ROFEL BBA & BCA College, VAPI

Unit-2
Internet and
Intranet
503 NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES

Asst. Prof. Zinkal Patel

ROFEL BBA & BCA COLLEGE VAPI
Unit-2 Internet and Intranet

2.1 Concepts of Internet and Intranet

2.1.1 Working of Internet and its architecture
2.1.2 Working of Intranet and its architecture
2.1.3 Network Devices terminologies:
Hub, Modem, Switch, Routers, Gateways, Access point
2.2 Types of Cables: co-axial, UTP, Fiber Optic cable

Working of Internet and its architecture

 Internet is called as network of network. It is a global communication system that
links together thousands of individual networks.
 Internet is a collection of interlinked computer networks, connected by wired or It can
be wireless also. Here all the computers in network connected virtually.
 These connections allow users to interchange messages, to communicate in real time,
to share data and programs and to access limitless information
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address
so that user can locate a computer by a name.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Advantages:
 E-mail: Email is now an essential communication tools in business. With e-mail you
can send and receive instant electronic messages, which work like writing letters.
Your messages are delivered instantly to people anywhere in the world, unlike
traditional mail that takes a lot of time. Email is free, fast and very cheap when
compared to telephone, fax and postal services.

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 24 hours a day - 7 days a week: Internet is available, 24x7 days for usage.

 Information: Information is probably the biggest advantage Internet is offering. There

is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about every subject,
ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market
information, new ideas and technical support.
 You can almost find any type of data on almost any kind of subject that you are
looking for by using search engines like google, yahoo, msn, etc.

 Online Chat: You can access many ‘chat rooms’ on the web that can be used to meet
new people, make new friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends. You can
chat in MSN and yahoo websites.

 Services: Many services are provided on the internet like net banking, job searching,
purchasing tickets, hotel reservations, guidance services on array of topics engulfing
every aspect of life.

 E-commerce: Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also shop
online. There are many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products
as well as buy them using your credit card. You do not need to leave your house and
can do all your shopping from the convenience of your home. It has got a real
amazing and wide range of products from household needs, electronics to
entertainment.

 Entertainment: Internet provides facility to access wide range of Audio/Video songs,

plays films. Many of which can be downloaded. One such popular website is YouTube.

 Software Downloads: You can freely download innumerable, softwares like utilities,
games, music, videos, movies, etc from the Internet.

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Limitations of Internet
 Theft of Personal information: Electronic messages sent over the Internet can be
easily snooped and tracked, revealing who is talking to whom and what they are
talking about.
 If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your name, address, credit
card, bank details and other information can be accessed by unauthorized persons.

 Internet addiction: There is some controversy over whether it is possible to actually

be addicted to the Internet or not. Some researchers, claim that it is simply people
trying to escape their problems in an online world.

 Virus threat: Today, not only are humans getting viruses, but computers are also.
Computers are mainly getting these viruses from the Internet. Virus is a program
which disrupts the normal functioning of your computer systems.

Use of internet in various fields

1. Education and Learning
a. Research: The internet has tones of information. It allows us to locate
information on the subject we are researching.
b. Distance learning: Distance learning is a new learning methodology. Computer
plays the key role in this kind of learning. Many institutes are providing distance
learning programs. The student does not need to come to the institute. The
institute provides the reading material and the student attends virtual
classroom. In virtual classroom, the teacher delivers lecture at his own
workplace. The student can attend the lecture at home by connecting to a
network. The student can also ask questions to the teacher.
c. Computer aided learning: Computer aided learning is the process of using
information technology to help teaching and enhance the learning process. The

