UNIT-I

Introduction to Environmental studies and Eco system

INTRODUCTION

The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means “surrounding”.
Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc and
abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment is a complex of many variables,
which surrounds man as well as the living organisms.

Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelation ships which exist among and
between water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures such as plants, animals
and micro organisms. She suggested that environment consists of an inseparable whole system
constituted by physical, chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which are interlinked
individually and collectively in myriad ways. The natural environment consist of four
interlinking systems namely, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere.
These four systems are in constant change and such changes are affected by human activities and
vice versa.

Components of Environment
Environment has been classified into four major components:
1. Hydrosphere,
2. Lithosphere,
3. Atmosphere,
4. Biosphere.

Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc.
Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle.
Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The earth is a cold spherical
solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves around the sun at a certain
constant distance.
Lithosphere mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided into three
layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner). Atmosphere The cover of the air, that envelope
the earth is known as the atmosphere.
Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which
protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. There are five
concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the basis of temperature
and each layer has its own characteristics. These include the troposphere, the stratosphere, the
mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.
Biosphere it is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s surface
and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms,
ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. Biology is

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concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other organisms grow, feed,
move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different environments. Its subject
matter is useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as agriculture, forestry
and medicine. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of factors like rainfall,
temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical environmental factors, the man
made environment includes human groups, the material infrastructures built by man, the
production relationships and institutional systems that he has devised. The social environment
shows the way in which human societies have organized themselves and how they function in
order to satisfy their needs.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and
biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil
Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the
solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative,
and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.

Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering.

Environmental studies incorporate more of the social sciences for understanding human
relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering
focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating
alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and
the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction
of physical, chemical, and biological processes.

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SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Because of environmental studies has been seen to be multidisciplinary in nature so it is
considered to be a subject with great scope. Environment is not limited to issues of sanitation and
health but it is now concerned with pollution control, biodiversity conservation, waste
management and conservation of natural resources. This requires expert eyes and hence is
creating new job opportunities. The opportunities in this field are immense not only for scientists
but also for engineers, biologists. There is a good chance of opportunity to find a job in this field
as environmental journalists. Environmental science can be applied in the following spheres:
Ecosystem Structure and Function
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of the processes that link the leaving
organism or in other words biotic component to the non-living organism or a biotic component.
So for the study of environment we should aware with biotic and a biotic components.
Natural Resource Conservation
For managing and maintenance of forests which are natural resources and for the maintenance of
wildlife forms task under natural resource conservation. It is also a scope of environmental
studies
Environmental Pollution Control
With the knowledge of environmental science everybody can control the pollution. He/she can
handle the waste management and also look for ways to control pollution on the aspect of
pollution control.
Environmental management
There are several independent environmental consultants who are working with Central and State
pollution control Board. They offer advice to solve the problems of environment the optimum
solution for the upcoming problems. They give direction for controlling pollution due to
industrial development. There are several current consultants who are working with government
pollution control boobs, involved in policy making, pollution control and maintenance of
ecological balance.
The scope of environmental studies in industry
Environmental scientist’s work towards maintenance of ecological balance, they also work
towards conservation of biodiversity and regulation of natural resources as well as on
preservation of natural resources. Most of the industries have a separate environmental research
and development section. These sections govern the impact that their industry has on the
environment. Our environment is being degraded by the rapid industrialization. To combat this
menace there is a growing trend towards manufacture of "green" goods and products. So we can
say that there is a good scope in the field of industry from environmental studies.
Research and development
Research and development have tremendous scope due to increment in public awareness
regarding the environment. Various universities and governmental organizations offer a scope
for such research. These universities conduct research studies in order to develop the methods
toward monitoring and controlling the source of environmental pollution. Due to an increasing
threat from global warming, many steps are being undertaken for the reduction of greenhouse
gases and the adoption of renewable energy resources. They generate awareness now regarding
the use of solar energy for variety of purposes. This provides scope of environmental history in
the field of research and development.
Social Development
NGO (Nongovernmental organizations) help in creating awareness regarding the protection of
the environment and making the masses aware of various environmental issues . They also
generate a public opinion in this field. They work towards disseminating information and in
bringing about changes in political policies that are personally effect the environment. The social
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 dimension of this profession includes controlling population explosion through organizing
advisory awareness camps.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
Environment science has become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues
and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, and Transportation
Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed
World. The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’
Factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the
Environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable,
even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently
with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy
pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils
health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of
soil structure.
4. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
5. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would result in the extinction
of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country
acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly.
Some of these challenges are as under:
1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17
million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and
reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the
population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet the
development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the women
is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent
on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder.
About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has adversely
affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the
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 challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same
challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor,
every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.
3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with
damaging the environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to
physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water
It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial
effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected
quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water
bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies for consecration
of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult
challenges is essential.
5. Development and Forests
Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness the
mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge
forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific Debate.
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The statement is reliable and
provides a goal to which many people desire, though it provides no guidance or no assurance on how to
assess progress towards sustainable development. The term sustainability is often referred to as
“sustainable development”. Development may be regarded as the defined growth and hence sustainable
development means refining the problem caused by, but not challenging, continuous economic growth.
The term “sustainable development'' gained wide popularity in the international scientific
community after the renowned report “ Our Common Future” was published by the World Commission on
Environment and Development in 1987. Read the article below to know more about sustainable
development.
What is the Scope of Sustainable Development?
Sustainable development is observed as the mutually beneficial interaction between the legal
interest of a business and the economy, government and politics, and civil society, and culture. However,
these social interactions do not exist alone. On the physical and material side, the society is bound by the
carrying capacity of several ecosystems, landscape ecology, and eventually the biosphere of the Earth or
Nature. On the spiritual and psychological side, the three fold functional differentiation of society is
inspected by the caring capacity of an individual. Therefore, we can say that sustainable development is a
multidimensional concept, involving not less than four dimensions.
What are the Basic Characteristics of Sustainable Development?
The basic characteristics of sustainable development can be observed in the following points:
There should be an uninterrupted rise in real per capita income and economic welfare on a long-term
basis.
Sustainable development simply means that resources should be naturally used in such a way that
they are not over-exploited.
Sustainable development aims at making use of natural resources and the environment for
improving the standard of people in such a way that the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs is not minimized.
Sustainable development aims at promoting environment-friendly and biodegradable products,
while also making sustainable planning for replacement or replenishment of resource usage.
Sustainable development emphasis on eco-friendly building and developmental practices like
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green architecture.
What are the Three Core Elements of Sustainable Development?
The three core elements of sustainable development are briefly discussed below:
Environmental Conservation:
The primary focus of sustainable development is to protect the environment so that the resources provided
by it do not get destroyed.
Social Development:
It aims to attain the well-being of an individual and society at large. It entails the availability of necessary
resources, proper healthcare, and good quality of life for people.
Economic Progress:
It encourages people to invest in sustainable efforts by persuading them through its long-term benefits and
supporting both the environmental and social elements of the cause.
What are the Three Primary Goals of Sustainable Development?
The three primary goals of sustainable development are:
 To minimize the expenditure of natural resources while creating new developments.
 To create an environment that can be maintained and sustained without destroying the
environment.
 To provide a method for rebuilding existing developments to make them eco-friendly facilities and
projects.
International organizations such as NGOs, United Nations, aid organizations, and even
governments are making continuous sponsoring efforts to ensure that the goal of sustainable development
is achieved for every individual across the globe. Some other goals of sustainable development set by
these bodies are:
 Elimination of poverty across the world
 Ensure good health and well being
 Provision for clear water and sanitation
 Provision of quality education for all
 Achieving Gender Equality
 Allowing access to economical and clean energy
 Building up strong infrastructure, Supporting Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialization and
encouraging innovation
Principles/Premises of Sustainable Development
The following principles/premises underlying the concept of sustainable development:
 Sustainable development is the alternative method for development, which by definition is eco-
friendly and resource-efficient.
 There is a symbiotic relationship between consumer and producer’s natural systems.
 The present generation should meet its needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs i.e to ensure that productive assets available to future
generations are not unfairly minimized.
 Those who enjoy the fruits of economic development must not make the resources of future
generations worse by excessively degrading the Earth’s exhaustible resources and polluting its
ecology and environment.
 The development should not focus only on growth, insted it should aim for broader goals of social
transformation.
 Internally and externally sustainable development are two major aspects of sustainable
development. With both, no real sustainable development would emerge.
 In the long term, sustainable development has to maintain relations with ecology, resources, and
people along with their service agencies, institutions, and other aspects of their social
organizations.
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  The economic progress which destroys natural capital is not often successful.
 Sustainable development is largely responsible for the poor, and hence it should ensure that the
poor have adequate access to sustainable and secure living.
 The past environmental mistakes should not be repeated as past patterns of environmental
degradations are unavoidable.
 The environment and development are not mutually incompatible. Both a healthy environment and
a healthy economy is essential for economic development.
Sustainable Development Examples
Listed below are some sustainable development examples, few of which do not just have minimal
effect on the environment, but are also economical over an extended period of usage.
 Hydro energy as used in turbines.
 Wind energy is often employed in wind mills.
 Solar energy is finding wider implementation with innovations in solar cells and allied
technologies.
 Efficient and recycled use of water.
 Green architecture and other sustainable constructions.
 Crop rotation and similar agricultural methods.
 Maintenance and growth of sustainable green spaces.
Importance of Sustainable Development: Battling the Environmental Crisis
Importance of sustainable development lies in its attempt to battle the environmental crisis which can be
traced to unchallenged economic growth. Environmental crisis refers to a situation where nature is unable
to sustain life forms or perform basic functions which are essential for the sustenance of life.
As per sustainable development definition, it attempts to contain resource extraction so that it does not
exceed resource generation rates. Furthermore, it also tries to restrict waste generation to ensure that it
remains below natural absorption capacities of the environment.
What are the Reasons Leading to the Environmental Crisis?
Understandably, noting the reasons leading to environmental crisis is vital in formulating a sustainable
development project. Some of these reasons are discussed below in detail.
Continuous Growth of Economic Activities:
It has a two-pronged effect on this planet’s environment. While on one hand, there is greater consumption
of natural resources, on the other this is also accompanied with greater volume of waste. Consequently,
taming this issue can reduce depletion along with increased processing of waste materials.
Increasing Rate of Population Growth:
Rise in population leads to higher use of natural resources for their sustenance. It includes natural
resources like oxygen, water, etc. along with artificial products which are also dependent on
environmental resources. Another common issue with an ever-increasing population is that of misuse of
these natural resources.
Fast-paced Urbanization:
Economic and industrial development leads to fast-paced urbanization, which often compels large
populaces to relocate to urban spaces. This often leads to excess burden on existing infrastructures.
Furthermore, such a populace is often forced to relocate to slum areas that are congested and unhealthy.
Industrialisation:
Industrialisation has had a rippling effect on this planet’s environment in one of the most drastic fashions.
It is responsible for numerous environmental issues, among which foremost is the depletion of resources
along with deforestation. Additionally, industrial waste often contains toxic materials. These, in turn, have
also been greatly responsible for pollution with effects like water contamination, air pollution and even
noise pollution.

