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PHYS 101
(PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS)
Lesson 10
The Principle of Pendulum
 While a student at the University of
Pisa, Galileo, one morning arose to watch
a lamplighter pull the hanging lanterns to
the balcony to light them.
When the lamplighter released the
lanterns, they swung back and forth with
a motion that slowly dampened. To
Galileo, the time for a lantern to make a
complete swing seemed the same,
whether the lamp swung through a large
arc or a small one. He tested this by
timing a slowing, swinging lamp with his
pulse. The time to make a complete swing
remained the same, even as the arc
through which it swung become smaller.
Back in his room, Galileo experimented
with other pendulums. Pulling the pendu-
lum farther to one side made no difference
provided the angle did not become too
great. The only difference came when he
changed the pendulum’s length.
Galileo was the first to investigate the
pendulum. A pendulum is made by suspen-
ding a mass form a fixed point so that it
can swing freely. The amplitude of a
pendulum is the maximum displacement
from the position of rest. The period of a
pendulum is the time to make a complete
swing, from one side all the way to the
other side and back again.
Through his experiments, Galileo dis-
covered the principle of the pendulum:
The period of a pendulum is directly rela-
ted to its length, but independent of its
mass and amplitude.
 The amplitude of a pendulum does not
affect its period. Period and amplitude
are independent.
The substance used to make the bob
does not change the period either. The
bob at the end of the pendulum can be
made by lead, glass, iron, or stone. The
period remains the same. The period and
type of substance for the bob are
independent.
The amount of mass suspended from
the pendulum does not change the period either.
A pendulum bob can be a cannonball or a
musket shot. The period and mass of the
bob are independent. But of course, if the
bob is too light, then air friction becomes
a factor.
Only the lengthening of pendulum
increases the period. The relationship is
direct. As the pendulum is lengthened,
the period becomes longer. The pendu-
lum takes longer to make a complete
swing. As the pendulum is shortened, the
period is shortened.
 The relationship between period, T,
and length of the pendulum is not linear.
Instead, period is directly related to the
square root ___ of the length.

T = k√l T, the period

l, the length
k, the proportionality constant
If ___
the length is doubled, the period is only
√2 = 1.41 times as great. ___ If the length is
tripled, the period is √3 = 1.73 times as
great.
Only if the length is quadrupled does the
period double. Because of the square root
an increase in length does not produce as
great an increase in the period.
EXAMPLE 1:
The length of a nickel pendulum is
made 100 times as long. By what factor
will the period increase?
SOLUTION: ___

T = √l, the new period will be

______

√100 = 1O times as great

 Later, scientists discovered that acce-
leration due to gravity will change the
period of a pendulum. The relationship
between the period and the acceleration
due to gravity is inverse. Stronger gravity
causes a shorter period - the pendulum
swings more briskly.
Weaker gravity causes a longer pe-
riod, the pendulum swings more slowly. A
pendulum at the top of a mountain will
have a longer period than the same pen-
dulum at sea level because acceleration
due to gravity is less the farther an object
is from the center of Earth.
Taking all of these factors into
account, scientists have shown that the
period of a pendulum
____ is given by
l
T = 2π √ g
T, the period (in seconds)
l, the length of pendulum
g, 9.81 m/sec² or 981 cm/sec²
π, 3.14
 In the pendulum formula, g is in the
denominator, so the period is inversely
related to the square root of gravity. On
Jupiter, gravity is about 3x as strong as on
Earth. A pendulum on Jupiter would
swing more quickly than a pendulum of
the same length on Earth. However, the
period on Earth would not be ____ one-third
less. Instead, it would be √ ⅓ = 0.6 of its
value on Jupiter.
 Acceleration due to gravity on the
moon is one-sixth as great as the
acceleration due to gravity on Earth.
When the acceleration due to gravity
is less, as on the moon, a pendulum
swings more slowly and its period is
longer. Period is inversely related to the
square root of the acceleration due to
gravity: ____
Tm = Tₑ √ ⅙ = 0.408 Tₑ
 The period on the moon, Tm , is 0.408
times the period on Earth, Tₑ. Given the
length of a pendulum and the
acceleration due to gravity, one can
calculate the period of a pendulum.
EXAMPLE 2:
Suppose the length of a pendulum is 200
cm, what is the period?
SOLUTION: ______ __________________

T = 2π √ l/g = 2π √(200)/981
= 2.84 sec
EXAMPLE 3:
What is the length in centimeters of a
pendulum that has a period of 1.00 sec?
SOLUTION: ____
T = 2π √l/g (square both sides)
T² = 4π² (l/981)
(1)² (981) = 4(3.14)²(l)
l = 24.87 cm
 The pendulum equation has no symbol
for mass, substance, or amplitude. There-
fore, those quantities cannot affect the
period. Period is independent of mass,
type of substance, and amplitude. How-
ever, the amplitude (maximum displace-
ment) should be much less than the length
of the pendulum. Otherwise, the
proportionality constant 2π, must be
modified somewhat.
EXAMPLE 4:
What is the acceleration due to
gravity if the length of a pendulum is 1.00
m and its period is 2.00 seconds?
SOLUTION:

g = 4π² ( l / T²)
4(3.14)²(1)
=
(2)²
= 9.86 m/sec²
Simple Harmonic Motion
 Another type of motion is simple har-
monic motion, such as the motion of a
pendulum. The acceleration of a pendu-
lum varies with its displacement. The ac-
celeration is greatest when displacement
is greatest.
In simple harmonic motion, restoring
force is proportional to the displacement.
The restoring force of a pendulum is
gravity, but a restoring force can be
provided in other ways too.
 Suppose one pulls a taut string, like a
guitar string to one side. The amount of
displacement from the center, or equili-
brium position, is directly proportional to
the force trying to restore it to the center.
Once the string is released, the restoring
force accelerates it back toward the cen-
ter position. As the string approaches its
equilibrium point, the restoring force
grows weaker. When the string reaches
the center, the restoring force is zero.
However, the velocity of the string is at its
 The string does not remain at the
equilibrium point because its rapid velo-
city carries it past that point. As it travels
past the center position, the displacement
increases and so does the restoring force.
The force tends to slow the string down.
Finally, the string arrives at its point of
maximum displacement, and its velocity
is zero. Then it starts back again, moves
through the center position, and nearly
out of the point where it was 1st released.
 During simple harmonic motion, the
velocity is greatest when the restoring
force is zero, and the velocity is zero when
the restoring force is greatest.
Without friction or air resistance, the
simple harmonic motion of a plucked
string would continue forever. However,
friction causes the maximum displace-
ment to grow less with each vibration.
Eventually the string comes to rest. Vibra-
tions that die out like this are said to be
damped.
 Simple harmonic motion is periodic
vibration (up & down or back and forth)
in a straight line in which the restoring
force acting upon the body is proportional
to the displacement from the center of its
path. The acceleration is not constant.
Instead, acceleration is proportional to
displacement and opposite in direction.
The equilibrium position is the
normal position of rest, usually the center
position.
 The displacement, of simple harmonic
motion is the distance of the vibrating bo-
dy at any instant of time from its normal
position of rest. The amplitude is maxi-
mum displacement from the position of
rest.
Back-and-forth motion, first in one
direction and then in another, is called
vibration. It is caused by plucking string
was the first type of vibration to come
under scientific study. Vibratory motion is
sometimes called harmonic motion be-
cause this is the motion of the plucked
strings of a musical instrument. The mo-
tion of a vibrating string is relatively easy
to describe by mathematical means. For
that reason, the vibration caused by a taut
string is an example of simple harmonic
motion.
During simple harmonic motion, the
acceleration and force are related to
displacement in a very simple way. Force is
directly proportional to the displacement
and is always in the direction opposite to
the displacement.
F = -k(s)
F, the force,
s, the displacement from the
equilibrium position
k, the proportionality constant

The negative sign shows that the force

and displacement are in opposite
directions.
 The period of simple harmonic motion
is the time required for the vibrating body
to move from the point of maximum
displacement on one side to the point of
maximum displacement on the other side
and back again to the first point of
maximum displacement. Or more simply,
the period is the time for one complete
vibration or cycle.
 The frequency of simple harmonic
motion is the reciprocal of the period.
Frequency = 1/period
The unit for frequency is cycles per
second. In the SI system, the unit for
cycles per second is hertz, Hz.
Frequency and period are reciprocals
of one another, so it is easy to calculate
one given the other.
EXAMPLE 5:
A tuning fork vibrates at the rate of 250
vibrations per second (hertz). Determine
its period.
SOLUTION:
T = 1/frequency = 1/250
= 0.004 sec/cycle
The period is often written without the
word “cycle”, so that the period of the
tuning fork would be 0.004 sec.
Reference Circle
 Simple harmonic motion can be
studied more easily by means of a
reference circle. Imagine a darkened
room with a toy train going at constant
speed around a circular track on a table.
An observer sits with his eyes level the
track. Nothing can be seen except a single
bulb shining above the train engine.
 What will the observer see? The light
moving around the circle will seem to
travel in a back-and-forth motion.
-A

slow

-B
¤ fast

-C

- slow
-D
-
During part of its circuit, the light will
seem to be moving very slowly because
its motion around the circle will be paral-
lel to the observer’s line of sight. It will be
going either toward or away from the ob-
server, and for that reason it will appear
to move slowly. Elsewhere on its circuit,
the light will seem to be moving more ra-
pidly because its motion is perpendicular
to the observer’s line of sight. It will be
going sideways, either to the left or right, and for
that reason it will appear to move more quickly.
 Projecting circular motion onto a
straight line creates simple harmonic
motion. The maximum velocity comes at
the midpoint of the line segment, and the
minimum velocity comes at the two
extremes.
The period of a reference circle can be
calculated if the radius of the circle and
the velocity of the moving body are
known. From the formula [v=s/t] solve for
time.
Recall that the time is the period T. Also
recall that the distance is the
circumference 2πr. T = 2πr/v

EXAMPLE 6:
The hydrogen atom has a single
electron that travels at 2.29x10⁶m/sec at
a distance of 5.29x10⁻¹¹m from the
nucleus. What is the frequency; that is,
how many complete orbits does the
electron make each second?
SOLUTION:
T = 2πr/v
= 2(3.14)(5.29x10⁻¹¹)/ 2.19x10⁶
= 1.52x10⁻¹⁶ sec

frequency = 1/T = 1/ 1.52x10⁻¹⁶

= 6.58x10¹⁶ cycles/sec

= 6.58x10¹⁶ Hz
 An object that vibrates according to
simple harmonic motion will have a set
period, even if the vibration is damped. A
tuning fork undergoes simple harmonic
motion. It makes the same note whether
it is struck smartly or barely tapped. As
the sound dampens out, the loudness
grows less, but the frequency remains
constant.
Galileo discovered the principle of the
pendulum as a student in Pisa. His disco-
very would eventually lead to
the invention of accurate
clocks. Clocks keep time based
upon simple harmonic motion,
whether they use the simple
harmonic motions of swinging
pendulum, a hairspring win-
ding, and unwinding, or the
vibrations of a quartz crystal.
The most accurate clocks are
atomic clocks that use orbiting
electrons to mark off incredible
brief periods of time.

Atomic clock
 “Enthusiasm is
everything.
It must be taut and
vibrating like a
guitar string.”
(Pele)