ELC 2702

Module 6
Signal Generators

Dr. Mohamed El-Dakroury

 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators

Basic Structure
The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator consists of an
amplifier and a frequency selective network connected in a
positive-feedback loop. Therefore, the feedback gain
A(s )
A f (s ) =
1 − A(s ) (s )

Oscillation Criterion
If at a specific frequency f o the loop gain A( j ) ( j ) = 1 then
Af ( j ) = 1 and the output will have a finite value for zero input.
Alternatively, the circuit will oscillate at f o if the feedback gain
has a complex pole on the y-axis, s =  jo or the denominator of
the feedback gain is in the form s 2 + o2

Non-linear Amplitude Control

There is no guarantee that the oscillation condition can be
maintained due to environmental changes such as temperature. If
the loop gain drops below 1, then the oscillation will cease. We
normally design the loop control to be slightly over 1 and as the
amplitude grows the gain drops back to 1 due to either the
nonlinearity of the active elements or to limiting circu its
Slide 2
 Determining the Loop Gain

The loop gain, A , is an important factor that To ensure same loading effect before and after
determines the stability or unstability of a feedback breaking the loop, a termination equivalent
system. impedance has to be used where the loop is broken

Method
Turn off the source signal, xs , disconnect the
feedback connection, apply a test signal, xt
Feedback signal
x f = xt
input signal
xi = − x f
output signal
xo = Axi
Loop gain
xo = − Axt
xo
A = −
xt

Slide 3
 Example

Given
Non-ideal op amp  , Rid , ro

Find
A

Solution
Note loop gain is independent of excitation (positive or negative)
Break the loop at XX 
Termination resistance Z t = Rid
V V
Loop gain A = − r = − r
Vt V1
((R + R ) R + R ) R (R + R ) R
VR1 = V1 
id 1 2 L id 1

r + ((R + R ) R + R ) R ((R + R ) R + R )
o id 1 2 L id 1 2

Rid
Vr = −VR1
Rid + R
((R + R ) R + R ) R (R + R ) R R
= − V1  
id 1 2 L id 1 id
r + ((R + R ) R + R ) R ((R + R ) R + R ) R + R
o id 1 2 L id 1 2 id

((R + R ) R + R ) R (R + R ) R R
A =   
id 1 2 L id 1 id
r + ((R + R ) R + R ) R ((R + R ) R + R ) R + R
o id 1 2 L id 1 2 id

Slide 4
Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Slide 5
 Analysis

• Gain=1/3G and Φ=0 at ω = ωo

• Positive feedback into amplifier with G=3 provides loop gain=1 and
everything in phase

• Oscillation
– If G = 3, oscillations occur
– If G < 3, oscillations attenuate
– If G > 3, oscillations amplify

Slide 6
 How oscillator starts

• Noise: Thanks to the noise an oscillator is able to startup. This

noise has different origins:
– thermal noise due to the transistor junctions and resistors,
– RF noise: a wide band noise is present in the air and consequently
on all the pins. The noise origin can be industrial, astronomic,
semiconductor, ...
– transient noise during the power-up.

Slide 7
 SPICE Simulation

OPWIEN.CIR - OPAMP WIEN-BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

*
* CURRENT PULSE TO START OSCILLATIONS
IS 0 3 PWL(0US 0MA
10US 0.1MA 40US 0.1MA 50US 0MA 10MS 0MA)
*
* RC TUNING
R2 4 6 10K
C2 6 3 16NF
R1 3 0 10K
C1 3 0 16NF
* NON-INVERTING OPAMP
R10 0 2 10K
R11 2 5 18K
XOP 3 2 4 OPAMP1
* AMPLITUDE STABILIZATION
R12 5 4 5K
D1 5 4 D1N914
D2 4 5 D1N914
*
.model D1N914 D(Is=0.1p Rs=16 CJO=2p
Tt=12n Bv=100 Ibv=0.1p)
* ANALYSIS
.TRAN 0.05MS 10MS
*
•VIEW RESULTS
•.PLOT TRAN V(4)
.PROBE
.END

Slide 8
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator with a Limiter

Limiter
When the output voltage, vo , approaches the positive peak
voltage, vb  v1 and D2 conducts limiting the output
voltage to v1 + VD 2 .