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use of computer can reduce the time that is spent on preparing teaching
material. It can also reduce the administrative load of teaching and research.
The use of multimedia projector and PowerPoint presentations has improved
the quality of teaching. It has also helped the learning process.
d. Online Examination: The trend of online examination is becoming popular.
Different examination like GRE, GMAT and SAT are conducted online all over
the world. The questions are marked by computer. It minimizes the chance of
mistakes. It also enables to announce the result in time.
2. Entertainment
a. Musical Entertainment: There are lots of websites that provide free music to all
the people online. They also provide free music files which can be downloaded
or can be purchased online.
b. Free videos and movies: Videos either as video clips or as full length movies are
one of the most common methods of entertainment on the internet.
c. Online Games: Online computer games are another source of entertainment
on the internet.
3. Business
a. Marketing: An organization can use computers for marketing their products.
Marketing applications provide information about the products to customers.
b. Stock Exchange: Stock Exchange is the most important place for businessmen.
Many stock exchanges use computers to conduct bids. The stockbrokers
perform all trading activities electronically.
c. Advertising: Business also use the internet to find new customers through
online advertising.
4. Communication
a. Blogging: A blog is used as a communication platform to interact with people.
Internet has made this possible.

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b. Social Networking: Social networking has created new ways to communicate

and share information from all around the world. People can chat in different
chatting software.
c. E-mail: Electronic mail or e-mail is a electronic way of keeping in touch with
someone. Email can be read anywhere and sent from anywhere.
5. Other Miscellaneous Field
a. Online Banking: Online banking is also known as internet banking, e-banking or
virtual banking. It is an electronic payment system that enables customers of a
bank or other financial institution to conduct a range of financial transactions
through the financial institution’s website.
b. Online Booking: Online booking is a convenient way of finding and booking
your flights, hotels, movie tickets etc over the internet.
c. Online Shopping: Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which
allow consumers to directly buy goods or services from a seller over the
internet using a web browser.

Internet Architecture
 Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a congregation of thousands
of distinct networks interacting with a common protocol. In simple terms, it is
referred as an internetwork that is connected using protocols. Protocol used is
TCP/IP. This protocol connects any two networks that differ in hardware, software
and design.
 TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every node on one network
has the ability to communicate with any other node on the network.
 Layers of Internet Architecture
 Internet architecture consists of three layers −

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IP
 In order to communicate, we need our data to be encapsulated as Internet Protocol
(IP) packets. These IP packets travel across number of hosts in a network through
routing to reach the destination. However IP does not support error detection and
error recovery, and is incapable of detecting loss of packets.

TCP
 TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol". It provides end to end transmission of
data, i.e., from source to destination. It is a very complex protocol as it supports
recovery of lost packets.

Application Protocol
 Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer which has different
protocols on which the internet services are built. Some of the examples of internet
services include email (SMTP facilitates email feature), file transfer (FTP facilitates file
transfer feature), etc.

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Working of intranet and its architecture

 The intranet is a private network that belongs to a particular organization. It is
designed for the exclusive use of an organization and its associates, such as
employees, customers, and other authorized people.
 It offers a secure platform to convey information and share data with authorized
users. Confidential information, database, links, forms, and applications can be made
available to the staff through the intranet.
 So, it is like a private internet or an internal website that is operating within an
organization to provide its employees access to its information and records. Each
computer in intranet is identified by a unique IP Address.
 It is based on internet protocols (TCP/IP) and is protected from unauthorized access
with firewalls and other security systems. The firewall monitors the incoming and
outgoing data packets to ensure they don't contain unauthorized requests.
 So, users on the intranet can access the internet, but the internet users can't access
the intranet if they are not authorized for it. Furthermore, to access the intranet, the
authorized user is required to be connected to its LAN (Local Area Network).
 Intranet basically comprises three components: a web server, an intranet platform,
and applications. The web server is hardware that contains all the intranet software
and data. It manages all requests for files hosted over the server and finds the
requested files and then delivers it to the user's computer.

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 The intranet platform, which is software, allows communication tools, collaboration

apps, and databases to work seamlessly with each other. It is tailored to the specific
needs of a business.
 The applications are required to enable users to work smoothly. They are the
computing tools that allow users to do their work, communicate, and coordinate with
each other and retrieve and store information.

Advantages:
 It is cheap and easy to implement and run, and is more safe than the internet
and extranet.
 It streamlines communication that enables the company to share its data,
information, and other resources among employees without any delay. The entire
staff can receive company's announcements, ask questions, and access internal
documents.
 It provides a secure space to store and develop applications to support business
operations.
 It improves the efficiency of the company by speeding up workflow and reducing
errors. Thus, it helps achieve targets by completing the tasks on time.
 It offers a testing platform for new ideas before they are uploaded on the company's
internet webpage. Thus, it helps maintain the credibility of the company
 Information is shared in real-time, or updates are reflected immediately to all the
authorized users.
 Modern intranets also offer a mobile app that allows employees to stay connected on
the go.
 It aids in project management and tracking workflow and teams' progress.