Reduction in Greenery:
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Deforestation to support economic development has been rampant on this planet for decades now. It has
led to unparalleled reduction of greenery on the face of this planet which has led to environmental changes
and degradations. Among its major effects, the most prominent has been global warming since
purification of greenhouse gasses has been hindered with deforestation.
Rising Use of Chemical and Artificial Products:
Use of chemicals like pesticides, chemically developed fertilizers, etc., has led to a poisonous effect on the
crops. While a number of crops have been found to contain traces of these chemicals, these have also
directly led to the development of health issues for farmers and other users. This too has adverse effects on
this planet’s environment, including soil contamination and other issues.
Subsequently, the nature and scope of sustainable development primarily focuses to curb these issues
which are a major drain on the environmental conditions. As students of commerce, it is vital to keep
these reasons in mind while planning for economic development.

UNIT II

NATURAL RESOURCES
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The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil, minerals,
coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on quantity,
quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability.
Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively
unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the material available
and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s
book Small is Beautiful.
a) Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources
The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely. These
resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore not likely to
be lost due to excessive and unwise use.
b) Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources
These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include metallic
minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may lose for less than
a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20 years.
Natural Resources and Associated Problems
Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an
increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and
industrialization, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-renewable
resources are limited. They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these resources may come to
an end. It is a matter of much concern and ensures a balance between population growth and
utilization of resources. This overutilization creates many problems. In some regions there are
problems of water logging due to over irrigation. In some areas, there is no sufficient water for
industry and agriculture. Thus, there is need for conservation of natural resources.
Land resources
1. Land degradation.
2. Man-induced landslides.
3. Soil erosion and desertification.
Deforestation
1. Timber extraction.
2. Mining and its effects on forest.
3. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people.
Water resources and associated problems
1. Use and over-exploitation.
2. Use and overutilization of water.
3. Floods, droughts etc.
4. Conflicts over water.
5. Dams and problems.
Heating of Earth and circulation of air
Energy resources and associated problems
1. Growing energy needs.

LAND RESOURCES
Land as a resource: Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins and wetlands
include different resource generating areas that the people living in them depend on. Many
traditional farming societies had ways of preserving
9 areas from which they used resources. If land
 is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource. The roots of trees and grasses bind
the soil. If forests are depleted, or grasslands overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and
wasteland is formed. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging and salinization, on which crops
cannot grow. Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial
and nuclear wastes are dumped on it. Land on earth is as finite as any of our other natural
resources. While mankind has learnt to adapt his lifestyle to various ecosystems world over, he
cannot live comfortably for instance on polar ice caps, on under the sea, or in space in the
foreseeable future.
LAND DEGRADATION AND CONTROL OF LAND DEGRADATION
Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that alter its conditions or reduces its
quality. Land degradation occurs due to both natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
heavy rains, fire etc or human induced activities. The other causes of land degradation consist of wind
blow, salinity of water, water logging, soil acidity, loss of flora and fauna.
Desertification is land degradation occurring in the arid, semi-arid regions of the world. These
dry lands cover about 40% of the earth’s surface and puts at risk more than 1 billion people who are
dependent on these lands for survival.
Land clearing and deforestation; Mining activity in forest areas; urban conversion; bringing more
land under cultivation; soil pollution ; loss of organic matter in the soils; alkalinization of soils;
salinity of water etc leads to land degradation. Severe land degradation affects in decreasing the
mineral wealth and economic development of nations.
The methods that are followed for the prevention of land degradation are called soil conservation
methods. Some of the popular methods are;
(a) Contour farming: The land is prepared with alternate furrows (a long narrow cut in the
Ground) and ridges at the same level. The water is caught and held in furrows and stores which
reduces run off and erosion.
(b) Mulching: Stems of maize, cotton, tobacco etc are used as a mulch (decay of leaves) to
reduce soil moisture, evaporation.
(c) Crop rotation: Growing same crop year after year depletes the nutrients and land becomes
Unproductive. This is overcome by changing the crops and cultivating legumes (plants like peas,
beans) after a regular crop.
(d) Strip cropping: It consists of planting crops in rows or strips along contours to check flow of
water.
LANDSLIDES AND MAN INDUCED LAND SLIDES
Landslides always exist on this planet and the term land slide is used to describe a wide variety
of process that result a downward movement of rocks under gravitational forces. In other words, mass
movement of rocks, debris and soil down a slope of land.
Landslides are primarily associated with steep slopes. Surface run-off and changes in drainage
also cause for landslides. Landslides can also be initiated by rainfall; earthquakes; volcanic activity,
changes in groundwater movement or any combination these factors.
Debris-flows can travel down a hillside of speeds up to 200 miles per hour (more commonly,
30– 50 miles per hour) depending on the slope angle, water content, and type of earth and debris in
the flow.
While landslides are a naturally occurring environmental hazard they have recently increased in
frequency in certain areas due to human activities.
Building excavations collapses in mining (e.g.: coal mine) causes landslides. However,
landslides can be triggered by the human beings by induced changes in the environment.
Simply landslides can be explained in three ways:
(a) Inherent of rocks (weakness in the structure of a rock )
(b) Due to heavy seismic or volcanic activity and
(c) Due to various environmental conditions.
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SOIL EROSION AND CAUSES FOR SOIL EROSION
The top layer of the earth is called as soil. Soil erosion occurs due to deforestation, overgrazing,
industrialization; desertification etc.
a. Deforestation: Mining, industrial, urban development etc causes deforestation and leads to
exposure of the land to wind and rains causing soil erosion. Cutting trees leads to deforestation
which in turn loss of organic matter in the soils.
b. Overgrazing: When sufficient amount of grass is available for the organisms usually the
entire land /area may be subjected to exhaust and the land is exposed without grass and
ultimately the land expose to wind/rain causing soil erosion.
c. Industrialization: Different processes carried out by industries and mining operations cause
soil pollution which leads to degradation of land
DESERTIFICATION:
Desertification is the process which turns productive into non- productive desert as a result of poor
land-management. Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less than
600 mm) bordering on deserts. In the Sahel, (the semi-arid area south of the Sahara Desert), for
example, the desert moved 100 km southwards between 1950 and 1975.
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION
 Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid areas are
adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals which move in response to
the patchy rainfall common to these regions. Early human pastoralists living in semi-arid areas
copied this natural system. They moved their small groups of domestic animals in response to food
and water availability. Such regular stock movement prevented overgrazing of the fragile plant
cover.
 Cultivation of marginal lands, i.e lands on which there is a high risk of crop failure and a very
low economic return, for example, some parts of South Africa where maize is grown.
 Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood.
 Poor grazing management after accidental burning of semi-arid vegetation.
 Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the buildup of salts in the
soil) which can prevent plant growth.
When the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of desertification increases
dramatically.
Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor people may be
forced to overuse their environment in the short term, without the ability to plan for the long term
effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social importance beyond food, people might be
reluctant to reduce their stock numbers.
EFFECTS OF DESERTIFICATION
Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic
animals, agricultural crops and people. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification
leads to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing approximately 300-400
million tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are reduced, rain drop impact
and run-off increases.
Water is lost off the land instead of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for plants. Even
long-lived plants that would normally survive droughts die. A reduction in plant cover also results in
a reduction in the quantity of humus and plant nutrients in the soil, and plant production drops
further. As protective plant cover disappears, floods become more frequent and more severe.
Desertification is self-reinforcing, i.e. once the process has started, and conditions are set for
continual deterioration.
DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does not
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include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has
resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area. Indigenous
forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface. Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover (or)
the aimless destruction of trees. The clearing of forests across the earth has been occurring on a large
scale basis for many centuries. This process involves the cutting down, burning and damaging of
forests. Currently 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually and the current rate of
deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the next 100 years about 80% of the
original forests on the earth have already been cleared.
Major causes of De forestation:
a. Shifting cultivation : There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who
practice slash and burn agriculture and are supported so clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests for
shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice of North-East and to some extent in
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P. which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.
b. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone
has shooted up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tons during
independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.
c. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood,
match boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood
is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for
packing apples in J & K.
d. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occurs for various development projects
like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc.
e. Growing food needs: In developing countries this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet
the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created
permanently by clearing forests.
f. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of
tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into the grazing lands. Overgrazing by the cattle leads
to further degradation of these lands.
g. Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people
1. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast
forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep
deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than80000 ha of land of the country is presently
under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of
vegetation along with underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing
the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been
reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining of various minerals over
a length of about 40 Km.
Impact of dam building and mining on environment
 Mining:- Mining operation for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves vast
forest areas. Mining from shallow deposit is done by surface mining while that from deep deposit
is done by sub-surface mining. This method is more destructive, dangerous and expensive
including risks of occupational hazards and accident
 More than 80,000 ha. Of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities.
 Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil and
overlying rock masses.
 This result in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area.
Types of mining
12
Open-pit mining:- In which machines dig holes and remove the ores (e.g. copper, iron, gravel,
sandstone, marble, granite).
Dredging:- (Bring up or clear something) In which chained buckets(is a heavy equipment machine
used in surface mining) and draglines are used which scrap up the minerals from under water mineral
deposits.
Strip mining:- In which the ore is stripped off by using bulldozers and stripping wheels.
Impact of mining
 Devegetation and defacing of landscape
 Subsidence of land
 Groundwater contamination
 Surface water pollution
 Air pollution
 Occupational health hazards
 Large scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to
indiscriminate mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 km. The forested area has
been declined at an average of 33% and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities
has resulted in relatively unstable zones leading to landslides.
 Indiscriminate mining in forest of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest
land.
 Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj, and singrauli area have caused extensive deforestation in
Jharkhand.
 Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka is posing similar threats of
deforestation.
 The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threats due to mining project.

