CS211 – DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHMS

LECTURE 7: PYTHON PROGRAMMING ARRAY & STACKS

WEEK -04

Asst. Prof. Syed Faisal Ali

[email protected]
Computer Science
(Software Engineering)
Sec A
SPRING 2022
OVERVIEW OF COLLECTIONS

 Collection: Group of items that we want to treat as conceptual unit

 Examples:
 Lists, strings, stacks, queues, binary search trees, heaps, graphs, dictionaries, sets, and bags
 Can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
 Lists are heterogeneous in Python
 Four main categories:
 Linear, hierarchical, graph, and unordered

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LINEAR COLLECTIONS

 Ordered by position

 Everyday examples:
 Grocery lists
 Stacks of dinner plates
 A line of customers waiting at a bank

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HIERARCHICAL COLLECTIONS

 Structure reminiscent of an upside-down tree

 D3’s parent is D1; its children are D4, D5, and D6

 Examples: a file directory system, a company’s organizational tree, a book’s table of contents

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GRAPH COLLECTIONS
 Graph: Collection in which each data item can have many predecessors and many
successors

 D3’s neighbors are its predecessors and successors

 Examples: Maps of airline routes between cities; electrical wiring diagrams for
buildings
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UNORDERED COLLECTIONS
 Items are not in any particular order
 One cannot meaningfully speak of an item’s predecessor or successor

 Example: Bag of marbles

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OPERATIONS ON COLLECTIONS

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Operations on Collections (continued)

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ABSTRACTION AND ABSTRACT DATA TYPES

 To a user, a collection is an abstraction

 In CS, collections are abstract data types (ADTs)
 ADT users are concerned with learning its interface
 Developers are concerned with implementing their behavior in the most efficient manner possible
 In Python, methods are the smallest unit of abstraction, classes are the next in size, and modules are the largest
 We will implement ADTs as classes or sets of related classes in modules

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DATA STRUCTURES FOR IMPLEMENTING COLLECTIONS: ARRAYS

 “Data structure” and “concrete data type” refer to the internal representation of an ADT’s data
 The two data structures most often used to implement collections in most programming languages are arrays
and linked structures
 Different approaches to storing and accessing data in the computer’s memory
 Different space/time trade-offs in the algorithms that manipulate the collections

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THE ARRAY DATA STRUCTURE

 Array: Underlying data structure of a Python list

 More restrictive than Python lists
 We’ll define an Array class

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RANDOM ACCESS AND CONTIGUOUS MEMORY
 Array indexing is a random access operation

 Address of an item: base address + offset

 Index operation has two steps:
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STATIC MEMORY AND DYNAMIC MEMORY

 Arrays in older languages were static

 Modern languages support dynamic arrays
 To readjust length of an array at run time:
 Create an array with a reasonable default size at start-up
 When it cannot hold more data, create a new, larger array and transfer the data items from the old array
 When the array seems to be wasting memory, decrease its length in a similar manner
 These adjustments are automatic with Python lists

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PHYSICAL SIZE AND LOGICAL SIZE
 The physical size of an array is its total number of array cells
 The logical size of an array is the number of items currently in it

 To avoid reading garbage, must track both sizes

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PHYSICAL SIZE AND LOGICAL SIZE (CONTINUED)

 In general, the logical and physical size tell us important things about the state of the array:
 If the logical size is 0, the array is empty
 Otherwise, at any given time, the index of the last item in the array is the logical size minus 1.
 If the logical size equals the physical size, there is no more room for data in the array

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OPERATIONS ON ARRAYS

 We now discuss the implementation of several operations on arrays

 In our examples, we assume the following data settings:

 These operations would be used to define methods for collections that contain arrays

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INCREASING THE SIZE OF AN ARRAY

 The resizing process consists of three steps:

 Create a new, larger array
 Copy the data from the old array to the new array
 Reset the old array variable to the new array object

 To achieve more reasonable time performance, double array size each time you increase its size:

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DECREASING THE SIZE OF AN ARRAY