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 It can work with mobile devices, which means it can provide information that exists
on intranet directly to mobile devices of employees such as phones, tablets, etc.
 It can also be used to motivate employees, facilitate employee recognition, and to
reward them for performing beyond expectations.

Disadvantages:
 It may be costly to set up an Intranet due to hidden costs and complexity.
 If the firewall does not work properly or not installed, it can be hacked by someone
 High-security passwords are required, which cannot be guessed by outside users
 There is always a fear of losing control over the intranet
 Sometimes document duplication may happen which can cause confusion among
employees
 You have to give access to multiple users, so you may find it hard to control this
network.

Network Devices terminologies

Hub
 Hub is actually a multi-port repeater. It is normally used to create connections
between stations in a physical star topology.
 Hub can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy as shown in following
figure.

 Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling. In addition to ports

for connecting computers, even an inexpensive hub generally has a port designated

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as an uplink port that enables the hub to be connected to another hub to create
larger networks.
 The most hubs are referred to a either active or passive. Active hub regenerate a
signal before forwarding it to all the ports on the device and requires a power supply.
Small workgroup hubs normally use an external power adapter but on larger units the
power supply is built in.
 Network with Passive hub are older networks, do not need power and they do not
regenerate the data signal.
 Basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected devices and forward
it to all the other ports on the hub. This method of operation is inefficient because in
most cases the data is intended for only one of the connected devices.

Modem

 Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator. Modems perform

a simple function. They translate digital signals from a computer into analog signals
that can travel across conventional phone lines. The modem modulates the signal at
the sending end and demodulates at the receiving end.
 Modem are available as internal devices that plug into expansion slots in a system and
external devices that plug into serial or USB ports. In addition, many laptops now
come with integrated modems.
 Modem speeds can be expressed in either baud rate or bits per second(bps). The
baud rate refers to the number of times a signal changes in each second and the bps
rate is the number of bits of data that can be send or received in a second.

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Switch
 A switch looks much like a hub. Switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far
more desirable.
 As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair cable.
Multiple switches are often interconnected to create larger networks.
 Hub forwards data to all ports, regardless of whether the data in intended for the
system connected to the port. This arrangement is inefficient; however it requires
little intelligence on the part of the hub, which is why hubs are inexpensive.
 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to
the port on which the destination system is connected. Following figure illustrate how
switch works.

Router

 Routers are multiport devices and more sophisticated as compared to repeaters and
bridges. Routers also support filtering and encapsulation like bridges. They operate at
physical, data link and network layer of OSI model.
 Like bridges, they are self-learning, as they can communicate their existence to other
devices and can learn of the existence of new routers, nodes and LAN segments.

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 A router has access to the network layer address or logical address (IP address). It
contains a routing table that enables it to make decisions about the route i.e. to
determine which of several possible paths between the source and destination is the
best for a particular transmission. These routing tables are dynamic and are updated
using routing protocols.
 The routers receive the packets from one connected network and pass them to a
second connected network.
 However, if a received packet contains the address of a node that is on some other
network (of which the router is not a member), the router determines which of its
connected networks is the best next relay point for that packet.
 Once the router has identified the best route for a packet to travel, it passes the
packet along the appropriate network to another router.
 That router checks the destination address, find what it considers the best route for
the packet and passes it to the destination network.
 TCP/IP , IPX/SPX, AppleTalk are e.g of protocols that is used by routers.

Types of Router :
 There are several types of router in the market.
 Broadband Router :
 Broadband routers can do different types of things. Broadband routers can be used to
connect computers or to connect to the Internet.
 Wireless Router :
 Wireless routers create a wireless signal in your home or office. So, any PC within
range of Wireless routers can connect it and use your Internet.
 In order to secure your Wireless routers, you simply need to come secure it with
password or get your IP address.

