The OSI, or Open SystemInterconnection, model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in seven

layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to

the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't do any functions in the

networking process, It is a conceptual framework so we can better understand complex interactions that are

happening. The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up into what is referred to as avertical

stack that consists of the following layers.

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Physical (Layer 1)
This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the network at the electrical and

mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining

cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and

management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is

divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The

MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The

LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame

Relay.

Network (Layer 3)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for

transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well

as addressing,internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

Transport (Layer 4)
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end

error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

Session (Layer 5)
This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up,

coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals

with session and connection coordination.

Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

Presentation (Layer 6)
This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from

application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the

application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom

from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.

Application (Layer 7)
This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are identified, quality of service is

identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.

Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers,e-mail, and

other network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered

application architectures are part of this layer.

n Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model lesson, you will learn about the seven layers of
OSI model and their functions

If network communications need to happen with out any trouble, many problems must be solved. Coordinating
all these problems are so complex and not easy to manage. To make these tasks smooth, in 1977 the
International Standards Organization (ISO) proposed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model breaks down the problems involved in moving data from one
computer to another computer. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model categorizes these hundreds of
problems to Seven Layers. A layer in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a portion that is used to
categorize specific problems.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Seven Layered reference model is only just a reference model. All the
problems which are related to the communications are answered by specific protocols operating at different
layers. The following image shows the seven layers described in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

Layer 1. Physical Layer

The first layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is called the Physical
layer. Physical circuits are created on the physical layer of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
Physical layers describe the electrical or optical signals used for communication. Physical layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is only concerned with the physical characteristics of electrical or optical
signaling techniques which includes the voltage of the electrical current used to transport the signal, the media
type (Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Optical Fiber etc), impedance characteristics, physical shape of the connector,
Synchronization etc. The Physical Layer is limited to the processes needed to place the communication signals
over the media, and to receive signals coming from that media. The lower boundary of the physical layer of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the physical connector attached to the transmission media.
Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model does not include the transmission media.
Transmission media stays outside the scope of the Physical Layer and are also referred to as Layer 0 of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model.

Layer 2. Datalink Layer

The second layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is called the
Datalink layer. The Data Link layer resides above the Physical layer and below the Network layer. Datalink
layer is responsible for providing end-to-end validity of the data being transmitted. The Data Link Layer is
logically divided into two sublayers, The Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer and the Logical Link Control
(LLC) Sublayer.

Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer determines the physical addressing of the hosts. The MAC sub-layer
maintains MAC addresses (physical device addresses) for communicating with other devices on the
network. MAC addresses are burned into the network cards and constitute the low-level address used to
determine the source and destination of network traffic. MAC Addresses are also known as Physical addresses,
Layer 2 addresses, or Hardware addresses.

The Logical Link Control sublayer is responsible for synchronizing frames, error checking, and flow control.

Layer 3. Network Layer

The third layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model is the Network
layer. The Network layer of the OSI model is responsible for managing logical addressing information in the
packets and the delivery of those packets to the correct destination. Routers, which are special computers used
to build the network, direct the data packet generated by Network Layer using information stored in a table
known as routing table. The routing table is a list of available destinations that are stored in memory on the
routers. The network layer is responsible for working with logical addresses. The logical addresses are used to
uniquely identify a computer on the network, but at the same time identify the network that system resides on.
The logical address is used by network layer protocols to deliver the packets to the correct network. The
Logical addressing system used in Network Layer is known as IP address.

IP addresses are also known as Logical addresses or Layer 3 addresses.

Layer 4. Transport Layer

The fourth layer of the seven layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network mode is the Transport
layer. The Transport layer handles transport functions such as reliable or unreliable delivery of the data to the
destination. On the sending computer, the transport layer is responsible for breaking the data into smaller
packets, so that if any packet is lost during transmission, the missing packets will be sent again. Missing
packets are determined by acknowledgments (ACKs) from the remote device, when the remote device receives
the packets. At the receiving system, the transport layer will be responsible for opening all of the packets and
reconstructing the original message.

Another function of the transport layer is TCP segment sequencing. Sequencing is a connection-oriented
service that takes TCP segments that are received out of order and place them in the right order.

The transport layer also enables the option of specifying a "service address" for the services or application on
the source and the destination computer to specify what application the request came from and what
application the request is going to.

Many network applications can run on a computer simultaneously and there should be some mechanism to
identify which application should receive the incoming data. To make this work correctly, incoming data from
different applications are multiplexed at the Transport layer and sent to the bottom layers. On the other side of
the communication, the data received from the bottom layers are de-multiplexed at the Transport layer and
delivered to the correct application. This is achieved by using "Port Numbers".

