Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

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M.M.Badawy
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

Mahmoud Mostafa Badawy

Assistant Lecturer of Geophysics, Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria
University, Egypt.

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Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is one of the most demanding, fundamental, and interesting of geologic disciplines.
It tries to reconstruct history with a few basic principles, requires both careful observation and
wide-ranging imagination, and involves many individually fascinating sub disciplines. Yet, as the
quotation above shows, this is not how it appears too many people.
Stratigraphy gives you techniques for working out earth history: it integrates diverse materials into
a coherent view of how the earth and its life forms evolved.
Stratigraphy also lets you test ideas on how varying combinations of processes affect the planets
through time. For example, as evidence for continental drift and changing climates.

The basics, needed before starting any stratigraphic studies, involve first being able to:
• Identify and classify minerals, rocks, and fossils accurately.
• Infer the processes that formed the minerals, rocks, and fossils from field and laboratory
studies of the effects of modern physical, chemical, and biological processes.
• Recognize the ancient depositional (and rarely no depositional) environments, by
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comparing the variety, intensity.

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Principal of superposition: Each layer of sedimentary rock (sediment) in a tectonically undisturbed

sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it.
Hutton (1700s): Principle of Uniformitarianism: The processes that shaped Earth throughout
geologic time were the same as those observable today “The present is the key to the past” .
Sometimes there are environments/conditions that do not have good modern analogues.
Walther (1884) Walther’s Law: Only those facies and facies areas can be superimposed primarily
which can be observed beside each other at the present time Only applies to conformable
successions – i.e., no major breaks in sedimentation .Vertical successions do not always reproduce
horizontal sequence of environments.
Stratigraphic surfaces across which there is evidence for a significant time gap:
• Angular unconformities – angular discordance between strata above and below.
• Disconformities – erosion surface shows significant relief, no angular discordance.
• Paraconformities – no relief on erosion surface, no angular discordance.
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• Nonconformities – sedimentary strata above an igneous body.

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S tratigraphy is a branch of geology, which studies rock layers (strata), and layering
(stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
• Lithostratigraphy - units based on lithology
1. Groups ( Two or more formations related lithologically)
2. Formation (Fundamental unit of lithostratigraphic classification)
3. Members ( Subdivisions of formations)
• Biostratigraphy – units based on fossil content
• Magnetostratigraphy – units based on magnetic properties (reversals)
• Chemostratigraphy – based on chemical properties
• Seismic stratigraphy – based on seismic reflections
• Sequence Stratigraphy – based on change in sea level
1. Sea level and sediment supply
2. Consequences of changes in sea level
3. Types of sequences

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L ithostratigraphic nomenclature is hierarchical and can be grouped or

subdivided to define practical mappable units or genetic processes:

• Super Group - The largest formal lithostratigraphic unit combining

two or more Groups. Defined on a practical basis to illustrate a
geologic relationship or process.
• Group – two or more formations that are grouped on a practical basis
to illustrate a geologic relationship or process.
• Formation – the fundamental definable unit in lithostratigraphy that is
distinct and mappable.
• Member - a distinct unit that is locally mappable within a formation
• Bed – the smallest formal unit in lithostratigraphy to identify a bed
that is distinct or economically significant

Lithostratigraphy subdivides and correlates strata based on lithology. A formation is the fundamental unit of
subdivision.
Formations must be: Strengths
• Defined by observable properties and facies
• Lithologically distinct • Applicable to most subsurface and outcrop settings
• Lithology • Nomenclature Hierarchy
• Grain size • Hierarchy provides for genetic definition of genetic
• Sedimentary structures relationships
• Fossils / bioturbation Weakness
• Mappable • Genetic relationships between formations are not apparent
• Nomenclature is not directly linked to process
• Interpretation highly dependent on datum
• Time lines are not apparent

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C hrono-stratigraphic is the subdivision and correlation of strata based on their Age.