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Gateway
 Gateway is used to forward the packets which are intended for remote network from
local network.
 Till host is configured with default gateway address, every packet should have default
gateway address.
 A default gateway address is the address of gateway device. If packet does not find its
destination address in local network then it would take the help of gateway device to
find the destination address in remote network.
 A gateway device knows the path of remote destination address. If require, it also
change the encapsulation of packet so it can travel in other network to get its
destination address.

Access Point
 An access point is a device that creates a wireless local area network, or WLAN,
usually in an office or large building.
 An access point connects to a wired router, switch, or hub via an Ethernet cable, and
projects a Wi-Fi signal to a designated area.
 For example, if you want to enable Wi-Fi access in your company's reception area but
don’t have a router within range, you can install an access point near the front desk
and run an Ethernet cable through the ceiling back to the server room.

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 Most access points have built-in routers, while others must be connected to a router
in order to provide network access. In either case, access points are typically
hardwired to other devices, such as network switches or broadband modems.
 Access points can be found in many places, including houses, businesses, and public
locations.
 In most houses, the access point is a wireless router, which is connected to
a DSL or cable modem. However, some modems may include wireless capabilities,
making the modem itself the access point. Large businesses often provide several
access points, which allows employees to wirelessly connect to a central network
from a wide range of locations.
 Public access points can be found in stores, coffee shops, restaurants, libraries, and
other locations. Some cities provide public access points in the form of wireless
transmitters that are connected to streetlights, signs, and other public objects.
 While access points typically provide wireless access to the Internet, some are intended
only to provide access to a closed network.
 For example, a business may provide secure access points to its employees so they
can wirelessly access files from a network server.
 Also, most access points provide Wi-Fi access, but it is possible for an access point to
refer to a Bluetooth device or other type of wireless connection. However, the purpose
of most access points is to provide Internet access to connected users.
 The term "access point" is often used synonymously with base station, though base
stations are technically only Wi-Fi devices. It may also be abbreviated AP or WAP (for
wireless access point). However, WAP is not as commonly used as AP since WAP is the
standard acronym for Wireless Access Protocol.

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Types of Cables
Introduction to Guided Transmission Media
 Transmission media is a path that carries the information from sender to
receiver. We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.
 Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic signals.
 These signals can be transmitted through copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere,
water and vacuum.
 Different Medias have different properties like
o Bandwidth
o Delay
o Cost
o Ease of installation
o Maintenance
 Transmission media is also called Communication channel.
 Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
1. wired or guided media or bound transmission media
2. wireless or unguided media or unbound transmission media

Transmissio
n media

Unguided
Guided Media
Media

Twisted Coaxial Fiber Radio Microwav Infrare

Pair Cable Optics Wave e d

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Guided Media
 Guided media, which are those that provide a channel from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
 Transmission capacity depends critically on the medium, the length, and whether the
medium is point-to-point or multipoint (e.g. LAN).
 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted Pair Cable

Function
 The least-expensive and most widely-used guided transmission medium is twisted
pairs. A twister pair consists of two conductors (normally copper) .Each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together as shown in fig :

 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as
a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
 In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in
both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the
receiver.

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 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one
wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the
reverse is true.
 Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference
between the two, receives no unwanted signals.
 The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear
that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality
of the cable.

Characteristics
 Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital transmission. For analog
signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km.
 For digital transmission (using either analog or digital signals), repeaters are required
every 2 or 3 km.
 Compared to other commonly used guided transmission media (coaxial cable, optical
fiber), twisted pair is limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate.
 For point-to-point analog signaling, a bandwidth of up to about 1 MHz is possible. This
accommodates a number of voice channels.
 For long-distance digital point-to-point signaling, data rates of up to a few Mbps are
possible; for very short distances.
Applications
 These are popular for telephone network. Metallic wires were used in

telecommunication networks.
 Twisted pair is also commonly used within a building for local area networks
supporting personal computers.

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Type
 There are two types of twisted pair cable :
1. Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP)
2. Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP)

 Unshielded twisted pair :

 The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone wire. Office buildings, by
universal practice, are prewired with excess unshielded twisted pair, more than is
needed for simple telephone support.
 This is the least expensive of all the transmission media commonly used for local area
networks and is easy to work with and easy to install.
 Unshielded twisted pair is subject to external electromagnetic interference, including
interference from nearby twisted pair and from noise generated in the environment.