13
Dam and their effects on Forests and people
 Big dam are often regarded as a symbol of national development. Big dam and river valley projects
have multi-purpose uses and have been referred to as “Temples of modern India”.
 However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forest.
 India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than
600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130).
 The highest dam is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttarakhand and the largest in terms of
capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh.
 Big dams have been in sharp focus of various groups all over the world which is mainly because of
several ecological problems including deforestation and socio-economic problems related to tribal
or native people associated with them.
 For building big dams, large scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural
ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides become more prevalent in such
areas.
 Forests are the valuable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and destroying them.
Environmental problems
 The environmental impacts of big dams are also too many due to which very often the big dams
become a subject of controversy. The impact can be at the upstream as well as downstream levels.
 The up stream problems:-
 Displacement of tribal people
 Loss of forests, flora and fauna
 Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs
 Reservoir induced seismicity causing earthquakes
 Microclimatic change
Lose of non-forest land
The downstream impacts:-
 Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation
 Reduced water flow and silt deposition in river 14
  Flash floods
 Loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments
 Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria

DAMS AND OTHER EFFECTS ON FOREST AND TRIBAL PEOPLE

Forest are directly are indirectly effected by the forest. Hydro-electric dams are main cause for
deforestation. About 40,000 large dams are currently obstructing Workloads Rivers. Destruction of forest occurs
for constructing big dams, which alters ecological balance. In these way landslides, droughts and floods conditions
may rise in area. Socio-economic problems related to tribal and native people results from big dam construction
Dam construction produces a number of health hazards. Thousands of workers who build the dams attacked
by the diseases like AIDS, measles, tuberculosis, syphilis etc. Dam building has resulted in wide range human
rights violations. Rehabilitation policy of the government is important and typical when most of the displaced
persons are tribal people. Tribal life and culture are mostly associated with forest

CASE STUDIES:
Chipko movement related to mining or quarrying opposed by SundarlalBahuguna in North India.
The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next five years spread to
many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The name of the movement comes from a word
meaning 'embrace': the villagers hug the trees, saving them by interposing their bodies between them and
the contractors' axes. The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-
year ban on green felling in the Himalayan forests of that state by order of India's then Prime Minister,
Indira Gandhi. Since then the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in the North, Kamataka in the
South, and Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyas in Central India. In addition to
the 15-year ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement has stopped clear felling in the Western Ghats and the
Vindhyas and generated pressure for a natural resource policy which is more sensitive to people's needs
and ecological requirements.
Sardar Sarovar – Narmada project is a multipurpose project in Gujarat

15
Effects of deforestation on biodiversity
 The results revealed that deforestation has negative impact on biodiversity in the area. The
impact of deforestation on biodiversity seen in terms of loss of valuable plant species, reduced
plant biomes and extinction of species.
 Loss of habitats
 Illegal wild life trade
 Global climate change
Biodiversity loss

16
WATER RESOURCES
Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these
human uses require fresh water.
Distribution of water on earth:
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water. Only three percent is fresh water; slightlyover two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as
groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air
Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms
1. Ground water and 2. Surface water
1. Groundwater: About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is
about 35-50 times that of surface water supplied
USES OF WATER:
1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing, washing
Clothes, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian
standard specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining, textile,
leather industries.
3. PUBLIC USE: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks, Flushing
streets, jails etc.
4. FIRE USE: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
5. IRRIGATION: To grow crops which is the main sources for food?
6. OTHER USES: Hydro electric power generation requires water.
OVER UTILIZATION OF GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER
Over use of groundwater has following effects.
1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking, irrigation and Domestic
purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground water in various regions leading to
lowering of water table & drying of wells. The reasons for shortage of water are:
a. Increase in population,
b. Increasing demand of water for various purposes.
c. Unequal distribution of fresh water.
17
 d. Increasing pollution of water sources cause over exploitation.
2. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than its recharge rate, the
sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is called ground subsidence which may cause
damage of buildings, destroy water supply systems etc.
3. Drought. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency
in its water supply whether surface or underground water. Generally, this occurs when a region
receives consistently below average precipitation.
We can define drought in four main ways:
a) Meteorological drought: related to rainfall amounts
b) Hydrological drought: determined by water levels in reservoirs
c) Agricultural drought: related to the availability of water for crops
d) Socioeconomic Drought: related to demand and supply of economicgoods
a) Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is generally defined by comparing the rainfall
in a particular place and at a particular time with the average rainfall for that Place. The definition is,
therefore, specific to a particular location. Meteorological drought leads to a depletion of soil moisture
and this almost always has an impact on crop production.
b) Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought is associated with the effect of low rainfall on water
levels in rivers, reservoirs, lakes and aquifers. Hydrological droughts usually are noticed some time
after meteorological droughts. First precipitation decreases and, Sometime after that, water levels in
rivers and lakes drop.
c) Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and farming.
Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced ground water or
reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may stop germination, leading to
low plant populations.
d) Socioeconomic Drought: Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good
exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. The supply of many
economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and hydroelectric power, depends on
weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is sufficient in some years but not satisfactory to
meet human and environmental needs in other year
FLOODS
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is normally dry. The European Union
(EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water.
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in which the
water overtops or breaks, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries, or it may occur
due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area flood. Floods can also occur in
rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends in the
waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of
rivers.
CONFLICTS OVER WATER
Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access to
water resources. The United Nations recognizes that water disputes result from opposing interests of
water users, public or private.
A wide range of water conflicts appear throughout history, though rarely are traditional wars
waged over water alone. Instead, water has historically been a source of tension and a factor in
conflicts that start for other reasons. However, water conflicts arise for several reasons, including
territorial disputes, a fight for resources, and strategic advantage.
These conflicts occur over both freshwater and saltwater, and between international boundaries.
However, conflicts occur mostly over freshwater; because freshwater resources are necessary, yet
limited, they are the center of water disputes arising out of need for potable water. As freshwater is a
vital, yet unevenly distributed natural resource, its 18 availability often impacts the living and economic
 conditions of a country or region. The lack of cost-effective water desalination techniques in areas like
the Middle East, among other elements of water crises can put severe pressures on all water users
According to the 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment, Water is a vital
element for human life, and any human activity relates somehow to water. Unfortunately, it is not a
renewable resource and in the future it "might get worse with climate change
Water conflicts occur because the demand for water resources and potable water extend far beyond
the amount of water actually available. Elements of a water crisis may put pressures on affected parties
to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or outright conflict.
The Cauvery water dispute:
Out of Indias 18 major rivers, 17 are shared between different states. In all these cases, there are
intense conflicts over these resources which badly seem to resolve. The Cauvery river water is a born
of contention between tamilnadu and Karnataka and the problem is almost hundred years old.
Tamilnadu occupying the downstream region of the river wants water-use regulated in the upstream
state Karnataka refuses to do so and claims its privacy over the river as upstream user. The river
water is almost fully utilized and both the states having increasing demands for agriculture and
industry. The consumption is more in Tamilnadu than Karnataka where the catchment area is rockier.
On June 2, 1990, the Cavery Water dispute tribunal was set up which through an interim award
directed Karnataka to ensure that 205 TMCF of water was made available in Tamilnadus mettur dam
every year, till a settlement was reached. In 1991-92 due to good monsoon, there was no disputr as
there was good stock of water in Mettur , but in 1995, the situation turned into a crisis due to delayed
rains and an expert committee was set up to look into the matter which found there was a complex
cropping pattern in Cauvery basin. Sambra paddy in winter, Kurvai paddy in summer and some cash
crops demanded intensive water, thus aggravating the water crisis. Proper selection of crop varieties,
optimum use of water, better rationing and rational sharing patterns, and pricing of water are suggested
as some measures to solve the problem.
DAMS-BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development. Current
estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower, another contender for
the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150
countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China and India – have built around 57% of the world’s
large dams.
BENEFITS:
River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in the development
process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the largest number of river valley projects.
The tribal’s living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as they aim at providing employment and raising
the standard and quality of life. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. They
can help in checking floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortage, provide
irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and promote navigation, fishery etc
PROBLEMS:
• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers.
• Serious impacts on riverine ecosystems.
• Social consequences of large dams due to displacement of people.
• Water logging and Stalinization of surrounding lands.
• Dislodging animal populations, damaging their habitat and cutting off their migration routes.
• Fishing and travel by boat disrupted.
Large dams have had serious impacts on the lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of
indigenous and tribal peoples. They have suffered disproportionately from the negative Impacts of dams
and often been excluded from sharing the benefits. In India, of the 16 to 18 million people displaced by
dams, 40 to 50% were tribal people, who account for only 8% of our nation’s one billion people.
Global Warming 19
 Definition
“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse
effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. “
What is Global Warming?
Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the temperature near the earth’s surface. This
phenomenon has been observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has disturbed the climatic
pattern of the earth. However, the concept of global warming is quite controversial but the scientists have
provided relevant data in support of the fact that the temperature of the earth is rising constantly.
There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect on humans, plants and animals.
These causes may be natural or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is
very important to understand the negative impacts of global warming.
Causes of Global Warming
Following are the major causes of global warming:
Man-made Causes of Global Warming
Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining
environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has
led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.
Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn
fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in
a temperature increase.
Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the
environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from
the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way
for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.
Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful
emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global
temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius
when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.
Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.
Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of carbon
dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.
Natural Causes of Global Warming
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke emitted
during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

