The Qualitative Report

Volume 24 Number 1 How To Article 2

1-6-2019

Elements of Research Questions in Relation to Qualitative Inquiry

Jennifer Kross
Florida International University, [email protected]

Amanda Giust
Florida International University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr

Part of the Quantitative, Qualitative, Comparative, and Historical Methodologies Commons, and the
Social Statistics Commons

Recommended APA Citation

Kross, J., & Giust, A. (2019). Elements of Research Questions in Relation to Qualitative Inquiry. The
Qualitative Report, 24(1), 24-30. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2019.3426

This How To Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The Qualitative Report at NSUWorks. It has
been accepted for inclusion in The Qualitative Report by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more
information, please contact [email protected].
Elements of Research Questions in Relation to Qualitative Inquiry

Abstract
Research denotes the importance of quality research questions and their role in guiding methodology,
data collection methods, and interpretation of results. Research questions, living at the base of
methodology, play a key role in quality inquiry. This article addresses common themes of research
questions in qualitative inquiry and the factors impacting question development. The importance of
driving questions and the use of a question map are discussed as useful tools in developing probing,
quality research that directs effective qualitative research.

Keywords
Research Questions, Qualitative Inquiry, Driving Questions, Question Map

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 International
License.

This how to article is available in The Qualitative Report: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol24/iss1/2

The Qualitative Report 2019 Volume 24, Number 1, How To Article 1, 24-30

Elements of Research Questions in Relation to Qualitative

Inquiry
Jennifer Kross and Amanda Giust
Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA

Research denotes the importance of quality research questions and their role in
guiding methodology, data collection methods, and interpretation of results.
Research questions, living at the base of methodology, play a key role in quality
inquiry. This article addresses common themes of research questions in
qualitative inquiry and the factors impacting question development. The
importance of driving questions and the use of a question map are discussed as
useful tools in developing probing, quality research that directs effective
qualitative research. Keywords: Research Questions, Qualitative Inquiry,
Driving Questions, Question Map

The research endeavor denotes the importance of quality research questions and their
role in guiding methodology, data collection methods, and interpretation of results (Agee,
2008). Agee (2008) argues that the importance and development of the research question is
often underestimated in qualitative research studies. The literature on research questions is
limited, and there is little to no discussion on the research questions specifically in qualitative
inquiry (White, 2012). Research questions, lying at the basis of methodology, play a key role
in the research design process. The post-positivist perspective recognizes that qualitative
research methods can be impacted by the background and values of the researcher (Ryan,
2006). In this concept paper we will address common themes of research questions in the
qualitative research studies and the factors impacting question development using a post-
positivist lens.

Research Questions Impact on Qualitative Research

Research questions, data collection methods and interpretation results are all
interrelated in research. Therefore, it is imperative that researchers create a plan prior to the
study and design the research according to that plan (Newman & Covrig, 2013). Qualitative
research can enable the researcher to generate quality data and questions that explore the real-
life behavior of participants (Kuper, Reeves, & Levinson, 2008). Observations combined with
the participant’s descriptions of “how the participant lived the experience that is being
described” (Cashman & McCraw, 1993) determine the types of open-ended questions that must
be asked to enrich the researchers understanding of the phenomenon.

Considerations for Research Question Development

Research questions narrow the focus and provide a structure to the research. “The
research question is an unambiguous statement that clearly articulates the phenomenon you
plan to investigate” (Kivunja, 2016, p. 167). Open-ended questions requiring complex answers
allow the researcher to examine the answers in depth. One way to structure the question is to
have an overarching question followed by subsidiary questions that address specific
components of the original research question. This allows clarification of the original answer
and helps to eliminate misinterpretation of the respondent’s answers. Driving questions, or
Jennifer Kross & Amanda Giust 25

questions that are probing, drive the activities and methods used in research. Aydin (2016)
suggested that these driving questions are created using defining strategies. The defining
strategies are exploring the phenomenon that will be questioned, conducting a literature review
about the subject of the questions, and using experiences and trial questions to determine which
questions best address the topic that the question is designed to investigate (Aydin, 2016). Coe
(2012) narrows this down further by determining if the aims of the questions are clearly stated,
relevant, and important. Questions that fail these tests can be discarded until the questions meet
the criteria of driving questions, namely they will move the research in the direction the
researcher wishes to probe.
It has been suggested that a “question map” (Strangman & Knowles, 2012) can assist
in diagramming potential research questions and then eliminating questions that are peripheral
or do not lead to data that answers the primary question. A question map utilizes prompts to
narrow down a broad research question. Example questions may include: (a) What is the broad
question? (b) Who are the decision-makers? (c) Who are the stakeholders? and (d) Are there
any themes between the questions asked? Hypotheses about the remaining questions are then
developed and analyzed to determine if they do not move the researcher closer to the overall
problem and goal of the research. If the information generated from the question does not lead
to pertinent data or information about the subject of inquiry, the hypotheses must be discarded.
The remaining hypotheses can be formed into questions that become the guiding force in
determining the appropriate method of research design and become driving questions
(Strangman & Knowles, 2012).