Boundaries defined by absolute age:

• Biostratigraphy
• Paleomagnetism
• Isotopes
Boundaries defined by relative age:
• Cross cutting units
• Unconformity relationships
• Marker beds (bentonites)
Strata within boundaries are time
• synchronous

Magneto-stratigraphic:
• Approach based on intermittent, irregular reversal of the polarity of Earth’s magnetic field
• Rocks record field at time of formation (cooling)
• Series of polarity shifts:
• Normal (modern)
• reversed (opposite)

C hemo-stratigraphy or Isotope Stratigraphy

Stratigraphic variations in specific chemical or isotopic characteristics
• Stable isotopes: C (13C), O (18O), S (34S)
• Isotopes: (87Sr/ 86Sr)
• Molecules
• Organic matter
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Bio-stratigraphy (Why microfossils?)

• Large numbers, widespread distribution
• Rapid evolution
• May be separated whole from drill cuttings and cores
• Can commonly be separated from rocks that are otherwise unfossiliferous

Biostratigraphy is the subdivision and correlation of strata based on their fauna or flora.
Five Major classes of micro fauna:
• Spores and Pollen (Flora)
• Organic
• Phosphatic
• Siliceous
• Calcareous

Biozones are strata grouped into stratigraphic units based on the fossils they contain.
Common biozones:
• Interval biozone
• Acme biozone
• Total range biozone
• Assemblage biozone

Paleo-bathymetry - paleo water depth estimated by:

• Microfossil assemblages.
• Key benthonic foraminifers.
• Abundance of planktonic microfossils.

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S eismic Stratighraphy Determine seismic facies: groups of reflectors that have parameters

such as amplitude, frequency & continuity differ from adjacent groups of reflectors.
Grouping of these parameters into mappable seismic facies allows their interpretation in terms of
depositional environment and (maybe) lithology.
The major unconformities and gross morphology of the intervening interval may be difficult to
recognize and map at outcrop, but the products are similar a geologic understanding of how the
basin originated and filled with sediment.
The first phase in seismic stratigraphic studies of a basin fill is to delineate genetically related
units, which are called Depositional Sequences.
Seismic stratigraphy-the study of stratigraphy and depositional facies as interpreted from seismic
data.
Application of seismic/sequence stratigraphic concepts is commonly employed to define basin
evolution, predict lithology and make reasonable assumptions about where barriers and baffles to
fluid flow might exist and what their anticipated dimensions and orientations might be.
Seismic Stratigraphy - What and Why?
What
• Study and interpretation of stratigraphy and depositional facies.
• Based upon sequence stratigraphic concepts, seismic facies patterns, and facies analysis.
Why
• Getting a valuable information about your reservoirs.
• Identify packages of genetically related sediment packages.
• Identify the depositional environment and geometry of the reservoirs.
• Structural and stratigraphic framework used to create subsurface model.
• Method to integrate all forms of geological and reservoir information.
• Can be used to determine burial history and hydrocarbon potential.

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Seismic Facies Parameters: Seismic facies: the group of reflections bounded by top and base
boundaries.
Seismic facies parameters are: Facies Parameters Geologic Interpretation

• Reflection configuration Reflection Configuration Bedding patterns

• Reflection amplitude Depositional processes
• Frequency Fluid contacts
• Continuity
Reflection Continuity Bedding continuity
• Interval velocity Depositional processes
Reflection Amplitude AI contrast
Bed thickness (tuning)
Fluid content
Reflection Frequency Bed thickness
Fluid content
Interval Velocity Lithology
LithologyEstimation
Porosity estimation
Fluid content
Pressure
External Form and Linkages of Depositional environment
Facies Units Sediment source
Geologic Setting

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Amplitude:
• Quantified as high, medium or low
• High amplitudes imply rapidly alternating environments e.g. turbidites
• Low amplitudes imply unchanging environments e.g. chalk
• Dependent on reflection coefficient and hence on acoustic impedance contrast and thus
the velocities and densities on either side of the boundary
• May be lost in processing
• Caution also with tuning, multiples, etc.
• Changes in amplitude can indicate unconformities