20
Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature, more water gets
evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.
Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years and is present below
Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the
atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.
Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are released into
the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.
Effects of Global Warming
Following are the major effects of global warming:
Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s
temperature has increased by ~1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which
have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.
Threats to the Ecosystem
Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and animal lives. Increase in
global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.
Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places and floods
at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.
Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the movement of
mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.
High Mortality Rates
Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually
increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.
Loss of Natural Habitat
A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this case, the
animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet
another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is defined by physicists as the capacity to do work. Energy is found on ourplanet in a
variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful to do work, while others require a process of
transformation. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but transformed from one form to other.
Energy is closely related to force. When a force causes an object to move, energy is being transferred
from the force to kinetic energy. Energy is present in a number of forms such as mechanical, thermal,
chemical, biological energy etc.. Energy production and utilization have become essential to carry out
many activities in modern life. Energy is one of the important requirements that a country needs for its
economic growth. At the same time, energy production has its impact on environment due to pollution and
finally affects the quality of life of people.
GROWING ENERGY NEEDS
Energy plays a key role in the process of economic growth of a nation. The industrial development
of any country is dependent on the organized development of its power resources'. Energy is also
indispensable for agriculture, transport, business and domestic requirements. In fact, electricity has such a
21
wide range of applications in modern economic development that its per capita consumption is, to a great
extent, an index of the material advancement of the country. Energy is the capacity for doing useful work.
It is an essential input for economic growth. This energy is used in the form of electrical energy, thermal
energy, light, mechanical energy and chemical energy etc.
Energy is measured in joules in Si units. The annual per capita energy consumption in developed
countries ranges from 5 to 11 kW whereas in the developing countries it is between 1 to 1.5 KW Only
Uses of Energy
1. Energy is a primary input in any industrial operation.
2. It is also a major input in sectors such as commerce, transport, tele-communications etc.
3. The wide range of services required in the household and industrial sectors.
4. Owing to the far-reaching changes in the forms of energy and their respective roles in
supporting human activities, research and training on various aspects of energy and environment
have assumed great significance.
Types of energy: There are three main types of energy;
A. Non-renewable B. Renewable C. Nuclear energy
A. Non – renewable energy resources
Fossil fuels: Fossil means the remains of an animal or a plant which have become hard and turned
into rock. All these found in earth’s crusts which have been formed in the past by the geological
processes. Fossil fuels are solid coal (lignite), liquid (crude oil / petroleum) and gases (natural gas ).
a) Coal: Huge quantity of plant materials buried under earths crust and altered by geological
process and converted into carbon rich fuel. It is a non – renewable source because it takes a very
long period (million of years) for its formation.
Coal is extracted by the process of mining and involves accidents due to mine collapse, ground
water pollution, accumulation of poisonous material, explosive gases etc cause diseases. CO2
pollution leads to green house effect (global warming).
b) Crude oil: It is obtained in the form of liquid . The crude oil is heated up to 600 oC in the oil
refinery and condense the vapours of hydro – carbons. Petrol another petroleum products are
refined fuels from crude oil. Petroleum products are used in large quantities in the manufacture of
detergents, plastics, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, synthetic rubber etc.. The transport sector
consumes about 40% of diesel; 25% industries and 19%household and rest 16% agriculture and
other sectors. .
c) Natural Gas: Gas deposits are trapped from the sedimentary formations by means drilling
holes into the rock formations. While burning of natural gas, the emission of CO2 is less and
thus reduces green house effect and global warming. A total of 734 billion cubic mts of gas is
estimated as proven reserves.
B. Renewable energy resources: Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced
and are usually less polluting.
Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat inside the
earth).
1. Solar energy: The energy which is derived from the sun is known as solar energy. It can be used
for direct heating or sun’s heat is converted into electricity. Photo voltaic cells convert direct solar
energy into electricity.
A number of solar equipments have been developed to utilize sun rays to heat water, to cook food,
to pump water and to run certain machines and used for street lighting, railway signals etc. But the
major problem with solar energy is that during cloudy weather it is available in less quantity than on
sunny days.
How Solar Power Works
The sun's energy can be captured to generate electricity or heat through a system of panels or
mirrors.
 Solar, or photovoltaic, cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Most photovoltaic cells are
22
 made primarily of silicon, the material used in computer semiconductor chips, and arranged on
rectangular panels. When sunlight hits a cell, the energy knocks electrons free of their atoms,
allowing them to flow through the material. The resulting DC (direct current) electricity is then sent
to a power inverter for conversion to AC (alternating current).
 Solar thermal collectors use heat-absorbing panels and a series of attached circulation tubes to
heat water or buildings.
 Solar concentration systems use mirrors -- usually arranged in a series of long, parabolic troughs, a
large round dish, or a circle surrounding a "power tower" -- to focus the sun's reflected rays on a
heat-collecting element. The concentrated sunlight heats water or a heat- transferring fluid such as
molten salt to generate steam, which is then used conventionally to spin turbines and generate
electricity.
 Passive solar design is the creative use of windows, skylights and sunrooms, building site and
orientation, and thermal construction materials to heat and light buildings, or to heat water, the
natural way.
2. Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which dams are
constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy by
means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into electrical energy by
generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems like destruction of animal
habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc..
3. Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the
temperature rises with depth .The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C. Geysers ( a natural
spring that emits hot water ) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy where the steam and
hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by drilling. The obtained steam is
then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of geothermal energy where the gases like
H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of the geothermal sources. The overall efficiency for
power production is low (15%) as compared to fossil fuels (40%).
4. Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric
air. Wind mills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average wind mills can convert
30 – 40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady wind speed of 8.5mts / sec. The
efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind and length of rotor blade.
The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of this about6000 MW is
located in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute the states of Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan for balance quantity.

Merits & demerits of wind energy:

1. It is a non – polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost
3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erect at on shore, remote and rural areaswhere wind blows with
required intensity.
5. Favorable in geographic locations which are 23 away from cities.
 6. Wind turbine design, manufacturing, installation is complex due tovarying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Wind power doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.
5. Ocean energy: Seas and oceans are large water bodies . Seas absorb solar radiation and large
amounts of solar energy are stored in the tides and waves of the ocean. Ocean energy is non –
polluting in nature and suitable at a few places only. Energy from seas or oceans is obtained from the
following:
(1) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: The oceans collect and store huge quantities of solar on
the surface of the water while the temperature of deepwater is very low. Using this temperature
difference it is possible to convert heat into electricity.
(2) Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate electricity. Asia’s
first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up at Kandla in Gulf of Kutch.
6. Bio mass energy: Bio-mass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is a
renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural activities. The bio-
mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agriculture crops, house hold
waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using bio-mass energy sources is to allow
them to dry out in the sun and burn them.
7. Bio-gas: Bio-gas is a sustainable source of energy by virtue of its production from available
natural organic wastes of cattle dung, human excreta, poultry waste, plant leaves, paddy husk etc….
Bio-gas is amixture of methane (68%), CO2 (31%) and N2 (1%). Methane gas (CH4) is produced by
bio-gas plants and this gas is utilized as cooking gas whose calorific value varies from 4400 – 6200
Kilo Calories / cum. Heat value of biogas can be improved by reducing its CO2 content. Bio-gas
production is carried out in an enclosed bio-gas plant made of bricks or steel. Aslurry of waste organic matter
is fed into the plant through an inlet and gas formed is tapped by an inverted drum. As gas is produced the
drum rises and the gas may be drawn through an outlet.Bio-gas is commonly produced from cattle dung in a
bio gas plant known as Gobar Gas plant. Bio-gas is a clean, cheap fuel that can be used for lighting purpose,
lifting water through small pumps.
C. Nuclear Energy or Atomic power: It is the energy which is trapped inside the atom. It is non–
renewable source of energy which is released during fission or fusion of certain radioactive elements.
The most important advantage of atomic power is the production of an enormous amount of energy
from a small quantity of radioactive element. For eg: 1 kg of Uranium liberates energy equivalent to
30000 kgs of coal.
Energy released during nuclear reaction (mass – energy equation as per Albert Einstein’s formula E
= mc2).
Nuclear Energy is produced by two processes namely (1) Nuclear Fission and (2) Nuclear Fusion.
Nuclear Fission: The nucleus in atoms is split by fast moving neutrons and in turn a tremendous
amount of energy in the form of heat, light etc is released by a chain of reactions. Uranium is used as
fuel. The energy released slowly in this process is utilized to generate electricity or else released
suddenly all at once, results a tremendous explosion as in the case of Atom bomb.
Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear energy can be generated by fusion process which involves two hydrogen
atoms combine to produce one helium atom.
Eg: hydrogen bomb. The disposal of nuclear wastes during mining, fuel production and reactor
operation for a long time period resulting in adverse effects on environment. Disposable of
nuclear waste is a national and global problem.
USE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels.
The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time,
as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because of the variety of energy choices and
differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as "alternative" is highly
24
 controversial.
In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is that which is produced or
recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high
carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming. Sometimes, this less
comprehensive meaning of "alternative energy" excludes nuclear energy
 Solar energy is the generation of electricity from the sun. It is split up into two types,
thermal and electric energy. These two subgroups mean that they heat up homes and
generate electricity respectively.
 Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
 Geothermal energy is using hot water or steam from the Earth’s interior for heating
buildings or electricity generation.
 Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived substitutes of gasoline for powering vehicles.
 Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to create energy.
 Hydrogen is used as clean fuel for spaceships, and some cars
CASE STUDIES
• In 1981, a plane called ‘The Solar Challenger ‘flew from Paris to England in 5hours,
20minutes. It had 16,000 solar cells glued to the wings and tail of the plane and they produced
enough power to drive a small electric motor and propeller. Since 1987, every three years there is
a World Solar challenge for solar operated vehicles in Australia where the vehicles cover 3000
kms.
• The world’s first solar-powered hospitals in Mali in Africa. Being situated at the edge of the
Sahara desert, Mali receives a large amount of sunlight. Panel’s of solar cells supply the power
needed to run vital equipment and keep medical supplies cool in refrigerators.
• In recent years, the popularity of building integrated photovoltaic’s (BIPV’s) has grown
considerably. In this application, PV devices are designed as part of building materials (i.e. roofs
and siding) both to produce electricity and reduce costs by replacing the costs of normal
construction materials. There are more than 3, 000 BIPV systems in Germany and Japan has a
program that will build 70,000BIPV buildings.
UNIT III
BIO DIVERSITY