Bias and Effects on Research Questions in Qualitative Research

To further explore a phenomenon in the social sciences, researchers use descriptive,

interpretative forms of qualitative research (e.g., phenomenology; Cashman & McCraw, 1993).
Qualitative researchers use research questions to thoroughly explore phenomenon through
first-hand experiences and through the relating of personal stories of the participants (Howard,
Thompson, Nash, & Rodriguez, 2016). It can be argued that methods used in qualitative
research are “a never-ending intervention in everyday social and political life” (Friberg, 2016,
p. 351). Therefore, it becomes necessary for the researcher to be aware of personal bias, the
role and position in relation to the subject of study, and the underlying theoretical assumptions.
These biases affect every aspect of qualitative research including how a researcher
comes to asking the driving questions that lead to research. For example, a researcher that is
also a clinical psychologist seeking an intervention strategy in the field of psychology may
have monetary interest that is driving the research questions. If researchers are unaware of these
biases or research agendas, they may inadvertently skew the research. Using an ethnographic
approach includes studying thoughts and how culture shapes thoughts, personal identity,
personal history, and ultimately social groups (Friberg, 2016). These underpinnings, subtle or
otherwise, play a role in all of society, including the researcher perspective.

Considerations for Minimizing Researcher Bias

Strategies to minimize bias have been noted and should be taken from the beginning of
the research to the end. The introduction of a study serves as the justification or rationale for
conducting research (Newman & Covrig, 2013). Maxwell and Loomis (2003) suggest that the
purpose for a study falls into one of three categories: personal, practical, or intellectual.
Formulating a well-organized introduction section can assist researchers in determining which
category their research falls and what implications that has on the research design.
26 The Qualitative Report 2019

Recognizing the impossibility of completely objective qualitative research, a strategy

to identify researcher bias is to use reflexive journaling throughout the research process.
Reflexive journaling is a process in which the researcher reflects on the outcomes of the study
as well as on the research process itself. This practice can help promote self-awareness as well
as maintain credibility (Smith, 1999). It also allows the researcher to state any considerations
up front regarding the choice in methodology, assumptions and beliefs, or other background
information that could have affected the research process (Coe, 2012; Kline, 2008).
An additional strategy that can be used is having peers not involved in the research
process provide feedback. There are many ways to inquire for feedback, but Chenail (2011)
suggests an “interview the interviewer” strategy which entails the researcher being interviewed
as a subject prior to conducting research. This process is twofold as it allows the researcher to
see the study from a different point of view while also having an outsider critique the interview
questions.

Common Themes of Research Questions in Qualitative Research

Although the question is not always explicitly stated in qualitative research, it is found
embedded in the problem and purpose of the given research in the introduction, description,
and analysis of results. To identify common themes in qualitative research questions, three
examples of articles in the social sciences analyzing the same topic have been presented in
Table 1. This table outlines possible driving questions behind the stated purpose statements in
these qualitative studies. These examples were selected to highlight commonalities while also
presenting the various ways questions can be presented and used to drive research. Though the
researchers utilized different methodologies based on research interest and anticipated
outcome, the research questions display similarities.

Table 1. Driving Questions in Qualitative Research Examples

Research Examples Driving Questions

Examining daily school practices affecting sex- How is Butler’s (1997) theory regarding performative
gender-sexualities through the lens of insuperability resignification present in daily school routines?
of gender and sexuality. (Youdell, 2005)
In what ways are sex-gender-sexualities constituted,
resisted, and reinscribed during school practices?
Examining parent-child communication about How do parents of children with ASD communicate
sexuality with parents of children with ASD (Ballan, with their child about sexuality?
2012) How can we use this information to develop a
psychoeducational intervention for parents of children
with ASD?
Exploring the meaning behind sexual experiences of What are the perceptions of sex in women with ID?
women with Intellectual Disabilities (Bernert &
Ogletree, 2013) How do women with ID understand and assign
meaning to sexual experiences?

How does that meaning relate to their sexual

expression?