On the other hand, when the output approaches the

negative peak voltage, va  v1 and D1 conducts limiting
the output voltage to v1 − VD1 .

Slide 9
 Term Definitions

Stable State
A stable state means that the circuit output voltage can assume a DC
voltage level L+ and retains this voltage indefinitely.

Quasi-stable State
A quasi-stable state means that the circuit assumes a DC voltage level
L+ for a short period of time T .

Multivibrator
A circuit that switches (vibrates) between two stable or quasi-stable
states. There are three kinds of multivibrators

Bistable Multivibrator
A circuit that can be triggered to either of two (bi-) stable states.

Monostable Multivibrator
A circuit that has one (mono) stable state and can be triggered to
another quasi-stable state

Astable Multivibrator
A circuit that can automatically toggle between two quais-states.

Slide 10
 Bistable Multivibrator

One possible implementation employs an operational amplifier and

positive feedback network.

The input voltage is a voltage divider of the output voltage

R1
v+ = vO = vO
R1 + R2
If the output voltage is saturated at the positive limit
vo = L+
and the input voltage
v+ = L+
This means the output will remain at L+
On the other hand if the output voltage is saturated at the negative
voltage
vo = L−
and the input voltage
v− = L−

Slide 11
 Bistable Multivibrator—cont.

VTC Application—zero crossing

Assuming output at L+ , then v+ = L+ = VTH

if vI  VTH , then vO = L+ and v+ = VTH .
If vI  VTH , then vO = L− and v+ = L− = VTL .

Assuming output at L− , then v+ = VTL

if vI  VTL , then vO = L− and v− = VTL .
If vI  VTH , then vO = L+ and v+ = L+ = VTH .

Slide 12
 Bistable Example—SPICE

** Main Circuit **
* power supplies
Vcc 4 0 DC +15V
Vee 5 0 DC -15V
* input triangular waveform
Vi 1 0 PWL ( 0,-15V 1s,+15V 2s,-15V )
* positive feedback op-amp circuit
Xopamp1 2 1 4 5 3 uA741
R1 2 0 100k
R2 2 3 1Meg
** Analysis Requests **
.OPTIONS itl5=0
.TRAN 10ms 2s 0ms 10ms
** Output Requests **
.PLOT TRAN V(1) V(3)
.probe
.end

Slide 13
Voltage Regulator

reverse-biased zener diodes

Slide 14
 p-n junction: Breakdown

Zener Breakdown

When a heavily doped junction is

reverse biased, the energy bands
become crossed at relatively low
voltages (i.e., the n-side conduction
band appears opposite the p-side
valence band). If the barrier
separating these two bands is
narrow, tunneling of electrons can
occur.

Avalanche Breakdown
The high electric field of the reverse
bias causes impact ionization. A
single interaction results in carrier
multiplication.

Slide 15
 Zener Diode

Definition
Special diode operates at the reverse bias and used primarily
for voltage regulation

i-v characteristics

VZ operating voltage from few volts to hundreds of volts

I ZT test current
rz incrementa l resistance
maximum power that the device can safely dissipate

Zener Diode Model

VZ = VZ 0 + rz I Z

Slide 16
 Bistable Multivibrator—Changing Limits

Method 1 Method 2

Using two zener diodes back-to-back

The positive limit
L+ = VD 2 + VZ 1
The negative limit Using one zener diode in a bridge of 4 diodes
L− = −(VD1 + VZ 2 ) The positive limit becomes
L+ = VD1 + VD 2 + VZ
The negative limit
L− = −(VD1 + VD2 + VZ )