Biodiversity and its conservation

The variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat, a high level of which is usually
considered to be important and desirable.
Defining Biodiversity
Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species
and of ecosystems.” The importance of this definition is that it draws attention to the many
dimensions of biodiversity.
Genetic biodiversity:
All forms of life on earth, whether microbes, plants, animals, or human beings, contain genes.
Genetic diversity is the sum of genetic information contained in the genes of individual plants, animals,
and micro-organisms. Each species is the storehouse of an immense amount of genetic information in
the form of traits, characteristics, etc. The number of genes ranges from about 1000 in bacteria to more
than 400 000 in many flowering plants. Each species consists of many organisms and virtually no two
members of the same species are genetically identical.
Species biodiversity:
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 Species diversity is defined as the number of species and abundance of each species that live in
a particular location. The number of species that live in a certain location is called
species richness Abundance is the number of individuals of each species.
Ecosystem biodiversity:
Genetic biodiversity refers to variability in the gene pool of a community. Species biodiversity,
which is the form of biodiversity most often discussed, refers to the number of species living in an
area. Ecosystem biodiversity refers to the number of ecosystems in a certain area. Ecosystems are all
of the animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi as well as the physical components of the area. An
ecosystem can be as large as an entire forest or as small as a clump of moss that provides a habitat for
plants, microscopic invertebrates, and bacteria.
Biodiversity and its conservation
 If we divide the whole earth’s mass into 10 billion parts, it is only in one part where life exists
and the astounding variety of living organ-isms numbering somewhere around 50 million
species are all restricted to just about a kilometer- thick layer of soil, water and air. Isn't it
wonderful to see that so much diversity has been created by nature on this earth from so little
physical matter!
 Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the
ecosystem complexes in which they occur.
 From the driest deserts to the dense tropical rainforests and from the high snow-clad mountain
peaks to the deepest of ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvellous spectrum of forms, size,
colour and shape, each with unique ecological inter- relationships.
 Just imagine how monotonous and dull the world would have been had there been only a few
species of living organisms that could be counted on fingertips!
In the Convention of Biological diversity (1992) biodiversity y has been defined as the variability
among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they arc a part.
Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for “biological diversity” (bio-life or living organisms,
diversity-variety).
 Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number of races, varieties
and species.
 The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers, consumers
and decomposers) in a system.
Levels of Biodiversity
 Units of biodiversity may range from the genetic level within a species to the biota in a specific
region and may extend up to the great diversity found in different biomes.
GENETIC DIVERSITY
 It is the basic source of biodiversity.
 The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of combinations each of which
gives rise to some variability.
 Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to other.
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  When the genes within the same species show different versions due to new combinations, it
is called genetic variability.
 For example, all varieties belong to the species Oryza, but there are thousands of wild and
cultivated varieties of rice which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their color,
size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain.
 This is the genetic diversity of rice.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
 This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different
species of a community.
 It represents broadly the species richness and their abundance in a community.
 There are two popular indices of measuring species diversity known as Shannon -
Wiener index and Simpon index.
What is the number of species on this biosphere?
 The estimates of actual number vary widely due to incomplete and indirect data.
 The current estimates given by Wilson in 1992 put the total number of living species in a
range of 10 million to 50 million.
 Till now only about 1.5 million living and 300.000 fossil species have beenactually
described and given scientific names.
 It is quite likely that a large fraction of these species may become extinct even before
discovered and en-listed.
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
 This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niches,
strophic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc.
 The ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture,
temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.
 Thus, there occurs tremendous diversity within the ecosystems, along these gradients.
 We may consider diversity in forest ecosystem, which is supposed to have mainly a
dominance of trees.
 But, while considering a tropical rainforest, a tropical deciduous forest, a temperate
deciduous forest and a boreal forest, the variations observed are just too many and
they are mainly due to variations in the above mentioned physical factors.
 The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept intact.
 This diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution.
 If we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt the ecological balance.
 We cannot even replace the diversity of one ecosystem by that of another.
 Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot take up the function of the trees of tropical deciduous
forest lands and vice versa, because ecosystem diversity has evolved with respect to the
prevailing environmental conditions with well regulated ecological balance.
BIOGEOGRAPGHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
 India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country and
these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna.
 India as a rich heritage of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant
rich nations of the world.
 It is very important to study the distribution, 27 evolution, dispersal and environmental
 relationship of plants and animals in time and space.
 Biogeography comprising of Phytogeography and zoogeography deals with these aspects
of plants and animals.
 In order to gain insight about the distribution and environmental interactions offlora and
fauna of our country, it has been classified into ten biogeographic zones.
 Each of these zones has its own characteristic climate, soil, topography and
biodiversity.
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the different types of ecosystems, different species of organisms with the whole
range of their variants and genes adapted to different climates and environments, along with their
interactions and processes that sustain life.
Types of Biodiversity
The term “biodiversity” was coined by sociologist Edward Wilson to describe combined diversity at
all the levels, which are divided into three interrelated hierarchical levels:
1. Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the sum of genetic information present in the genes of individual plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Increases in variation in genes of the species take place with the
increase in size and environmental parameters of the habitat. This diversity is useful in adaptation to
changes in environmental conditions.
2. Species Diversity
Species diversity is the product of both species richness and evenness or equitability. The amphibian
species diversity in the western ghats is abundantly enriched compared to the eastern ghats.
3. Ecosystem and Community Diversity
Within the geographical area, there may be a variable number of ecosystems present, which measures the
biodiversity of that region. It is again of three types:
a. Alpha Diversity (Within community diversity)
b. Beta Diversity (Between community diversity)
c. Gamma Diversity (Index diversity)
Number of Species on Earth and in India
We have all the published records of all the species discovered till now, but it is very much hard to
answer the question of how many species there are on earth. According to the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (2004), the total number of plant and animal
species recorded is slightly more than 1.5 million.
1. Among the total recorded species, the number of animal species is 70%. At the same time,
plants cover not more than 22% of all the species.
2. The abundance of insects is maximum among invertebrates. Among vertebrates, the abundance
of fishes is maximum.
3. The maximum biodiversity takes place in the tropical Amazon rainforest of South America.
4. India has only 2.4% of land area compared to the total land area of the world, but it shares an
impressive 8.1% of global species diversity.
5. India is rich in biodiversity, so it is considered a mega diversity nation. The biodiversity-rich
regions of India are the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma region, and Sundaland.
6. In India, more than 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals have been
discovered.
Patterns of Biodiversity
Several biodiversity patterns can occur within various species, communities, regions, habitats,
biomes, ecosystems, and the entire earth. The ecologists studied biodiversity in the environment and
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observed a regular pattern in which diversity is distributed over the entire area of the earth. Charles
Robert Darwin described three different patterns and levels of biodiversity.
1. Global Patterns of Biodiversity
In this pattern of biodiversity, species living in similar ecosystems but in d ifferent parts of the world
make them distantly related as they act and look quite similar. They look and act similarly; for
example, Emus found in Australia, Rheas found in South America, and Ostriches found in Africa.
They are all flightless birds.
2. Species Vary Locally
In this pattern of biodiversity, animal species often occupy different habitats within a local area. The
Galapagos Islands are a group of islands relatively close to each other but having different climates.
Darwin saw differences in the ecological conditions of the islands along with the differences in the
shell shape of tortoises.
Isabela Island contains high peaks, higher rainfall, and contains rich vegetation. The tortoise of this
Island has a short neck and dome-shaped shell. Hood Island has lower elevations very much with a
dry climate and contains less vegetation. The tortoise of this Island has a long neck and saddle-backed
shell. Darwin also observed that different Islands contain different varieties of mockingbirds.
3. Species Vary Over Time
Through the studies of fossils, it was found that some were enormous versions of modern-day species.
For example, the modern-day armadillo (50cm long) and the fossil remains of glyptodont (3m long)
resemble each other.
Spatial Patterns of Biodiversity
Throughout the world, biodiversity is not uniform. Biodiversity varies with the changes in latitude and
altitude and also with time. It is the most well-defined pattern of biodiversity.
Spatial Patterns of Biodiversity: Two patterns are defined in which diversity varies with space
changes; they are:
I. Patterns of Biodiversity Latitudinal Gradients
Species diversity is maximum near the equator and decreases as we move away from the equator
towards the pole. It means biodiversity is more at lower latitudes near the equator and less at higher
latitudes near the poles. There might be some exceptions to a few species. India, located in a tropical
territory, has good species richness. Amazon rainforests have maximum biological diversity with
regard to the number of species inhabiting this region.
Tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5 0 N to 23.50 S) have firm climate conditions in contrast to temperate
areas. So, species do not need to keep adapting to a changing season, so we can see enriched species
diversity in this region.
Unlike temperate areas subjected to regular glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have remained
quite intact for millions of years and thus, got a long evolution time for species diversification.
II. Species-area Relationships
Alexander Von Humboldt figured out research that explained that species richness grows with
expanding investigated area but only within a limit. On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a
straight line narrated by the following equation:
log S = log C + Z log A
Where,
S = Species richness
A= Area
Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient)
C = Y-intercept

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The value of Z lies between 0.1 to 0.2, despite any taxonomic group or area. But, if we analyse It for
very large areas like the entire continents, then we found the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z
values in the range of 0.6 to 1.2).
Biodiversity Patterns in Time
Three different types of recognised patterns in time are discussed below:
1. Seasonal Pattern: During different seasons, the diversity of species varies. In the rainy
season, the diversity of insect species increases and decreases during winter. Bird diversity is related
to the migratory activity and breeding season.
2. Successional Pattern: After a disturbance, plants and animal species begin to reoccupy the
habitat. They grow and get replaced by other species. This pattern of the temporal shift in the species
composition of a community is called succession.
3. Evolutionary Pattern: Over 600 million years of animal evolution, increasing biodiversity
have been found over each regime and era. Some animals have been extinct, some are still found as
living fossils, and some are represented as missing links or existing links in the history of evolution.
Biodiversity introduces the total volume of diversity that exists at all extents of biological
organisation. According to Charles Darwin, species diversity can vary globally, locally, and over
time. The basic patterns of biodiversity depend on latitude, altitude, and species-area relationships.
Species diversity also shows variation in patterns over time, such as seasonal and successional
patterns. We should take care of our biodiversity so that our future generation gets the opportunity to
witness this rich diversity present on earth and also get benefitted.