Continuity:
• Lateral persistence of a reflection
• Continuous reflections are characteristic of
uniform conditions e.g. deep water
• Discontinuous reflections are characteristic of environments with rapid lateral facies
change e.g. fluvial, alluvial

• Baselap: Onlap & Downlap

• Onlap is baselap in which an initially sub-horizontal strata lap against a previously
inclined surface
• Downlap is baselap in which initially inclined strata terminates down dip
• Both indicate non-depositional hiatuses
• Toplap: is lapout at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence and is a form of offlap
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indicates non-depositional hiatus

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Erosional truncation: lateral termination by erosion at upper boundary of sequence

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Sequence Stratigraphy

• Vail (1987) - defines a sequence as a {Body of sediment deposited during a cycle of

eustatic sea level changes starting and ending near the inflection points on the falling
limb of the sea level curve}.
• Mitchum (1987) defines a sequence as a conformable succession of genetically related
strata bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities.
• To define a sequence we look for the seismic expression of a sedimentary unit bound by
unconformities created by erosion or non-deposition and containing a lowstand (LST) or
shelf margin (SMST), transgressive (TST), and a highstand (HST) set of deposits or
system tracts.

• The original intent of sequence stratigraphy was to increase the ability to predict
hydrocarbon occurrence in the subsurface of frontier areas.
• It helps us in understanding stratigraphic relationships by providing a stratigraphic
hierarchy based on observational criteria.
• Physical description and geometric relations of seismic reflections or rock units guide
interpretation of the rock record, not conceptual models of sea-level variation or age-
duration.
• System tracts provide a natural scheme to classify reservoirs.
• It assists in providing a geologic frame in which to create play maps that depict spatial
and temporal stratigraphic variation in terms of gross depositional environment setting.
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Sequence Stratigraphy:
It is study of rock relationships within a time
stratigraphic framework of repetitive genetically
related strata bounded by chronostratigraphic
Surfaces (sequence boundary, maximum flooding
surface, transgressive surface).

• Depositional Sequence-succession of relatively

conformable genetically related strata bounded by
unconformities or their correlative conformities.
• Sequence Boundary-surface matching unconformity or
conformity after sea level drop.
SB
• Condensed sections: formed sections at very low
sedimentation rate with high abundance and diversity of
Fossils. SB
• Maximum flooding surface the maximum landward
advance of the shoreline.
Condensed Section

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Walther’s law (1984):

• “The vertical succession of conformable facies is commonly the same as the lateral order
of their depositional environments.”

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• A Sequence is a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively conformable succession of

genetically related strata bounded at its top and base by unconformities or their
correlative conformities (Mitchum et al., [Exxon] 1977).
• Galloway (1989) emphasized the Maximum Flooding surface rather than unconformities
as the practical boundary for depositional sequences.

System Tracts: three-dimensional assemblage of lithofacies, genetically linked by active

(modern) of inferred (ancient) processes & environments.

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Systems Tracts - SB

Systems Tracts - LST

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Systems Tracts - TST

Systems Tracts - MFS

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Systems Tracts - HST

• High quality, high-resolution seismic data. Seismic sequence stratigraphy enhanced our
geological and geophysical interpretations by providing a greater understanding of
geological processes and their sedimentary deposits.
• Biostratigraphy with more accurate time subdivisions, for identifying critical sequence
boundaries established on the global sea level versus time chart. The statistical compilation
of fossil abundances and diversities greatly enhanced the picking of condensed sections.
• Identification of precise paleo water depths from microfossils, information critical for
determining depositional environments.
• Use of the geochemical constituents of microfossils, such as oxygen isotopes, as additional
indicators of paleo-environments.
• Correlation of electrical well logs as indicators of specific lithofacies; the signatures of well
log curves were found to characterize specific sequence components or systems tracts.
• The production of synthetic seismic traces from well log data and vertical seismic profiles
(VSP); these synthetics could be used to precisely correlate well and seismic data to verify
interpretations.
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Effects of Base-Level Fluctuation:

• Generally, relative sea-level fall leads to reduced deposition and formation of sequence
boundaries in up dip areas, and increased deposition in down dip settings (e.g., submarine
fans).
• Relative sea-level rise will lead to trapping of sediment in the up dip areas (e.g., coastal
plains) and reduced transfer of sediment to the deep sea.
Clastic Environments:
• Relative sea-level fall in clastic environments commonly leads to fluvial incision into
offshore (shelf) deposits, usually associated with soil formation (paleo-valleys with
interfluves).
• Relative sea-level rise causes filling of paleo-valleys, commonly with estuarine or even
shallow marine deposits.
• Submarine fans and associated high aggradation rates in the deep sea occur especially
during late high stand and low stand, when sediments are less easily trapped updip of the
shelf break.
Carbonate Environments:
• Relative sea-level fall in carbonate environments can lead to the development of karstic
surfaces (dissolution of limestone) or evaporite (e.g., sabkha), depending on the climate.
• High stands generally expand the area of the carbonate factory (drowning of shelves) and
vertical construction of reefs, as well as accumulation of other carbonates is enhanced.
• Extreme rates of relative sea-level rise can lead to the drowning of carbonate platforms.

Basin-Margin Concepts:
• Clinoform is a geometric definition.
• Prograding basin-margin systems often have a consistent depositional geometry.
• Top set: proximal portion of the basin margin profile characterized by very low gradients
(<0.1°). Top sets effectively appear flat on seismic data and generally contain alluvial,
deltaic and shallow marine depositional systems. The shoreline can be located at any
point within the top set.
• Fore set: more steeply portion of the basin-margin profile. Generally contain deeper
water depositional characteristics.
• Bottom set: base of the clinoform characterized by low gradients and containing deep-
water depositional systems.
• Shelf-Break Margin: well-developed depositional clinoforms (large shelf-to-basinrelief,
slope facies well developed).
• Ramp Margin: depositional angle less than 1. Slope facies are not significant, ramp
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margins from intracratonic basin or on the drowned topsets of previous shelfbreak

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• Rift Margin: spatial distribution of sediment is controlled by tectonic. Basement

topography is high relief, and basement slope may exceed the clinoform angle, forcing
bypass.
• Foreland Basin: Accommodation higher in proximal areas compared to the basin center.
• Growth Fault Margin: Rate of subsidence is greater on the hanging wall side of the
growth fault, expanded sedimentary succession.

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Sequence Elements and Cycles:

MFS:
• Defined by organic, often radioactive (big kicks
on gamma ray logs), black shales.
• Inferred from presence of finest grain size.
• Inferred from presence of condensed faunal
association.
• Makes up condensed section and are usually thin.
• Marine shelf and basinal sediments associated
with this surface are the product of slow rates of
deposition of pelagic-hemi pelagic sediments.
• Not infrequently overlain by coarser sediments
(often sand sized)
• Lies at the boundary between the underlying
Transgressive System Tract (TST) and the
overlying High stand System Tract (HST).
• Often expressed as a downlap surface.
• Composed of clay-rich, high gamma-ray shales.
• Highly continuous, rich in biomarkers (flora and
fauna).
• Deposited in many deltaic environments – deltaic
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progradation, delta lobe abandonment, relative

and eustatic sea level rise
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LST:
• A slow relative sea level rise is induced when eustasy begins to rise slowly and/or
tectonic uplift slows.
• Sediment is now outpaced by an increase in accommodation and in response; the
sediment begins to onlap onto the basin margin.
• River profiles stabilize.
• Valleys backfill.
• Prograding lowstand clinoforms form and are capped by topset layers that onlap, aggrade,
become thicker upward and landward.