 This operation occurs in Python’s list when a pop results in memory wasted beyond a threshold
 Steps:
 Create a new, smaller array
 Copy the data from the old array to the new array
 Reset the old array variable to the new array object

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INSERTING AN ITEM INTO AN ARRAY THAT GROWS

 Programmer must do four things:

 Check for available space and increase the physical size of the array, if necessary
 Shift items from logical end of array to target index position down by one
 To open hole for new item at target index

 Assign new item to target index position

 Increment logical size by one

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INSERTING AN ITEM INTO AN ARRAY THAT GROWS (CONTINUED)

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REMOVING AN ITEM FROM AN ARRAY

 Steps:
 Shift items from target index position to logical end of array up by one
 To close hole left by removed item at target index

 Decrement logical size by one

 Check for wasted space and decrease physical size of the array, if necessary
 Time performance for shifting items is linear on average; time performance for removal is linear

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REMOVING AN ITEM FROM AN ARRAY (CONTINUED)

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COMPLEXITY TRADE-OFF: TIME, SPACE, AND ARRAYS

 Average-case use of memory for is O(1)

 Memory cost of using an array is its load factor
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TWO-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS (GRIDS)
 Sometimes, two-dimensional arrays or grids are more useful than one-
dimensional arrays

 Suppose we call this grid table; to access an item:

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PROCESSING A GRID

 In addition to the double subscript, a grid must recognize two methods that return the number of rows and the
number of columns
 Examples: getHeight and getWidth

 The techniques for manipulating one-dimensional arrays are easily extended to grids:

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CREATING AND INITIALIZING A GRID
 Let’s assume that there exists a Grid class:

height initial fill value

width

 After a grid has been created, we can reset its cells to any values:

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DEFINING A GRID CLASS

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DEFINING A GRID CLASS (CONTINUED)

 The method __getitem__ is all that is needed to support the client’s use of the double subscript:

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RAGGED GRIDS AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

 In a ragged grid, there are a fixed number of rows, but the number of columns in
each row can vary
 An array of lists or arrays provides a suitable structure for implementing a ragged
grid
 Dimensions can be added to grid definition if needed; the only limit is computer’s
memory
 A three-dimensional array can be visualized as a box filled with smaller boxes stacked in
rows and columns
 Depth, height, and width; three indexes; three loops

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LINKED STRUCTURES

 After arrays, linked structures are probably the most commonly used data structures in programs
 Like an array, a linked structure is a concrete data type that is used to implement many types of collections,
including lists
 We discuss in detail several characteristics that programmers must keep in mind when using linked structures to
implement any type of collection

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SINGLY LINKED STRUCTURES AND DOUBLY LINKED STRUCTURES

An empty
link

 No random access; must traverse list

 No shifting of items needed for insertion/removal
 Resize at insertion/removal with no memory cost

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NONCONTIGUOUS MEMORY AND NODES

 A linked structure decouples logical sequence of items in the structure from any ordering in memory
 Noncontiguous memory representation scheme
 The basic unit of representation in a linked structure is a node:

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NONCONTIGUOUS MEMORY AND NODES (CONTINUED)

 Depending on the language, you can set up nodes to use noncontiguous memory in several ways:
 Using two parallel arrays

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NONCONTIGUOUS MEMORY AND NODES (CONTINUED)

 Ways to set up nodes to use noncontiguous memory (continued):

 Using pointers (a null or nil represents the empty link as a pointer value)
 Memory allocated from the object heap

 Using references to objects (e.g., Python)

 In Python, None can mean an empty link
 Automatic garbage collection frees programmer from managing the object heap

 In the discussion that follows, we use the terms link, pointer, and reference interchangeably

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DEFINING A SINGLY LINKED NODE CLASS

 Node classes are fairly simple

 Flexibility and ease of use are critical
 Node instance variables are usually referenced without method calls, and constructors allow the user to set a node’s link(s)
when the node is created
 A singly linked node contains just a data item and a reference to the next node:

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USING THE SINGLY LINKED NODE CLASS
 Node variables are initialized to None or a new Node object