Global Biodiversity hotspots

Biodiversity hotspots are defined as regions “where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are
undergoing an exceptional loss of habitat”. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was developed by the Norman
Myers in 1988 when he identified that the tropical forest losing its plants species as well as habitat. IUCN prepares
‘Red Data Book’. There are 34 areas around the world which are qualified as Biodiversity hotspots. These
hotspots represent only 2.3% of the total Earth's land surface. These hotspots are important because Biodiversity
underpins all life on Earth. Without species, there would be no air to breathe, no food to eat, no water to drink.
There would be no human society at all. And as the places on Earth, where the most biodiversity is under the most
threat, hotspots are critical to human survival.
Criteria to qualify as a Biodiversity Hotspot
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics which are to say, it must have a high percentage of plant
life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.
There are a total of 34 Biodiversity Hotspots in the World

Africa

1. Eastern Afro-Montane– The areas covered are Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda,
Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe
2. The Guinean forests of Western Africa– The areas covered are Benin, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire,
Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, Togo
3. The Horn of Africa– The areas covered are Somalia, all of Djibouti, parts of Ethiopia, Eritrea,
Kenya, Yemen and Oman, and a small piece of far northeastern Sudan and Socotra Archipelago
off the coast of northeastern Somalia
4. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands– The areas covered are Comoros, Madagascar,
Mauritius and Seychelles

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 5. Maputoland-Podoland-Albany hotspot – The areas covered are Limpopo River in southern
Mozambique and the Olifants River in Mpumalanga, South Africa in the north, through Swaziland
and the KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa, to South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province in the
south

6. Succulent Karou – The areas covered are Namibia-Gariep, Namaqualand, Hantam Tanqua
Roggeveld and Southern Karoo
7. East Melanesian islands – The areas covered are Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands and Vanuatu
8. South Africa’s Cape floristic hotspot – The areas covered are Region of South Africa in the
Western Cape in the southwestern corner of the country, extending eastward into the Eastern Cape,
and to the east in Kwa Zulu-Natal
9. Coastal forests of Eastern Africa – The areas covered are eastern edges of Africa, parts of
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique, islands of Pemba, Zanzibar, Mafia and the Bazaruto
Archipelago.
Asia and Australia

10. Himalayan hotspot – It covers both the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Himalayas.
11. The Eastern Himalayas – covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast Indian states of West
Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar.
12. Japan biodiversity hotspot – It covers the land area of the nation of Japan
13. Mountains of South-West China –It covers the southeast Tibet through western Sichuan and
extends into central and northern Yunnan. This Biodiversity Hotspot is the most botanically rich
temperate forest ecosystem in the world.
14. New Caledonia – This hotspot is located in the South Pacific region, some 1,200 kilometers east
of Australia. It consists of the main island of Grande Terre and the smaller Loyalty Islands to the
east, Belep Islands to the north and Isle of Pines to the south extending to the Chesterfield Islands
to the west, and the uninhabited volcanic islands of Matthew and Hunter to the east.
15. New Zealand Biodiversity Hotspot – This Biodiversity Hotspot covers the country’s three main
islands (North Island, South Island and Stewart Island) and several smaller surrounding islands:
the Chatham Islands, Kermadec Islands and Subantarctic Islands including Bounty Islands,
Antipodes Islands, Campbell Island, Snares Islands, Auckland Islands and Macquarie Island. It
also covers two islands namely Lord Howe and Norfolk islands of Australian territories.
16. Philippine Biodiversity Hotspot – Sierra Madre Corridor including the areas of Batanes,
Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, Nueva Ecija, Aurora, Bulacan, Rizal, and Quezon,
Palawan Corridor and Eastern Mindanao Corridor including the areas of Siargao Island, extending
to the south till Mt. Hamiguitan and to portions of the Agusan Marsh in the west.
17. Western Sundaland- It covers the western half of the Indonesian archipelago dominated by the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra, nearly all of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei region. A very small
portion of the Indian Territory also comes under this Biodiversity hotspot in the form of The
Nicobar Islands.
18. Wallacea – It covers the parts of Eastern Indonesia
19. The Western Ghats of India and Islands of Sri Lanka – It covers the states of Goa,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and Sri Lanka
20. Polynesia and Micronesian Islands – This Biodiversity Hotspot covers all the islands of
Micronesia and Polynesia, plus Fiji region, scattered across the Pacific Ocean
21. South-Western Australia- The region includes the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and
scrubeco region of Western Australia

31
North and Central America

22. California Floristic Province- It lies in the region that extends from Santa Barbara in Southern
California to the parallel 30th in Northern Baja California (about 220 miles from San Diego)
23. Caribbean Islands Hotspot- This Island Hotspot comprises of 30 nations and territories
as Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos
Islands, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint-Eustatius, Sint-Maarten, Guadeloupe, Martinique,
Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin
24. Madrean pine-oak Woodlands – This woodland hotspot includes Mexico’s main mountain
chains, namely the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Trans-Mexican
Volcanic Belt, the Sierra Madre del Sur, and the Sierra Norte de Oaxaca, as well as isolated
mountaintop islands in Baja California
25. The Mesoamerican forests – The Mesoamerica Biodiversity Hotspot encompasses all of the
subtropical and tropical ecosystems from central Mexico to the Panama Canal including all of
Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, as well as a third of Mexico
and nearly two-thirds of Panama. It also includes a number of nearshore and offshore islands in
both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, which are important biologically due to the
presence of endemic species and as nesting areas for seabirds.
South America

26. Cerrado– The Cerrado Biodiversity hotspots currently covers around 20% of the total area of
Brazil. It lies between Amazon, Atlantic Forests and Pantanal, and is the largest savanna
region in South America.
27. Chilean winter rainfall (Valdivian) Forests – The Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
covers the central-northern part of the nation of Chile and the far western edge of Argentina,
stretching from the Pacific coast to the crest of the Andean mountains. The biodiversity hotspot
encompasses about 40 percent of Chile’s land area and includes the offshore islands of San Félix
and San Ambrosio and the Juan Fernández Islands.
28. Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena- This biodiversity Hhotspot extends south and east into the wet and
moist forests of Panama’s Darién Province, through the Chocó region of western Colombia and the
moist forests along the west coast of Ecuador, and into the dry forests of eastern Ecuador and
extending to the extreme north west to the Peru region. It has been notably extended in recent
times to the Magdalena Valley in northern Colombia.
29. Tropical Andes – The areas covered under this hotspot are Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru
30. Atlantic forest – The Atlantic Forest hotspot stretches along Brazil’s Atlantic coast, from the
northern state of Rio Grande do Norte south to the Rio Grande do Sul extending towards inland to
eastern Paraguay and the province of Misiones in northeastern Argentina, and narrowly along the
coast into Uruguay. This hotspot also includes the offshore archipelago of Fernando de Noronha
and several other islands off the Brazilian coast.
Europe and Central Asia

31. Caucasus- The Caucasus Biodiversity Hotspot includes Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and
parts of Russia, Iran and Turkey.
32. Iran-Anatolia region- This hotspot includes the major parts of central and eastern Turkey, a small
portion of southern Georgia, the Nahçevan Province of Azerbaijan, much of Armenia, northeastern
Iraq, northern and western Iran, and the Northern Kopet Dagh Range in Turkmenistan.
33. The Mediterranean basin- The Biodiversity hotspot of the Mediterranean Basin covers the areas
of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cabo Verde, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Montenegro,
Morocco, North Macedonia, Tunisia
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 34. Mountains of Central Asia– It covers the areas of Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz
Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Vanishing Hotspots
As the world continues to grow at a very fast pace, the Biodiversity hotspots around the globe are facing a
large phase of extinction and a rapid decrease in its endemic and threatened species present in its
ecological area. It is causing serious habitat loss which in turn, is affecting the global population of species
present on the Earth. The biggest killers of wildlife globally are unsustainable hunting and harvesting.
Factors, such as pollution, exploitation of land, invasive species, deforestation, and climate change are
some of the other major causes of habitat loss and destruction at these hotspots.
 The consequences of climate change are extremely widespread, threatening even places untouched
by humans.
 Along with habitat destruction, the effects of climate change are expected to be particularly severe
on those plants not capable of dispersing their seeds over long distances.
 All kinds of habitat ranging from tropical rainforest to coral reefs are destroyed or extensively
modified for human settlements, agricultural expansion, and exploitation of natural resources.
 The introduction of exotic species to the local environment is also a major threat to the native
biota.
Conserving our Biodiversity Hotspots

In order to protect our planet, we can start by making some small changes in our daily lives.
Taking action by recycling, picking up trash, being conservative with our water consumption, and limiting
pollution emission by reducing our dependence on vehicles and promoting more of walking, biking, or
taking public transportation are the ways by which we could help the environment to heal itself. We can
also come up with our own ideas, as we educate ourselves on biodiversity by reading about different
places and living things. The more scientific way of conserving biodiversity is by adopting two ways:-
In-situ Conservation– It is the method of conservation of genetic resources in natural populations and
habitats of plant or animal species. It involves the reduction of biotic pressure rehabilitation and helps in
the multiplication of the species through the process of evolution and adaptation. The faunal species are
more adaptable to this kind of conservation process as it supports the species mobility with a larger habitat
area.
Examples include:
 National Parks
 Biosphere Reserves
 Wildlife Sanctuaries
Ex-situ Conservation– It is the process of conservation of living organisms outside of their natural
habitat through genetic conservation including both captive propagation of species and their eventual
release into the natural or restored ecosystem. In this conservation process, artificial conditions are created
to make their habitat almost like a natural habitat. This method enhances the probability of reproductive
success for endangered species. The faunal species, in this method, have less mobility owing to the
smaller habitat area.
Examples include:
 Zoos
 Aquariums
 Gene Banks
To ensure the survival of highly impacted species with little or no access to refuges, “active threat
management” is needed to open enough viable habitats for the threatened and endemic species of the area
to survive. Conservation in the hotspots promotes sustainable management of these essential natural
resources and supports economic growth, which also reduces drivers of violent conflict. Some global
organizations like Conservation International, the World Wide Fund for Nature, Alliance for Zero

33
Extinction, and the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund have implemented efforts to conserve
different biodiversity hotspots.
These Biodiversity Hotspots are the only measure for preventing the further extinction and wiping
off of the biodiversity from the planet as these areas poses as a viable spots for Biodiversity conservation
and are some rich areas across the world housing the plethora of the faunal and floral species and hence
saving and conserving these Biodiversity Hotspots is an absolute necessity essential for the survival and
proper functioning of the earth’s cycle.
Hotspots of biodiversity
 Norman Myers-first to develop ‘Hot spot’ concept ž
Two criteria: endemism and degree of threat ž
Geographical regions that deserved conservation priority. ž
High numbers of endemic (rare) species in relatively small areas ž
High species number or high degree of endemism or under huge threat or combination of
factors.

Criterion for recognizing hot spots ž

 The Richness of endemic species is the primary criterion for recognizing hot spots
 Significant percentage of specialized species. ž
 Site is under threat. ž
 It should contain important Gene pools plants of potentially useful plants. ž
 About 40% of terrestial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and are found in
these hot spots. ž
 These are the areas of high diversity, endemism and are also threatened by many human
activities. C

34 Terrestrial Hotspots
1) Atlantic Forest
2) California Floristic Province
3) Cape Floristic Province
4) Caribbean Islands
5) Caucasus
6) Brazilian Cerrado
7) Central Chile
8) Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
9) East Melanesian Islands
10) Eastern African Afromantane
11) Guinean Forests of West Africa
12) Himalayas
13) Horn of Africa
14) Indo-Burma
15) Irano-Anatolia
16) Japan
17) Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands
18) Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
19) Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
20) Mediterranean Basin 34
21) Mesoamerica
22) Mountains of Central Asia
23) Hengduan Mountains of Southwest China
24) New Caledonia
25) New Zealand
26) Philippines
27) Polynesia-Micronesia
28) Southwest Australia
29) Succulent Karoo
30) Sundaland
31) Tropical Andes
32) Tumbès-Chocò-Magdalena
33) Wallacea
34) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

Eastern Himalayas:
35,000 plant species found in the Himalayas, of which 30% endemic. The eastern Himalayas
are also rich in wild plants of economic value . Examples: rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilly, jute and
sugarcane.
Western Ghats:
The area comprises Maharastra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, and Kerala. Nearly 1500 endemic
dicotyledon plant species are found from western ghats. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards endemic in
western ghats.