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TST:
• A rapid relative sea level rise above the shelf margin occurs when eustasy begins to rise
rapidly, exceeding the effects of any tectonic uplift
• Condensed sequences are often composed of sediment layers rich in the tests of fauna that
are no longer masked by sediment accumulation because sedimentation rates are very slow
in response to the greater area of sea floor exposed to sedimentation
• Ravinement erosion surface formed when the transgressing sea reworks either the prior
sequence boundary or the sediments that may have collected during the forced regression
that may have followed the generation of that sequence boundary.
• Maximum flooding surface forms when the last fine-grained widespread transgressive
sediment collects before the high stand builds out over it.

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HST:
• Slow rise of relative sea level followed by a slow fall; essentially a still stand of base level
when the slower rate eustatic change balances that of tectonic motion.
• Sediment outpacing loss of accommodation.
• River profiles stabilize.
• River valleys are dispersed laterally in a position landward of the shelf margin.
• Prograding highstand clinoforms develop capped by aggrading topsets that become thinner
upward.

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THE REGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT:

Embry and Johannessen (1992) defined the regressive systems tract. In his definition, it lies above
a transgressive systems tract and is overlain by the initial transgressive surface of the overlying
transgressive systems tract. This complete sequence is known as a transgressive-regressive
sequence (T-R sequence).
The sediments of this systems tract include the highstand system tract of Posamentier and Allen
(1999), and the falling stage system tract defined by Plint and Nummedal, (2000) and/or the
systems tract termed the early lowstand systems tract (ELST) (Posamentier and Allen, 1999).

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FALLING STAGE SYSTEMS TRACT (FSST)

Includes all the regressional deposits that accumulated after the onset of a relative sea-level fall
and before the start of the next relative sea-level rise. The falling stage systems tract is the product
of a forced regression (one should not confused this with the sediments deposited during a normal
regression).

The FSST lies directly on the sequence boundary and is capped by the overlying lowstand systems
tract sediments. A variety of parasequence stacking patterns can be produced including: downward
stepping prograding clinoforms, stranded parasequences, and mass flow deposits in distal areas.
Each of these parasequence-stacking patterns depend on the depositional profile, the rate of
sediment supply, and the rate of relative sea-level fall.

The FSST was first fully defined by Plint and Nummedal, (2000). This systems tract has also been
termed the early lowstand systems tract (ELST) (Posamentier and Allen, 1999).

The fall is evidenced by the erosion of the sub aerially exposed sediment surface updip and the
formation of a diachronous sequence boundary that caps the highstand systems tract (HST). On
seismic data, the upper boundary is the first definable horizon that onlaps the FSST, but when well
logs and outcrops are used this boundary is instead recognized as the first marine-flooding surface
that overlies the FSST. Coincidentally it is often marked by a time transgressive ravinement
surface overlain by a sediment lag.

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The best sequence stratigraphic models of the sedimentary fill of basins are provided by a
combination of seismic data, well logs and cores and outcrop studies in conjunction with
biostratigraphy.

The cores, well logs, and outcrop studies provide access to a detailed vertical resolution of
sedimentary sections while seismic, outcrop studies provide the lateral continuity to the sequence
stratigraphic framework, and the biostratigraphy provides the time constraints.

All these different sequence stratigraphic techniques can be used independently of each other to
produce accurate interpretations of the depositional histories of the sedimentary fill of a basin but
the best models come from a mix of all three.
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Hierarchy of stratal units, typical thickness, lateral extent, time of formation and tools used for
study. Well log curves like gamma profiles can resolve beds that are 25 cm or thicker (modified
from Van Wagoner et al, 1990)

In the use of sequence stratigraphy, the interpretations are best determined when well logs are tied
to biostratigraphic markers. Using these two in combination one can:
• Identify, match and tie sequence stratigraphic surfaces Interpret the stacking patterns of the
vertical sedimentary sequences
• At the start of an interpretation of sequence stratigraphy using well logs, one must first
identify the predominant of sequence stratigraphic surfaces. The MOST important of these
surfaces, and the FIRST that should be identified when using logs, are maximum flooding
surfaces (mfs) and transgressive surfaces (TS). These coincide and are correlated with
radioactive shales (use of the gamma log) that are interpreted to have been deposited across
relatively flat surfaces.
• Once the MFS and TS are established and tied, then the sequence boundaries (SB) of both
carbonate and clastic sedimentary systems are identified. These will tend to lie directly
beneath the sand sized sediment fill of depressions on eroded and incised surfaces and over
the prograding clinoforms of high stand systems tracts (HST).
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Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation Based On GR:

Gamma ray logs are one of the most commonly used logs for sequence stratigraphic analysis. As
explained above the variation in GR log character is interpreted to be a proxy for grain size and so
enabled these logs to play a major role in the sequence stratigraphy analysis. The rationale behind
this interpretation is that variations in the
GR are related to the presence of organic matter that radioactive minerals responsible for the GR
signal. In this case it is possible to:1) identify the portions of the section which had higher
accumulations of organics and 2) those for which this has been reduced by winnowing and
oxidizing effects! In turn, the presence or absence of organic matter is assumed a proxy for the
winnowing and oxidizing effects of shallow marine waters. The result is that abrupt changes in the
GR log response are interpreted to be related to sharp lithological breaks associated with
unconformities and sequence boundaries. The principle shapes that GR log signal makes
frequently used for interpreting the depositional setting of sedimentary cycles.

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Lateral facies patterns in a shoreface setting with typical gamma-ray log signature. The well log
patterns change have a predictable change in character as the facies change laterally. The thickness
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and width of facies belts is approximate, but most depositional systems exhibit lateral change,
hence correlation of well logs should account for facies changes.
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Interpretations that use well logs for sequence stratigraphy should be tied to biostratigraphy so
they can be used to correlate and analyze sedimentary rocks from the perspective of geologic time.

Well logs lend themselves to the detailed reconstructions of paleogeography and the generation of
high frequency stratigraphic models that predict the distribution of sedimentary facies, particularly
those associated with aquifers, sediment bound ore bodies, and hydrocarbon reservoirs, their
source rocks and seals.

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CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

Differences in the sequence stratigraphy of these sediment types are related to carbonate
accumulation tending to be "in situ production" while siliciclastics are transported to their
depositional setting. Rates of carbonate production are greatest close to the air/sea interface since
they are linked to photosynthesis and so depth-dependent. Thus, carbonate facies and their fabrics
are clear indicators of sea level position.

Carbonate organisms can produce and accumulate above certain hydrodynamic thresholds, an
effect influenced by their biology and the chemistry of the water known as ecological
accommodation (Pomar (2001 a, and b). Whereas siliciclastics, which only respond to
hydrodynamic thresholds, are limited by their physical accommodation. Thus the character of
carbonate sediment changes as organisms evolve, the plate tectonic configuration of the
depositional setting of the basin responds to paleoclimate change, and/or changes in
paleogeography related to isolation or access to the open sea.

Carbonates can be used as indicators of depositional setting that, when combined with sequence
stratigraphy, make carbonate facies analysis a powerful tool for the interpretation of the geological
section and lithofacies prediction away from data rich areas.

Subdividing surfaces:
Carbonates can be subdivided on the basis of bounding and internal surfaces into sequences,
parasequences and/or truncated carbonate cycles. These can include:

• Erosion surfaces (SB) or eroded parasequence boundarie flooding surfaces including 1)

transgressive surfaces and/or 2) maximum flooding surfaces
• Shallow cycles of carbonate are composed of a relatively conformable succession of
genetically related beds or bedsets these cycles are often truncated and incomplete so that
maximum flooding and trangressive surfaces can be missing (Fischer (1964), Pomar and
Ward (1999) and others.
• Never the less we argue cycles can be used like parasequences in the analysis of the
sedimentary section as units of process/product oriented depositional models. However,
should they exhibit truncated cycles and miss the sediments of an initial transgression or
maximum flooding event one should consider them as high frequency carbonate cycles,
not parasequences.
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SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY APPLICATIONS:

It is well known that regional and local differences in sediment supply, depositional environment,
and tectonics affect the development of aquifers. Sequence stratigraphy and facies models provide
a predictive framework for these aquifer units. Sequence stratigraphy allows packages of sands to
be bracketed in a predictable manner by confining units. Facies analysis allows prediction of the
potential scale and connectivity of sands, with a dimension of scale increasing from tens of meters
in fluvial environments to hundreds of kilometers in certain marine environments. Sequence
stratigraphic data analysis and facies models provides a means of predicting permeability, porosity,
and hydraulic conductivity of aquifers, though precise estimates of these parameter and aquifer
yields can only be done through hydraulic testing. Further, understanding the sequence
stratigraphy and depositional facies are critical for understanding scale and connectivity of aquifers
and their confining units and predicting their local and regional distributions. In a sense, sequence
stratigraphic data analysis/interpretation has hidden potential, which can be utilized for aquifer
exploration and exploitation.

In the quest for hydrocarbons, both the exploration and exploitation programs can be greatly
enhanced by applying seismic sequence stratigraphic analysis. This technique provides the
explorationist with the capability to recognize, discover and evaluate new hydrocarbon reservoirs
and to reduce the risk in management's decision-making. The play concepts, source, seal and traps
associated with different reservoir sands and their associated Lowstand, Transgressive and High
stand systems tracts are an important aspect of this type of analysis.

Sequence stratigraphic interpretation is becoming increasing useful in basin analysis and

exploration of the sub surface for hydrocarbon. It has provided a chronostratigraphic framework
for analysis and correlation of sediment fill in space and time in terms of sea level changes,
tectonics and sediment supply.
• Identification of New Reservoirs (adding reserve)
• Recognizing the prediction of the SR presence and extension
• Better prediction and effective targeting of well placement
• Increasing production due to interpretation of new reserves.
• Reduced risk and cost by identification of barriers and pathways of fluid movement through
the reservoirs.
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Viewing play development from a sequence stratigraphic perspective is one means of re-evaluating
these plays and ascertaining if:
• A play is truly “mature”; or
• Contains un-or underexplored components like lowstand systems tracts or sequence sets.
New plays often stem from reconsideration of old plays, sometimes through better technology
(e.g., seismic imaging around and under salt) or just simple conceptual breakthroughs (e.g.,
sequence stratigraphy).

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 Short Notes about Sequence Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a branch of geology, which studies rock layers

(strata), and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of
sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.

• Lithostratigraphy - units based on lithology

1. Groups ( Two or more formations related lithologically)
2. Formation (Fundamental unit of lithostratigraphic classification)
3. Members ( Subdivisions of formations)
• Biostratigraphy – units based on fossil content
• Magnetostratigraphy – units based on magnetic properties (reversals)
• Chemostratigraphy – based on chemical properties
• Seismic stratigraphy – based on seismic reflections
• Sequence Stratigraphy – based on change in sea level
1. Sea level and sediment supply
2. Consequences of changes in sea level
3. Types of sequences
Walther (1884) Walther’s Law: Vertical
successions do not always reproduce
Stratigraphic surfaces across which there is evidence for a horizontal sequence of environments.
significant time gap:

• Angular unconformities – angular discordance between strata

above and below.
Sequence Stratigraphy:
• Disconformities – erosion surface shows significant relief, no
• It is study of rock relationships within a
angular discordance.
time stratigraphic framework of repetitive
• Paraconformities – no relief on erosion surface, no angular
genetically related strata bounded by
discordance.
chronostratigraphic Surfaces (sequence
• Nonconformities – sedimentary strata above an igneous body. boundary, maximum flooding surface,
transgressive surface).
• Vail (1987) - defines a sequence as a {Body of
The original intent of sequence stratigraphy was to increase the ability sediment deposited during a cycle of eustatic
to predict hydrocarbon occurrence in the subsurface of frontier areas. sea level changes starting and ending near the
inflection points on the falling limb of the sea
level curve}.
• Depositional Sequence-succession of relatively • To define a sequence we look for the seismic
conformable genetically related strata bounded by expression of a sedimentary unit bound by
unconformities created by erosion or non-
unconformities or their correlative conformities.
deposition and containing a lowstand (LST) or
• Sequence Boundary-surface matching unconformity or shelf margin (SMST), transgressive (TST), and a
conformity after sea level drop. highstand (HST) set of deposits or system tracts.
• Condensed sections: formed sections at very low
sedimentation rate with high abundance and diversity of
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Fossils. System Tracts:

• Maximum flooding surface the maximum landward
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advance of the shoreline. Three-dimensional assemblage of

lithofacies, genetically linked by
active (modern) of inferred (ancient)
M.M.Badawy processes & environments
Short Notes about Sequence Stratigraphy

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M.M.Badawy
 Short Notes about Sequence Stratigraphy

Effects of Base-Level Fluctuation: Basin-Margin Concepts:

• Generally, relative sea-level fall • Clinoform is a geometric definition.

leads to reduced deposition and • Prograding basin-margin systems often have a consistent depositional geometry.
formation of sequence boundaries • Top set: proximal portion of the basin margin profile characterized by very low
in up dip areas, and increased gradients (<0.1°). Top sets effectively appear flat on seismic data and generally
deposition in down dip settings contain alluvial, deltaic and shallow marine depositional systems. The shoreline
(e.g., submarine fans). can be located at any point within the top set.
• Relative sea-level rise will lead to • Fore set: more steeply portion of the basin-margin profile. Generally contain deeper
trapping of sediment in the up dip water depositional characteristics.
areas (e.g., coastal plains) and • Bottom set: base of the clinoform characterized by low gradients and containing
reduced transfer of sediment to deep-water depositional systems.
the deep sea. • Shelf-Break Margin: well-developed depositional clinoforms (large shelf-to-
basinrelief, slope facies well developed).
Clastic Environments:
• Ramp Margin: depositional angle less than 1. Slope facies are not significant, ramp
• Relative sea-level fall in clastic margins from intracratonic basin or on the drowned topsets of previous shelfbreak
environments commonly leads to margins.
fluvial incision into offshore • Rift Margin: spatial distribution of sediment is controlled by tectonic. Basement
(shelf) deposits, usually topography is high relief, and basement slope may exceed the clinoform angle,
associated with soil formation forcing bypass.
(paleo-valleys with interfluves). • Foreland Basin: Accommodation higher in proximal areas compared to the basin
• Relative sea-level rise causes center.
filling of paleo-valleys, • Growth Fault Margin: Rate of subsidence is greater on the hanging wall side of
commonly with estuarine or even the growth fault, expanded sedimentary succession.
shallow marine deposits.
• Submarine fans and associated
high aggradation rates in the deep
sea occur especially during late
high stand and low stand, when
sediments are less easily trapped
updip of the shelf break.

Carbonate Environments:

• Relative sea-level fall in

carbonate environments can lead
to the development of karstic
surfaces (dissolution of
limestone) or evaporite (e.g.,
sabkha), depending on the
climate.
• High stands generally expand the
area of the carbonate factory
(drowning of shelves) and
vertical construction of reefs, as
well as accumulation of other
carbonates is enhanced.
• Extreme rates of relative sea-
level rise can lead to the drowning
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of carbonate platforms.
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M.M.Badawy
 Short Notes about Sequence Stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphic interpretation is becoming

increasing useful in basin analysis and exploration of the
sub surface for hydrocarbon.
It has provided a chronostratigraphic framework for
analysis and correlation of sediment fill in space and time
in terms of sea level changes, tectonics and sediment
supply.

• Identification of New Reservoirs (adding reserve)

• Recognizing the prediction of the SR presence
and extension
• Better prediction and effective targeting of well
placement
• Increasing production due to interpretation of new
reserves.
• Reduced risk and cost by identification of barriers
and pathways of fluid movement through the
reservoirs.

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