Single Variable Calculus

Early Transcendentals
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this work or a derivative, include the history of the document.

This text was initially written by David Guichard. The single variable material in chapters 1–9 is a mod-
ification and expansion of notes written by Neal Koblitz at the University of Washington, who generously
gave permission to use, modify, and distribute his work. New material has been added, and old material
has been modified, so some portions now bear little resemblance to the original.

The book includes some exercises and examples from Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesi-
mals, by H. Jerome Keisler, available at http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html under a Creative
Commons license. In addition, the chapter on differential equations (in the multivariable version) and the
section on numerical integration are largely derived from the corresponding portions of Keisler’s book.
Some exercises are from the OpenStax Calculus books, available free at
https://openstax.org/subjects/math.
Albert Schueller, Barry Balof, and Mike Wills have contributed additional material.

This copy of the text was compiled from source at 9:10 on 2/3/2024.
The current version of the text is available at
https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/multivariable/.
I will be glad to receive corrections and suggestions for improvement at [email protected].
 For Kathleen,
without whose encouragement
this book would not have
been written.
 Contents

1
Analytic Geometry 13
1.1 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Distance Between Two Points; Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Shifts and Dilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2
Instantaneous Rate of Change: The Derivative 29
2.1 The slope of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 The Derivative Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Properties of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5
6 Contents

3
Rules for Finding Derivatives 55
3.1 The Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 Linearity of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4
Transcendental Functions 71
4.1 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 The Derivative of sin x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 A hard limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4 The Derivative of sin x, continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5 Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.6 Exponential and Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.7 Derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions . . . . . 82
4.8 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.10 Limits revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.11 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5
Curve Sketching 105
5.1 Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 The first derivative test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.3 The second derivative test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.4 Concavity and inflection points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5 Asymptotes and Other Things to Look For . . . . . . . . . . . 114
 Contents 7

6
Applications of the Derivative 117
6.1 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.4 Linear Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.5 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

7
Integration 147
7.1 Two examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.3 Some Properties of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8
Techniques of Integration 163
8.1 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.2 Powers of sine and cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.3 Trigonometric Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.4 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.5 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.6 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.7 Additional exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8 Contents

9
Applications of Integration 189
9.1 Area between curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2 Distance, Velocity, Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.3 Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.4 Average value of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.5 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.6 Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.7 Kinetic energy; improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.8 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.9 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.10 Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

10
Polar Coordinates, Parametric Equations 237
10.1 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.2 Slopes in polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.3 Areas in polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.4 Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.5 Calculus with Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
 Contents 9

11
Sequences and Series 253
11.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.3 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.4 Alternating Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.5 Comparison Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.6 Absolute Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.7 The Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
11.8 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.9 Calculus with Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.10 Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.11 Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.12 Additional exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

A
Selected Answers 295

B
Useful Formulas 313

Index 317
 Introduction

The emphasis in this course is on problems—doing calculations and story problems. To

master problem solving one needs a tremendous amount of practice doing problems. The
more problems you do the better you will be at doing them, as patterns will start to emerge
in both the problems and in successful approaches to them. You will learn fastest and best
if you devote some time to doing problems every day.
Typically the most difficult problems are story problems, since they require some effort
before you can begin calculating. Here are some pointers for doing story problems:
1. Carefully read each problem twice before writing anything.
2. Assign letters to quantities that are described only in words; draw a diagram if
appropriate.
3. Decide which letters are constants and which are variables. A letter stands for a
constant if its value remains the same throughout the problem.
4. Using mathematical notation, write down what you know and then write down
what you want to find.
5. Decide what category of problem it is (this might be obvious if the problem comes
at the end of a particular chapter, but will not necessarily be so obvious if it comes
on an exam covering several chapters).
6. Double check each step as you go along; don’t wait until the end to check your
work.
7. Use common sense; if an answer is out of the range of practical possibilities, then
check your work to see where you went wrong.

11
12 Introduction

Suggestions for Using This Text

1. Read the example problems carefully, filling in any steps that are left out (ask
someone for help if you can’t follow the solution to a worked example).
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you can solve the problems on your own.
3. Most exercises have answers in Appendix A; the availability of an answer is marked
by “⇒” at the end of the exercise. Clicking on the arrow will take you to the
answer. The answers should be used only as a final check on your work, not as
a crutch. Keep in mind that sometimes an answer could be expressed in various
ways that are algebraically equivalent, so don’t assume that your answer is wrong
just because it doesn’t have exactly the same form as the given answer.
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