One commonality is the complexity of the research questions and the relationships
between them. Questions in qualitative research can be described as an inverted pyramid,
beginning with a broad, overarching question and narrowing down to focus on the “why” and
“how” of the specific phenomenon (Agee, 2008). In order to fully understand a lived
experience of identity, more than one question is typically embedded in the research design.
Jennifer Kross & Amanda Giust 27

The examples in Table 1 outline driving questions in each study with each question being
dependent on the previous one. The dependent questions, or subsidiary questions, can be pre-
defined or emerge as the study continues. Emergent research design in qualitative research is
one that may “evolve over the course of a research project in response to what is learned” and
may be used to get accurate data (Morgan, 2008, p. 245). For example, in Bernert and Ogletree
(2013), the broad research question becomes the base of the inverted pyramid and examines
the perception of sex in women with intellectual disabilities. The next level of the pyramid
allows the researcher to investigate how these women define sex. The final level of the inverted
pyramid uses questions to experience how these women experience sex. This question structure
allows the researcher to pinpoint the “how,” “why,” and the meaning of these participants’
lived experiences. The data collected can lead to additional research questions rather than
having a single set of research questions that are pre-determined and consistent throughout the
course of the study. As an example, Ballan (2012) explained the choice of an emergent design:
“the interviews were structured to allow for the emergence of new content and ideas beyond
the theoretical framework that was imposed by the study design” (p. 677).
Another common theme involves research questions being embedded in a theory or a
clarifying lens. A researcher may ask a broad question regarding the theory and then use the
dependent question to situate the theory into a particular context where it can be examined. As
an example, Youdell (2005) identified the theoretical lens and frame; “the paper takes up
Butler’s (1999) theorization of the inseparability of gender and sexuality in the contemporary
discursive frame” (p. 250). The author goes on to situate the theory into a specific context
(every day school practices that relate to sex-gender-sexualities). These multi-faceted
theoretical and contextual questions are a key component of the research question as a tool to
gather in-depth data.

Implications for Research

Quality questions are critical to provide accurate research and findings in qualitative
research. Choosing the appropriate research questions drives both the method and findings of
research. Utilizing complex research questions can help to clarify theoretical frameworks and
determine the direction the research will take. In order to form a complex research question,
identify an overarching question and the basis of the inquiry. Kline (2008) suggested presenting
the central research questions to identify what the researcher is wanting to accomplish by
performing the research. Stating research questions outright can also assist novice researchers
in guiding their research design. Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration of the question
development process.

Figure 1. The Process of Forming Research Questions in Qualitative Research

OVERARCHING QUESTION:
WHY

DRIVING QUESTIONS:
WHO/WHAT/WHERE/WHEN

THEORETICAL OR CONTEXTUAL
FRAMEWORK

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
QUESTIONS & FRAMEWORK
28 The Qualitative Report 2019

Once the overarching questions have been established, driving questions should be added to
serve as clarifiers of the purpose of the research (Morgan, 2008). The focus of the questions
allows the emergence of the theoretical context to become clearer to the researcher.
Determining the population and purpose of the research establishes the framework for the
questioning to become specific in its inquiry. Thus, establishing the relationship between the
questions and the framework.
Once the research questions have been developed, the researcher must organize the
introduction accordingly. Regardless of whether the questions are directly stated in the research
article, the background to the problem, problem statement, and purpose of the research should
be organized in a manner that explains the direction the research has chosen and keeps the
research study narrowly focused.
The final implication for qualitative researchers is to utilize strategies to minimize
researcher bias, beginning with the development of research questions. There are three main
sections during research in which bias can occur: before conducting the study, while
conducting a study, and after conducting a study (Cook, 2014). When dealing with social
change, a researcher must examine bias from as early as the thought that leads to the research
question. Ioannidis (2008) outlined several questions to ask when identifying subtle pre-study
bias or hidden research agendas. These include asking questions such as, “Are both benefits
and harms appropriately considered?” and “Are there any obvious or possible conflicts of
interest (not only financial)?” (p. 164).

Conclusion

The development of effective research questions in ethnographic studies is necessary

to determine the correct method of research, the direction, and lens through which to view the
results of the research and to minimize researcher bias. Using emergent design to develop
questions by eliminating questions that do not move the research in the direction the research
wishes to explore, helps to clarify the most effective method of research. Specifying the process
in the introduction section of the research results allows the transparency necessary for the
reader to see the process used for question development. The use of a question map aids this
elimination process and can be used to minimize bias when determining the direction of the
research. Journaling during this research process allows the researcher to track their movement
throughout the research and develop insight into their motivation toward specific questions.
Interviewing the interviewer is a useful tool for testing the effectiveness of the question to move
the research forward and to utilize peer review to minimize bias. The use of these techniques
will allow the researcher to develop bias controlled, effective research which allows the subject
of the study to tell their story and have the data it provides analyzed with a method appropriate
for the research leading to thorough insights as a result.

References

Aydin, M. (2016). Exploring pre-service science teacher methods and strategies for the driving
questions in research inquiry: From consulting an instructor to group discussion.
International Journal of Science & Science Education, 11(5), 559-570.
Agee, J. (2008). Developing qualitative research questions: A reflective process. International
Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 22(4), 431-447.
Ballan, M. S. (2012). Parental perspectives of communication about sexuality in families of
children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism Development Disorders,
42, 676-684.
Bernert, D. J., & Ogletree, R. J. (2013). Women with intellectual disabilities talk about their
Jennifer Kross & Amanda Giust 29

perceptions of sex. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57(3), 240-249.