India as a Mega-Diversity Nation

1. India has a very rich diversity of wild plants and animals, and is considered to be one of the mega-
diversity country.
2. Its share of the global biodiversity is about 8.6% of wild plant animal species respectively.
3. Estimates for the number of micro-organism species are not available. Parallel to this enormous
diversity in domesticated animal such as buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, poultry, horse, ponies, camels,
and yak.
4. A great variety also exists among our crops. For example, Indian farmers probaly grew over
30,000 varieties of rice alone.
ENDEMISM OR ENDEMIC SPECIES
 The species which are confined to a particular are called endemic species. ž
 Our country has a rich endemic flora and fauna. ž
 About 33% of the flowring plants, 53% of fresh water fishes, 60% amphibians , 36% reptiles and
10% mammalian are endemic species. ž
1. Plant diversity: 5000 flowering plants and 166 crop plant species have their origin in India. ž
2. Marine diversity: More than 340 coral species of the world are found here. Mangrove and sea grasses
are also found in our country.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
 The species which are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. ž
 India is rich in plant and animal endemic species ž
 Western Ghats rich in 60% amphibians, 50%,reptiles endemic species ž
 FAUNA- e.g. monitor lizards, reticulated python, Indian salamander ž
 Out of 47,000 species,7,000 –endemic ž
 62% endemic found in Himalayas and western Ghats
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
According to IUCN the species are classified into various
35 types. ž
Extinct species: A species is said to be extinct, when it is no longer found in the world. ž
Endangered species: A species is said to be endangered, when its number has been reduced to a critical
level. ž Vulnerable species: A species is said to be vulnerable when its population is facing continuous
decline due to habitat destruction or over exploitation. ž
Rare species: A species is said to be rare, when it is localized within restricted area.
Endemic species in India
 Plants ž
Pteridophyta- 200 ž
Angiosperms - 4950
Animals ž
Land-878 ž
Freshwater-89 ž
Insecta-16214 ž
Reptilia-214
Threats to bio diversity
Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind
in particular. The fewer species (animals and plants) we have, the fewer people we will have on the earth.
During the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise. Following are the major causes of threat to
biodiversity.
Habitat Loss
Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man. Man has begun to overuse or misuse
most of these natural ecosystems.
Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, once productive forest and grasslands have been turned
into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and
growth in population have resulted in massive deforestation and consequential habitat loss around the
world.
For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led to a
decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish.
Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under
unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses.
Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately10 million
species by the year 2050. It is also estimated that at the present rate of extinction about 25 percent of the
world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. Rich biodiversities such as tropical forests,
wetlands, and coral reefs world over will constitute the major part of this extinction.
Poaching of Wildlife
Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many
decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of
many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers, etc. Most extinction over the
past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for food, fashion, and profit.
Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to
extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for meat and
scales; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture.
The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion in illicit
revenue annually. It is now considered the most lucrative global crime after drugs, humans, and arms.
In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution for tackling illicit
trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable Development Goals has laid down specific targets to combat
poaching and trafficking of protected species.
Man-Wildlife Conflict
Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the
consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant destruction of
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wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction of resources or life to some
people and wild animals.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines this conflict as “any interaction between humans and
wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic, or cultural life, on the conservation
of wildlife population, or on the environment.”
Although man-wildlife conflict is as old as human civilization, in modern times the degree of
conflict has been on the rise due to high rise in human population in the past several centuries.
Since human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced.
Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources.
Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict. Competition for food
resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland
pasture.
There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are −
 Destruction of wildlife habitat
 Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife
 Crop damage and livestock depredation
 Damage to human property
 Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges
 Trophic cascades

Conservation of bio diversity

The variability of life on Earth is called Biodiversity. Biodiversity takes into account all the living
organisms present on Earth. Healthy and good biodiversity indicate a healthy and good ecosystem. Hence,
biodiversity is very important. A healthy ecosystem also includes the availability of pure water, pure air,
healthy land, a good climate, and the availability of nutrients on Earth. Therefore, biodiversity
conservation plays an important role in the quality of life of all living organisms.
The protection and management of biodiversity in obtaining sustainable development of resources are
called Biodiversity conservation.
There are three major objectives of Biodiversity conservation:
 Preservation of the diversity of species.
 Sustainability of species and ecosystem.
 Maintaining life-supporting and essential ecological processes.
What is Loss of Biodiversity?
A number of factors like pollution, erosion, evolution, urbanization, industrialization, population, and
depletion lead to the loss of biodiversity. Loss of biodiversity is very harmful to the ecosystem as it
indicates either loss of species, or reduction of species in a natural habitat, or both of them on a global
level. Loss of biodiversity has a poor impact on the ecosystem. Loss of biodiversity directly impacts the
ecosystem and food chains in it. It affects agriculture and weakens the resistance to natural disasters like
floods, drought, etc.
Definition of Biodiversity Conservation
“Protection, restoration, and management of biodiversity in order to derive sustainable benefits for present
and future generations.”. Or, it can also be defined as, “the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a
defined area.”.
Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, preservation, and management of ecosystems and
natural habitats and ensuring that they are healthy and functional.
The three main objectives of Biodiversity Conservation are as follows-
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  To protect and preserve species diversity.
 To ensure sustainable management of the species and ecosystems.
 Prevention and restoration of ecological processes and life support systems.
Biodiversity Conservation Methods
Two types of methods are employed to conserve biodiversity. They are- In situ conservation and Ex-situ
conservation.
Following are some of the ways through which Biodiversity can be conserved:
 In-situ Conservation
 Ex-situ Conservation
In Situ Conservation
In Situ Conservation refers to the preservation and protection of the species in their natural habitat. It
means the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species. In situ
conservation involves the management of biodiversity in the same area where it is found.
In situ, biodiversity conservation has many advantages
 It preserves species as well as their natural habitat.
 It ensures protection to a large number of populations.
 It is economic and a convenient method of conservation
 It doesn’t require species to adjust to a new habitat.
Different methods of In-situ conservation include biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
biodiversity hotspots, gene sanctuary, and sacred groves.
It is defined as the conservation of species within their natural habitat, where the natural ecosystem is
protected and maintained.
In-situ conservation possesses numerous advantages. Some of the important advantages of in-situ
conservation are as follows:
 It is a cost-effective and convenient way of biodiversity conservation.
 Various living organisms can be conserved at the same time.
 They can evolve better and can easily get adapted to various environmental conditions.
 In-situ conservation occurs in places like national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere
reserves.
Biosphere Reserves
These are national governments nominated sites, large areas (often up to 5000 square km) of an ecosystem
where the traditional lifestyle and natural habitat of the inhabitants of that ecosystem are protected. They
are mostly open to tourists and researchers.
Example- Sundarban, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, and Manas in India.
National Parks
These are limited reserves maintained by the government for the conservation of wildlife as well as the
environment. Human activities are prohibited in national parks and they are solely dedicated to the
protection of natural fauna of the area. They mostly occupy an area of 100-500 square km. There are a
total of 104 national parks in India, right now. The national parks may even be within a biosphere reserve.
These are small reserves that are protected and maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well
protected, where human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat, and cultivation are restricted.
Example- Kanha National Park, Gir National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and so on.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Wildlife Sanctuaries are protected areas meant only for the conservation of wild animals. A few human
activities such as cultivation, wood collection, and other forest product collection are allowed here, but
they must not interfere with the conservation of the animals. Tourist visits are also allowed in these areas.
There are a total of 551 wildlife sanctuaries in India. These are the places where only wild animals can be
found. Certain human activities like timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods, and other forest
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products are permitted unless they interfere with the conservation project. Recreation tourism is also
permitted.
Example- Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, etc.
Biodiversity Hotspots
A biodiversity hotspot are the areas of conservation where there is strictly a minimum of 1500 species of
vascular plants and a habitat that has lost its 70% cover. These are protected areas for various purposes
where the wildlife, inhabitant lifestyle, and domesticated plants and animals are conserved. Tourist and
research activities are allowed.
Example- The Himalayas, The Western Ghats, The North East, and The Nicobar Islands.
Gene Sanctuary
Gene sanctuary is a conservation area reserved only for plants. India has its only gene sanctuary set up in
Garo Hills of Meghalaya for the conservation of wild species of Citrus. Plans to open more such
sanctuaries are underway.
Sacred Groves
Sacred Groves are conserved areas for wildlife protected by communities due to religious beliefs. It is
mostly a part of the forest where its wildlife is given complete protection.
Ex Situ Conservation
Ex Situ Conservation means conservation of life outside their natural habitat or place of occurrence. It is
the method in which part of the population or the entire endangered species is taken from its natural
habitat which is threatened and breeding and maintaining of these species take place in artificial
ecosystems. These artificial ecosystems could be zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, etc. The living
environments are altered in these conservation sites, so there are fewer survival struggles like scarcity of
food, water, or space. Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity consists of breeding and maintenance of
endangered species using artificial environments like zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
The competition for food, water, and space among the organisms is low.
Advantages of Ex Situ Conservation Include
 Essential life-sustaining conditions like climate, food availability, and veterinary care can be
altered and are under human control.
 Artificial breeding methods can be introduced leading to successful breeding and creating many
more offspring of the species.
 The species can be protected from poaching and population management can be efficiently done.
 Gene techniques can be applied to increase the population of the species and they can again be
reintroduced into the wild.
Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
 Conservation of Ecosystems- The intent of the conservation of biodiversity is to provide long
term viability to the ecosystems. It is to make sure that ecological integrity is intact. The
landscapes of the region which have undergone historical or evolutionary deterioration can be
reinstated. The threats can be removed and the ecosystems should be able to continue with
ecological processes.
 Reverse the decline of species- According to this strategy, the aim of conservation is to restore the
population of declined species in a particular ecosystem.
 Conservation of all biological aspects- This strategy aims at giving cover and conserving food,
livestock, microbial population, agricultural stock including plants and animals.
 Efficient utilization of natural resources.
 Strict laws on deforestation and preventions of deforestation by every means.
 Poaching and killing animals in the wild should be prevented.
 Creating public awareness about conservation of biodiversity and its importance.
 Longer time and breeding activity of the animals are provided.
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  The breeding of species in captivity is reintroduced in the wild.
 Genetic techniques are used to preserve endangered species.
Need for Biodiversity Conservation
Various types of conservation methods ensure a healthy ecosystem. A healthy ecosystem means a clean
and healthy environment, smooth running food chains, availability of resources, and so on.
Human beings are also majorly dependent on the environment for basic necessities and wellbeing. We are
interdependent on a variety of species of plants and animals for a living. Hence it is very important to
conserve these species and their ecosystems which are threatened by many human activities.
A threat to biodiversity poses a threat to humankind. It can be the cause of various grave problems like
pollution, habitat loss, resource exploitation, climate change, species extinction, disease outbreak, and so
on.
For economic and various life support reasons, it is very important to protect and preserve biodiversity.
Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation
Following are some of the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:
 Conservation of all food varieties, timber plants, livestock, microbes, and agricultural animals
should be done.
 Identification and conservation of all the economically important organisms should be done.
 Preservation of unique ecosystems should be done.
 Efficient utilization of resources should be done.
 Prevention of poaching and hunting of wild animals should be done.
 Development of the reserves and protected areas should be done carefully.
 Reduction in the levels of pollutants should be done on the environment.
 Prohibition of deforestation should be followed.
 Strict environmental laws should be followed.
 Conservation of useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be done.
Reason for Conservation of Biodiversity
An area with higher abundant species has a more stable environment when compared to a lower species
abundance area. Humans directly depend on different species of plants for numerous needs. Similarly,
people depend on various animals and microbes for different reasons.
Due to various reasons such as the loss of habitat, over-exploitation of resources, climatic changes,
pollution, invasive exotic species, diseases, hunting, etc biodiversity is being lost. It is very important to
conserve biodiversity as it provides various economic and ethical benefits and adds aesthetic value.
Eco system services
Nature has been serving mankind for a very long period in almost all fields. The immense products that
we obtain from the environment are priceless. These various products and services that mankind obtains
from the environment are known as ecosystem services. The ecosystem services include the agro
ecosystem, forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems.
To maintain human health and stability, the ecosystem provides clean air, extreme weather mitigation,
crops and many more. Apart from these, this also includes the provisioning of clean drinking water, the
decomposition of wastes and the resilience and productivity of food ecosystems.
In the year 2006, according to Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are
categorised into four major criteria. They are supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural.
These are widely discussed below:
Regulating Ecosystem Services:
The regulating services provided by the ecosystem are listed as:
 The purified water and air by the environment.
 Availability of the most important compound,i.e., carbon and the climatic regulations.
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  The process of predation occurring in the environment regulates the prey population.
 The process to control biological pests and disease control.
 Pollination is involved in the environment.
 Regulated the disturbance of the environment which includes flood protection.
Provisioning Ecosystem Services:
The provisioning services of the ecosystem include the following mentioned points:
 Food, crops, wild foods, and spices. This also includes seafood and game.
 Different raw materials include lumber, skins, fuelwood, organic matter, etc.
 Medicinal resources including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, etc.
 The energy which includes hydropower, biomass fuels
 Ornamental resources include fashion, handicrafts, jewellery, pets, etc.
Cultural Ecosystem Services:
The cultural services of the ecosystem include:
 Recreational experiences include ecotourism, outdoor sports and recreation.
 Therapeutics include ecotherapy, social forestry and animal-assisted therapy.
 Spiritual and historical includes the religious or heritage value or nature.
 Cultural services include books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols, advertising, etc.
Supporting Ecosystem Services:
These are also considered redundant services. These services provided ecosystem includes nutrients,
cycling, primary production, soil formation, habitat Provision. These are not only limited to these services
but also includes services that help the ecosystem to keep on supplying the other services also which
includes food supply, flood regulation and water purification.
The relationship between humans and ecosystems is of great value. With the growing need for survival in
the environment, people are harassing the environment. It is high time to get proper concentration on the
environmental issues and use them in a proper manner.
Bio diversity services
Some of the major values of biodiversity are as follows: 1. Environmental Value 2. Social Value 3.
Ecosystem Services 4. Economic Value 5. Consumptive use value 6. Productive Use Value 7. Ethical and
Moral Value 8. Aesthetic Value.
Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature mankind is blessed with. As all the organisms in an
ecosystem are interlinked and interdependent, the value of biodiversity in the life of all the organisms
including humans is enormous.
The role of biodiversity in providing ecosystem services is twofold.
Firstly, biodiversity is directly used as a source for food, fibre, fuel and other extractable resources.
Secondly, biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem processes providing the regulating, cultural
and supporting services.
For example, vegetation cover protects the soil from erosion by binding soil particles and minimizing the
effects of water runoff. Likewise, cultivation of crops is to a large extent dependent on the availability of
pollinating insects.
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Biodiversity has a fundamental value to humans because we are so dependent on it for our cultural,
economic, and environmental well-being. Elements of biodiversity can contribute to cultural identity, and
many ecosystem characteristics are frequently incorporated into cultural traditions.
Other facts of human well-being, such as health and economic and political security, can influence the
value of biodiversity. Many arguments to increase efforts to conserve diversity often emphasize the value
of the “un-mined riches” that has yet to be discovered.
These include potential sources of new foods, medicines, and energy which can further fuel economic
activity, as well as a healthier population. Biodiversity has proven to hold enormous value when adapted
for use in health, agricultural, or industrial applications.
In the field of medicine alone, approximately 50% of current prescription medicines are derived from or
modelled on natural substances. The health and diversity of ecosystems can have a significant effect on
the overall stability of nearby communities.