 Shielded twisted pair :

 IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded
twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors.
 This shielded twisted pair (STP) provides better performance at higher data rates.
However, it is more expensive and more difficult to work with than unshielded
twisted pair.

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 Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of
noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

Advantages
 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions.
 Least expensive for short distances.
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged.

Disadvantages
 Signal cannot travel long distance without repeaters.
 High error rate for distances greater than 100m.
 Attenuation is very high.
 Very thin and hence break easily.
 Not suitable for broadband connections.

Coaxial Cable
Function
 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
 Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an
outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

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Characteristics
 Coaxial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Coaxial cable has
frequency characteristics that are superior to those of twisted pair, and can hence be
used effectively at higher frequencies and data rates.
 Because of its shielded, concentric construction, coaxial cable is much less susceptible
to interference and crosstalk than twisted pair.
 For long-distance transmission of analog signals, amplifiers are needed every few
kilometers, with closer spacing required if higher frequencies are used. The usable
spectrum for analog signaling extends to about 500 MHz.
 For digital signaling, repeaters are needed every kilometer or so, with closer spacing
needed for higher data rates

Applications
 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone
networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with
fiber-optic cable.

 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most
of the media with fiber-optic cable.
 Hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer
premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
 Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs. Because
of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for
digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs.

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 The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable transmit data at 10 Mbps
with a range of 185 m.
 The lOBase5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps
with a range of 5000 m.

Type
 There are two types of coaxial cable
1. Baseband
2. Broadband
 Baseband: It transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed. The signal on
baseband cable must be amplified at a specified distances. It is used for local area
networks.
 Broadband: It can transmit many simultaneous signals using different frequencies.

Advantages
 This cable is able to transmit data at higher rates.
 It can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 It offers higher bandwidth as compared to twisted pair cable and can span longer
distances.
 Because of better shielding in coaxial cable, loss of signal or attenuation is less.
 Better shielding also offers good noise immunity.
 It is relatively inexpensive as compared to optical fibers.
 It has lower error rates as compared to twisted pair.
 It is not as easy to tap as twisted pair because copper wire is contained in plastic
jacket.

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Disadvantage
 It is usually more expensive than twisted pair.
 High installation cost.
 High maintenance cost.

Fiber Optics Cable

 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 Following are some several aspects of the nature of light.
o Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance.
o If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
 Following figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a more
dense to a less dense substance.

Figure : Bending of light ray

 As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line
perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical
angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the
interface. If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn)
and travels again in the denser substance.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of

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the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is
reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it as shown in following
figure.

Propagation Modes
 Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for
propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical
characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two forms:
o step-index

o graded-index

Multi Mode
 Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the
structure of the core, as shown in following figure.
 There are two type of fiber optics mode :
1. multimode step index fiber

2. multimode graded index fiber

 In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight
line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.

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 At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle
of the beam's motion.
 The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the
distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
 A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion
of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction.
As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density.
 A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the
center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Following Figure
shows the impact of this variable density on the propagation of light beams.

Single Mode
 Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single mode fiber,
itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber,
and with substantially lower density (index of refraction).
 The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make
the propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different
beams is almost identical, and delays are negligible.
 All the beams arrive at the destination "together" and can be recombined with little
distortion to the signal as shown in following figure.

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Advantages
 Fiber optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable. (twisted pair or coaxial
cable).
 Higher Bandwidth : fiber optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths than
either twisted pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization
over fiber optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and
reception technology available.
 Less Signal attenuation :fiber optic transmission distance is significantly greater than
that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring
regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted pair cable.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference :electromagnetic noise can not affect fiber
optic cables.
 Resistance to corrosive materials : glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper.
 Light weight: Fiber-Optic cable are much lighter than copper cables.

Disadvantages
 Installation and maintenance :Fiber optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
 Unidirectional light propagation : Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication two fibers are needed.
 Cost:The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber
cannot be justified.

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