Butler, J. (1997). Excitable speech: A politics of the performative. London, UK: Routledge.
Butler, J. (1999). Revisiting bodies and pleasures, Theory, Culture and Society, 16(2), 11–20.
Cashman, C., & McCraw, P. (1993). Conducting qualitative research in instructional
technology: Methods and techniques. Proceedings from Selected Research and
Development Presentations at the Convention of the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division.
(15th, New Orleans, Louisiana, January 13-17, 1993); see IR 016 300.
Chenail, R. J. (2011). Interviewing the investigator: Strategies for addressing instrumentation
and researcher bias concerns in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 16(1), 255-
262. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR16-1/interviewing.pdf
Coe, R. J. (2012). The nature of educational research: exploring the different understandings
of educational research. In J. Arthur, M. Waring, R. Coe, & L. Hedges (Eds.), Research
methods and methodologies in education (pp. 5-13). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cook, B. G. (2014). A call for examining replication and bias in special education research.
Remedial and Special Education, 35(4), 233-246.
Friberg, T. (2016). Generating ethnographic research questions: an anthropological
contribution to the study of higher education. Ethnography and Education, 11(3), 345-
358. Doi: 10.1080/17457823.2015.1101386
Howard, J., Thompson, C., Nash, K., & Rodriguez, S. (2016). Missing stories: The messy
processes, multifaceted risks, & multiple roles of critical ethnography. Critical
Questions in Education, 7(3), 318-338.
Ioannidis, J. P. (2008). Perfect study, poor evidence: Interpretation of biases preceding study
design. Seminars in Hematology, 45, 160-166.
Kline, W. (2008). Developing and submitting credible qualitative manuscripts. Counselor
Education and Supervision, 47(4), 210-217.
Kuper, A., Reeves, S., & Levinson, W. (2008). Qualitative research: An introduction to reading
and appraising qualitative research. British Medical Journal, 337(7666), 404-407.
Kivunja, C. (2016). How to write an effective research proposal for higher degree research in
higher education: Lessons from practice. International Journal of Higher Education,
5(2), 163-172.
Maxwell, J. & Loomis, D. (2003). Mixed methods design: An alternative approach. In A.
Tashakkori & C. Teddie (Eds.). Handbook of mixed methods in social behavioral
research (pp. 241-272). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Morgan, D. L. (2008). Emergent designs. In L. M. Given (Ed.), Sage encyclopedia of research
methods (pp. 245-248). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Newman, I. & Covrig, D. M. (2013). Building consistency between title, problem statement,
purpose, & research questions to improve the quality of research plans and reports. New
Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development, 25(1), 70-79.
Ryan, A. B. (2006). Post-positivist approaches to research. Researching and Writing your
Thesis: a guide for postgraduate students, 12-26. Retrieved from
http://eprints.maynoothuniversity.ie/874/1/post-positivist_approaches_to_research.pdf
Smith, B. A. (1999). Ethical and methodologic benefits of using a reflexive journal in
hermeneutic phenomenologic research. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 31(4), 359-
363.
Strangman, L., & Knowles, E. (2012). Improving the development of student’s research
questions and hypotheses in an introductory business research methods course.
International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 6(2), 1-18.
White, P. (2012) Who’s afraid of research questions? The neglect of research questions in the
methods literature and a call for question-led methods teaching. International Journal
30 The Qualitative Report 2019

of Research & Method in Education, 36(3), 213-227.

Youdell, D. (2005). Sex-gender-sexuality: How sex, gender and sexuality constellations are
constituted in secondary school. Gender and Education, 17(3), 249-270.

Author Note

Jennifer Kross was awarded a Bachelor’s degree from Drake University and a Master’s
degree from Florida International University. She is currently a doctoral student at Florida
International University. The Director of Retention and Transition Services at Miami Dade
College, Jennifer’s research and work centers on student issues in our colleges and universities.
Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed directly to: [email protected].
Amanda Giust holds a bachelor's degree in Early Childhood Education from Bowling
Green State University and a master’s degree in Adult Education and Human Resource
Development from Florida International University (FIU). Ms. Giust is currently a doctoral
student at FIU with a research interest in employment outcomes for adults with intellectual
disabilities. Her other research interests include self-directed learning, student mentorship, and
best practices for retrieving data from individuals with disabilities. Correspondence regarding
this article can also be addressed directly to: [email protected].

Copyright 2019: Jennifer Kross, Amanda Giust, and Nova Southeastern University.

Article Citation

Kross, J., & Giust, A. (2019). Elements of research questions in relation to qualitative inquiry.
The Qualitative Report, 24(1), 24-30. Retrieved from
https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol24/iss1/2