Slide 17
 Astable Multivibrator
Connecting a bistable multivibrator with inverting
transfer characteristics in a feedback loop with an RC
circuit results in a free-running (astable) square-wave
generator.
During T1
v− = V − (V − Vo )e −t 
= L+ − (L+ − L− )e −t 
At t = T1
L+ = L+ − (L+ − L− )e −T 1 

1 −  (L− L+ )
T1 =  ln
1− 
During T2
v− = V − (V − Vo )e −t 
= L− − (L− − L+ )e −t 
At t = T2
L− = L− − (L− − L+ )e−T 2 

1 −  (L+ L− )
T2 =  ln
1− 
If L− = L+
1+ 
T = T1 + T2 = 2 ln
1− 
Slide 18
 Astable Example—SPICE

2
** Main Circuit **
3
* power supplies
Vcc 4 0 DC +15V
Vee 5 0 DC -15V 1

* multivibrator circuit
Xopamp1 2 1 4 5 3 uA741
R1 2 0 100k 0
R2 2 3 1Meg
R 1 3 1Meg
C 1 0 0.01uF IC=0V
** Analysis Requests **
.TRAN 50us 50ms 0ms 500us
** Output Requests **
.PLOT TRAN V(3) V(1)
.probe
.end

Slide 19
 Example 1

Given
Op amp 741, R = 1 M, C = 0.01 f , R1 = 100 k, R2 = 1 M

Find
 ,  , L+ , L− , T

Solution
 = RC = 1  0.01 = 10 ms

R1 100
= = = 0.091
R1 + R2 1100
Op amp 741 operates at  15 V therefore, L+ = −L− = 14.6 V (from datasheet)
L+ = −L− = 1.3286 V
1+  1.091
T = 2 ln = 10 ln = 3.7 ms
1−  0.909

Slide 20
 Example 2

æR ö æR ö
VTL = -L+ ç 1 ÷ VTH = -L- ç 1 ÷
è R2 ø è R2 ø

Slide 21
 Monostable Multivibrator

The multivibrator is designed such that R4  R1 .

At t  0− --stable state
In the stable state D1 is ON and D2 OFF.
vA = L+ , vB = VD , vC = L+ , and vE  L+ − VD 2
At t = 0+
If a negative-edge trigger is applied at the input of the multivibrator, D2 is
turned ON pulling vC below VD1 making vA = L− which turns D1 OFF
vC = L−
For 0+  t  T
C1 discharge through R3 towards L− until L−
 
vB (t ) = vB ( ) − vB ( ) − vB (0+ ) e− t  = L− − L− − VD1 e− t R3C1
at t = T
L− = L− − L− − VD1 e −T R3C1
 V − L−   1 
T = R3C1 ln  D1   R3C1 ln  

 −L − L−   1 −  
For t  T
vA = L+ , vC = L+ , C1 will charge again towards L+ until D1 turns ON again
and vB = VD1

Slide 22
 Monostable Example—SPICE

** Main Circuit **
* power supplies
Vcc 5 0 DC +15V
Vee 6 0 DC -15V
* input trigger signal + circuit
Vtrig 7 0 PWL ( 0,+15V 10us,+15V 10.01us,0V 60us,0V
60.01us,+15V
+ 10ms, +15V 10.00001ms,0V 10.090ms,0V
10.09001ms,+15V 1s,+15V )
C2 7 4 0.1uF
R4 4 0 100k
D2 2 4 D1N4148
* monostable multivibrator circuit
Xopamp1 2 1 5 6 3 uA741
R1 2 0 1k
R2 2 3 9k
R3 1 3 50k
C1 1 0 0.1uF
D1 1 0 D1N4148
* model statements
.model D1N4148 D (Is=0.1p Rs=16 CJO=2p Tt=12n
Bv=100 Ibv=0.1p)
** Analysis Requests **
.IC V(3)=+15V
.TRAN 1ms 2ms 0ms
** Output Requests **
.PLOT TRAN V(7) V(3) V(1)
.probe
.end

Slide 23