The protocols operating at the Transport Layer, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) uses a mechanism known as " Port Number" to enable multiplexing and de-multiplexing.
Port numbers identify the originating network application on the source computer and destination network
application on the receiving computer.

Layer 5. Session Layer

The position of Session Layer of the Seven Layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is between
Transport Layer and the Presentation Layer. Session layer is the fifth layer of seven layered Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Model. The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating
connections between applications at each end of the communication.

In the connection establishment phase, the service and the rules (who transmits and when, how much data can
be sent at a time etc.) for communication between the two devices are proposed. The participating devices
must agree on the rules. Once the rules are established, the data transfer phase begins. Connection termination
occurs when the session is complete, and communication ends gracefully.

In practice, Session Layer is often combined with the Transport Layer.

Layer 6. Presentation Layer

The position of Presentation Layer in seven layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is just below
the Application Layer. When the presentation layer receives data from the application layer, to be sent over the
network, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format. If it is not, the presentation layer converts the data
to the proper format. On the other side of communication, when the presentation layer receives network data
from the session layer, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format and once again converts it if it is not.

Formatting functions at the presentation layer may include compression, encryption, and ensuring that the
character code set (ASCII, Unicode, EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, which is
used in IBM servers) etc) can be interpreted on the other side.

For example, if we select to compress the data from a network application that we are using, the Application
Layer will pass that request to the Presentation Layer, but it will be the Presentation Layer that does the
compression.

Layer 7. Application Layer

The Application Layer the seventh layer in OSI network model. Application Layer is the top-most layer of the
seven layered Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model. Real traffic data will be often generated
from the Application Layer. This may be a web request generated from HTTP protocol, a command from
telnet protocol, a file download request from FTP protocol etc.

In this lesson (Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model), you have learned what are the
Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model and the functions of these seven layers. The top-
most layer of the Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is the Application Layer and the
bottom-most layer of the Seven Layers of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is Physical Layer. Click
"Next" to Continu

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is reference model for how

applications can communicate over a network. A reference
model is a conceptual framework for understanding
relationships. The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide
vendors and developers so the digital communication products
and software programs they create willinteroperate, and to
facilitate clear comparisons among communications tools. Most
vendors involved in telecommunications make an attempt to
describe their products and services in relation to the OSI model.
And although useful for guiding discussion and evaluation, OSI is
rarely actually implemented, as few network products or
standard tools keep all related functions together in well-defined
layers as related to the model. The TCP/IP protocols, which
define the Internet, do not map cleanly to the OSI model.

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Developed by representatives of major computer and
telecommunication companies beginning in 1983, OSI was
originally intended to be a detailed specification of
actualinterfaces. Instead, the committee decided to establish a
common reference model for which others could then develop
detailed interfaces, which in turn could becomestandards. OSI
was officially adopted as an international standard by the
International Organization of Standards (ISO).

OSI layers

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in
a telecommunication network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related
functions, or layers. Each communicating user or program is at a computer that can
provide those seven layers of function. So in a given message between users, there will
be a flow of data down through the layers in the source computer, across the network and
then up through the layers in the receiving computer. The seven layers of function are
provided by a combination of applications, operating systems, network card device
drivers and networking hardware that enable a system to put a signal on a network cable
or out over Wi-Fi or other wireless protocol).

The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are:

Layer 7: The application layer. This is the layer at which communication partners are
identified (Is there someone to talk to?), network capacity is assessed (Will the network
let me talk to them right now?), and that creates a thing to send or opens the thing
received. (This layer is not theapplication itself, it is the set of services an application
should be able to make use of directly, although some applications may perform
application layer functions.)
 The Layers

Think of the seven layers as the assembly line in the computer. At each layer, certain things happen to
the data that prepare it for the next layer. The seven layers, which separate into two sets, are:
Application Set
 Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the operating system or application
whenever the user chooses to transfer files, read messages or perform other network-related activities.
 Layer 6: Presentation - Layer 6 takes the data provided by the Application layer and converts it into a
standard format that the other layers can understand.
 Layer 5: Session - Layer 5 establishes, maintains and ends communication with the receiving device.
Transport Set
 Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for error checking and
recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means that the Transport layer looks to see if data is
coming from more than one application and integrates each application's data into a single stream for the
physical network.
 Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is determined in this layer.
Logical protocols, routing and addressing are handled here.
 Layer 2: Data - In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to the data. Also, the type of
network and the packet sequencing is defined.
 Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the physical characteristics of the
network such as connections, voltage levels and timing.

The OSI Reference Model is really just a guideline. Actual protocol stacks often combine one or more of
the OSI layers into a single layer.
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