet.
 Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a
congregation of thousands
of distinct networks interacting with a common protocol. In simple
terms, it is
referred as an internetwork that is connected using protocols. Protocol
used is
TCP/IP. This protocol connects any two networks that differ in hardware,
software
and design.
 TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every node on
one network
has the ability to communicate with any other node on the network.
 Layers of Internet Architecture
 Internet architecture consists of three layers −

IP
 In order to communicate, we need our data to be encapsulated as
Internet Protocol
(IP) packets. These IP packets travel across number of hosts in a network
through
routing to reach the destination. However IP does not support error
detection and
error recovery, and is incapable of detecting loss of packets.
TCP
 TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol". It provides end to end
transmission of
data, i.e., from source to destination. It is a very complex protocol as it
supports
recovery of lost packets.
Application Protocol
 Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer which has
different
protocols on which the internet services are built. Some of the examples
of internet
services include email (SMTP facilitates email feature), file transfer (FTP
facilitates file
transfer feature), etc.

2. Types of network.
2. Types Of Network According to Role
 According to role networks are divide into three types.
o Peer to peer network (peer based network)
o Client server network (Server based network)
o Hybrid network
Peer Based Network
 Peer network has no server and use the network to share resources
among
independent system. Peer network are defined by a lack of central
control over the
network.
 There is no server in peer network so that user simply shares disk
space and resources
as they want.
 These networks are organized into work group. The workgroup have
very little
security control. There is no central login process.
 If user wants to use any resource on the network then he has to log
into one system
on the network.
 User shares the individual resources because there is no central
security but user will
have to know the individual password for each secure shared resources.
 Advantages
o These types of computers are used specially for small business
because they
could not afford to invest in expensive server hardware and software.
o No extra investment in server hardware and software.
o Easy setup.
o Little administration required.
o Ability of users to control resource sharing.
o Lower cost for small network.
 Disadvantage
o Additional load on computers because of resource sharing.
o Inability to handle as many networks connection as server.
o Lack of central organization which can make finding of data very hard.
o No central point of storage for file.
o Weak security.
o In the peer network, it is difficult to work with large number of
system
Server Based Network
 Server based network also called as client server network. It is defined
by a dedicated
or non-dedicated server on a network.
 It provides security and resources on the network.
 This network divides the processing task between the client and
servers. Client called
as front end that requires the services such as file storage and printing
same as server
is also called as back end because it gives response to the client request
and delivered
their services.
 Server computers are more powerful than client computers.
 Server based network are organized into active directory domain.
Domains are
collection of networks and share the security information.
 Computer user cannot access the resources of server in a domain until
a domain
controller has given the permission.
 Advantages
o It provides strong central security.
o It provides central file storage which allows all users to work from the
same set
of data.
o It provides easy back up of critical data.
o It has the ability to share expensive equipment such as lesser printer,
scanner
etc.
o It provides a better security because a single password allows access
to all
shared resources on the network.
o Easy manage the system of a large number of users.
 Disadvantages
o Expensive dedicated hardware.
o Expensive network operating system and software.
o Require a dedicated network administration.
Hybrid Network
 Hybrid network have active directory domain and work group. It is a
client server
network and also it has peer sharing resources. So most of the networks
are hybrid
network.
 Hybrid network share the resources that are located on the server and
the user
access to any resources being shared by peer to peer network.
 Advantages
o It is server based networking and peer based network also. So it
shares the
advantages of server based network and peer to peer network.
 Disadvantages
o Hybrid network share the disadvantages of server based network

3. FANET.
FANET stands for "Flying Ad-Hoc Network." It is a specialized
type of ad-hoc network that is designed to support
communication among unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also
known as drones. FANETs are essential in scenarios where
multiple drones need to communicate with each other, share
data, or coordinate their actions while flying.

Here are some key characteristics and aspects of FANETs:

1. **Ad-Hoc Networking:** FANETs are ad-hoc networks,
which means they are decentralized and self-configuring.
Drones within the network can dynamically establish and
maintain connections with each other without relying on a
fixed infrastructure like traditional cellular networks.

2. **Communication Protocols:** FANETs use specialized

communication protocols to facilitate data exchange among
UAVs. These protocols need to consider the challenges of
aerial communication, such as signal interference, varying
altitudes, and high mobility.

3. **Applications:** FANETs have various applications,

including search and rescue operations, surveillance,
environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, and package
delivery. Drones can work together in a FANET to cover larger
areas and perform tasks more efficiently.

4. **Challenges:** Operating a FANET presents several

challenges, including maintaining connectivity in a dynamic
and potentially hostile environment, ensuring the security of
data transmission, and optimizing routing algorithms to
minimize latency and energy consumption.

5. **Safety:** Safety is a critical concern in FANETs, especially

in scenarios involving a large number of drones sharing the
same airspace. Collision avoidance mechanisms and robust
communication protocols are crucial to ensure safe drone
operations.

6. **Emerging Technologies:** Advances in technology, such

as improved communication hardware, more efficient energy
management systems, and autonomous navigation
capabilities, are helping to make FANETs more practical and
reliable.
FANETs are a significant area of research and development in
the field of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and have the
potential to revolutionize various industries by enabling
efficient and cooperative drone operations.