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USING THE SINGLY LINKED NODE CLASS (CONTINUED)

 node1.next = node3 raises AttributeError

 Solution: node1 = Node("C", node3), or
Node1 = Node("C", None)
node1.next = node3
 To guard against exceptions:
if nodeVariable != None:
<access a field in nodeVariable>
 Like arrays, linked structures are processed with loops

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USING THE SINGLY LINKED NODE CLASS (CONTINUED)

 Note that when the data are displayed, they appear in the reverse order of their insertion

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OPERATIONS ON SINGLY LINKED STRUCTURES

 Almost all of the operations on arrays are index based

 Indexes are an integral part of the array structure
 Emulate index-based operations on a linked structure by manipulating links within the structure
 We explore how these manipulations are performed in common operations, such as:
 Traversals
 Insertions
 Removals

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TRAVERSAL

 Traversal:Visit each node without deleting it

 Uses a temporary pointer variable
 Example:
probe = head
while probe != None:
<use or modify probe.data>
probe = probe.next
 None serves as a sentinel that stops the process

 Traversals are linear in time and require no extra memory

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TRAVERSAL (CONTINUED)

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SEARCHING

 Resembles a traversal, but two possible sentinels:

 Empty link
 Data item that equals the target item
 Example:
probe = head
while probe != None and targetItem != probe.data:
probe = probe.next
if probe != None:
<targetItem has been found>
else:
<targetItem is not in the linked structure>
 On average, it is linear for singly linked structures

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SEARCHING (CONTINUED)
 Unfortunately, accessing the ith item of a linked structure is also a sequential search
operation
 We start at the first node and count the number of links until the ith node is reached

 Linked structures do not support random access

 Can’t use a binary search on a singly linked structure
 Solution: Use other types of linked structures

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REPLACEMENT
 Replacement operations employ traversal pattern

 Replacing the ith item assumes 0 <= i < n

 Both replacement operations are linear on average

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INSERTING AT THE BEGINNING

 Uses constant time and memory

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INSERTING AT THE END
 Inserting an item at the end of an array (append in a Python list) requires constant time and memory
 Unless the array must be resized
 Inserting at the end of a singly linked structure must consider two cases:

 Linear in time and constant in memory

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INSERTING AT THE END (CONTINUED)

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REMOVING AT THE BEGINNING

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REMOVING AT THE END

 Removing an item at the end of an array (pop in a Python list) requires constant time and memory
 Unless the array must be resized
 Removing at the end of a singly linked structure must consider two cases:

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REMOVING AT THE END (CONTINUED)

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INSERTING AT ANY POSITION
 Insertion at beginning uses code presented earlier
 In other position i, first find the node at position i - 1 (if i < n) or node at position n - 1 (if i >= n)

 Linear time performance; constant use of memory

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INSERTING AT ANY POSITION (CONTINUED)

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REMOVING AT ANY POSITION

 The removal of the ith item from a linked structure has three cases:

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COMPLEXITY TRADE-OFF: TIME, SPACE, AND SINGLY LINKED
STRUCTURES

 The main advantage of singly linked structure over array is not time performance but memory performance

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VARIATIONS ON A LINK

 A Circular Linked Structure with a Dummy Header Node

 Doubly Linked Structures

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A CIRCULAR LINKED STRUCTURE WITH A DUMMY HEADER NODE
 A circular linked structure contains a link from the last node back to the first node in the structure
 Dummy header node serves as a marker for the beginning and the end of the linked structure

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A CIRCULAR LINKED STRUCTURE WITH A DUMMY HEADER NODE
(CONTINUED)

 To initialize the empty linked structure:

 To insert at the ith position:

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DOUBLY LINKED STRUCTURES

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DOUBLY LINKED STRUCTURES (CONTINUED)

To insert a new item at the

end of the linked structure

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DOUBLY LINKED STRUCTURES (CONTINUED)

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ASSIGNMENT #3

 Read chapter 3 & 4.

 You need to make notes as previous and do practice for the questions that will be uploaded to you on MS teams.

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END OF LECTURE

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