1. Environmental Value:
The environmental value of biodiversity can be found by examining each ecosystem process and
identifying the ecosystem services that result. For instance, in wetlands the vegetation captures water-
carried sediment and the soil organisms break down a range of nutrients and pollutants washed into the
area.
These processes provide the ecosystem service of purifying water. Wetlands also act as spawning and
nursery grounds for some fish and provide a refuge for animals in times of drought. Some ecosystem
services are easy to overlook until the underlying process is impaired.
For instance, dry-land salinity has emerged as a problem following sustained clearance of deep rooted
perennial plants over wide areas. Water tables have raised carrying dissolved salts which then concentrate

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in the soil. Forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air by releasing oxygen as a by-product
during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil erosion.
2. Social Value:
The social value of biodiversity includes aesthetic, recreational, cultural and spiritual values. To this can
be added health benefits resulting from recreational and other activities. While traditional societies which
had a small population and required less resources had preserved their biodiversity as a life supporting
resource, modern man has rapidly depleted it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss due to
extinction of several species.
Thus apart from the local use or sale of products of biodiversity there is the social aspect in which more
and more resources are used by affluent societies. The biodiversity has to a great extent been preserved by
traditional societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a great loss to
their society.
There can be marked differences in landscape and biodiversity preferences according to age,
socioeconomic factors and cultural influences. The lifestyle of the ancient people was closely interwoven
with their surroundings.
The life of the indigenous people in many parts of the world still revolves around the forests and
environment, even in these modern times, many of them still live in the forests and meet their daily
requirements from their surroundings.
The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely preserved by the traditional societies.
Since the indigenous people always protect the forests for their own benefit. In ancient times, especially in
India, the environment in totally i.e., flora, fauna, etc., were held in high esteem.
Trees like Peepal, Banyan and Tulsi are still worshipped. Ladies offering water to Tulsi daily is
considered good and there are festivals when ladies tie sacred threads around Peepal and Banyan trees and
pray for the welfare of their families.
3. Ecosystem Services:
These services also support human needs and activities such as intensely managed production ecosystems.
Ecosystem service includes:
a. The production of oxygen by land based plants and marine algae;
b. The maintenance of fresh water quality by vegetation slowing run off, trapping sediment and removing
nutrients and by soil organisms breaking down pollutants;
c. The production and maintenance of fertile soil as a result of many interacting processes;
d. The provision of foods such as fish, pastures for cattle and sheep, timber, fire wood and harvested
wildlife such as kangaroos and native cut flowers;

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e. The provision of native species and genes used in industry research and development, for instance, in
traditional breeding and biotechnology applications in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, mariculture,
pharmacy, chemicals production and bioremediation;
f. Pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants by native insects, birds and
other creatures;
g. Pest control in agricultural land by beneficial native predators;
h. Flood mitigation by vegetation slowing run off and trapping sediment;
i. Breakdown of pollutants by micro-organisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems and sequestration of heavy
metals in marine and fresh water sediments;
j. Greenhouse gas reduction by, for instance, sequestering atmospheric carbon in wood and marine
calcium carbonate deposits;
k. Maintenance of habitats for native plants and animals; and
l. Maintenance of habitats that are attractive to humans for recreation, tourism and cultural activities and
that has spiritual importance.
4. Economic Value:
The economic potential of biodiversity is immense in terms of food, fodder, medicinal, ethical and social
values. Biodiversity forms the major resource for different industries, which govern the world economy.
The salient features regarding the economical potential of biodiversity are given below:
1. The major fuel sources of the world including wood and fossil fuels have their origin due to
biodiversity.
2. It is the source of food for all animals and humans.
3. Many important chemicals have their origin from the diverse flora and fauna, used in various industries.
4. Diverse group of animals are used for medical research during the testing of new drugs.
5. Consumptive use value:
This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel wood etc. Humans
use at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many people around the world still
depend on wild species for most of their needs like food, shelter and clothing. The tribal people are
completely dependent on the forests for their daily needs.
6. Productive Use Value:
This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all the present date
agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The biotechnologists continuously use the wild
species of plants for developing new, better yielding and disease resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents
the original stock from which new varieties are being developed.

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7. Ethical and Moral Value:
It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation
are based on the importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have the right to exist on
earth. Man is only a small part of the Earth’s great family of species.
Don’t plants and animals have an equal right to live and exist on our planet which is like an inhabited
spaceship? Morality and ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm any organism
unnecessarily.
Some people take pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also sometimes degrade and pollute the
environment by their unethical actions. Through proper education and awareness, the people’s conscience
against such practices must be raised.
8. Aesthetic Value:
The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have resembled other barren
planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to the quality of life and provides some of the
most beautiful aspects of our existence. Biodiversity is responsible for the beauty of a landscape.
People go far off places to enjoy the natural surroundings and wildlife. This type of tourism is referred to
as eco-tourism, which has now become a major source of income in many countries. In many societies,
the diversity of flora and fauna has become a part of the traditions and culture of the region and has added
to the aesthetic values of the place.

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