Anthoceros:

Systematic Position of Anthoceros:

Distribution and Habitat of Anthoceros:

Anthoceros is represented by about 200 species. All species are terrestrial and
cosmopolitan in distribution. The species grow in very moist and shady places like
slopes, rocks or sides of the ditches. Some species are found growing on decaying
wood (Cavers, 1911). Unlike other bryophytes Anthoceros is usually not well adapted
to resist dry conditions.

In India Anthoceros is represented by about 25 species. Out of these three species of

Anthoceros viz., A. himalayensis, A. erectus and A. chambensis are commonly found
growing in the Western Himalayan region at an altitude of 5000-8000 feet
(Kashyap, 1915). These species are also found growing in Mussoorie, Kulu, Manali,
Kumaon, Chamba valley, Punjab, Madras and in plains of South India.

Mehra and Handoo (1953) reported A. himalayensis and A. erectus from Simla,
Nainital and Dalhousie. Some other species of Anthoceros and their places of
occurrence are—A. dixitii, A. sahyadrensis (Poona and neighbouring hills), A.
crispulus (Lucknow), A. assamicus (Assam), A. shvianandani (Kerala) etc. The
species of Anthoceros may be perennial (A. himalayensis) or annual (A. erectus).

Gametophytic Phase of Anthoceros:

External Features:
The gametophytic plant body is thalloid, dorsiventral, prostrate, dark green in colour
with a tendency towards dichotomous branching. Such branching results into an
orbicular or semi orbicular rosette like appearance of the thallus.

The thallus is bilobed (A. himalayensis, Fig. 1 A) or pinnately branched (A. hallii) or
spongy with large number of sub-spherical spongy bodies like a gemma (A.
gemmulosus fig. 1 C) or raised on a thick vertical stalk like structure (A. erectus, fig 1.
B).
Dorsal Surface:
The dorsal surface of the thallus may be smooth (A. laevis) or velvety because of the
presence of several lobed lamellae (A. crispulus) or rough with spines and ridges (A.
fusiformis). It is shining, thick in the middle and without a distinct mid rib (Fig. 1 D).

Ventral Surface:
The ventral surface bears many unicellular, smooth-walled rhizoids (Fig. 1 E, F).
Their main function is to anchor the thallus on the substratum and to absorb water
and mineral nutrients from the soil. Tuberculated rhizoids, scales or mucilaginous
hairs are absent. Many small, opaque, rounded, thickened dark bluish green spots
can be seen on the ventral surface. These are the mucilage cavities filled with Nostoc
colonies.

In the month of September and October the mature thalli have erect, elongated and
cylindrical sporogonia. These are horn like and arise in clusters. Each sporogonium
is surrounded by a sheath like structure on its base. It is called involucre (Fig. 1 D).
Internal Structure:
The vertical transverse section (V. T. S.) of the thallus shows a very simple structure.
It lacks any zonation (Fig. 2 A, B). It is uniformly composed of thin walled
parenchymatous cells. The thickness of the middle region varies in different species.

It is 6-8 cells thick in A. laevis, 8-10 cells thick in A. punctatus and 30-40 cells thick
in A. crispulus. The outer most layer is upper epidermis. The epidermal cells are
regularly arranged, smaller in size and have large lens shaped chloroplasts. In A.
hallii the epidermal layer is not distinguishable.

Each cell of the thallus contains a single large discoid or oval shaped chloroplast.
Each chloroplast encloses a single, large, conspicuous body called pyrenoid, a
characteristic feature of class Anthocerotopsida (Fig. 2 C, D). 25-300 disc to spindle
shaped bodies aggregate to form pyrenoid.

The number of chloroplasts per cell also varies in different species. In A. personi
each cell has two chloroplasts and in A. hallii the number may be even four. The
nucleus lies in the close vicinity of the chloroplast near the pyrenoid (Fig. 2 D).
Sometimes the chloroplast enfolds

The air chambers and air pores are absent in Anthoceros. However, in a few species
intercellular cavities are present on the lower surface of the thallus. These cavities
are formed due to break down of the cells (schizogenous).

The cavities are filled with mucilage and are called mucilage cavities. These cavities
open on the ventral surface through stoma like slits or pores called slime pores (Fig.
2 B). Each slime pore has two guard cells with thin walls (Fig. 2 F). The guard cells
are non-functional and do not control the size of the pore.

The pore remains completely open. These pores are formed by the partial separation
of two adjacent cells. The slime pores represent the vestigial remnants of a
previously existing aerating system. With the maturity of the thallus the mucilage in
the cavities dries out.

It results in the formation of air filled cavities. The blue green algae Nostoc invades
these air cavities through slime pores and form a colony in these cavities. The
presence of Nostoc colonies in the thallus of Anthoceros is beneficial for the growth
of gametophyte is not definitely known.

Pierce (1906) assumed that the thalli without Nostoc grow better than the ones
containing the endophytic algae. However, according to Rodgers and Stewart (1977)
it is a symbiotic association.

The thallus supplies carbohydrates to the Nostoc and the latter, in turn, adds to
nitrate nutrients by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The lowermost cell layer is lower
epidermis. Some cells of the lower epidermis extend to form the smooth-walled
rhizoids (Fig. 2 B).
Reproduction in Anthoceros:
Anthoceros reproduces by vegetative and sexual methods.

Vegetative Reproduction
It takes place by the following methods:
1. By death and decay of the older portion of the thallus or
fragmentation:
The older portion of the thallus starts rotting or disintegrates due to ageing or
drought. As it reaches up to the place of dichotomy, the lobes of the thallus get
separated. Thus, detached lobes develop into independent plants by apical growth.
This method is not so common in Anthoceros as in liverworts.

2. By tubers:
Under unfavorable conditions or prolonged drought, the marginal tissues of the
thallus get thickened and form the perennating tubers. (Fig. 1 G). Their position
varies in different species. They may develop behind the growing points (A. laevis) or
along the margins of the thallus (A. hallii, A. pearsoni). In A. himalayensis the tubers
are stalked and develop along the margins on the ventral surface of the thallus.

The tubers have outer two to three layers of corky hyaline cells which enclose the
tissue containing oil globules, starch grains and aleurone granules. They are capable
to pass on the unfavorable conditions. On resumption of favourable conditions
tubers produce new thalli.

3. By Gemmae:
In some species of Anthoceros like A. glandulosus, A. propaguliferus, A. formosae
many multicellular stalked structures develop along the margins of the dorsal
surface of the thallus. These structures are called gemmae. When detached from the
parent thallus, each gemma develops into new plant.

4. By persistent growing apices:

Due to prolonged dry summer or towards the end of the growing season, the whole
thallus in some species of Anthoceros (A. pearsoni, A. fusiformis) dries and gets
destroyed except the growing point. Later it grows deep into the soil and becomes
thick under unfavorable conditions. It develops into new thallus. It is more a method
of perennation then multiplication.
5. By apospory:
In Anthoceros, unspecialized cells of the many parts of the sporogonium (for e.g.,
intercalary meristematic zone, sub epidermal and sporogenous region of the capsule)
form the gametophytic thallus. This phenomenon is called apospory
(Schwarzenbach, 1926, Lang, 1901). The thalli are diploid but normal in appearance
e.g., A. laevis.

Sexual reproduction:
Sexual reproduction is oogamous. Male reproductive bodies are known as antheridia
and female as archegonia. Some species of Anthoceros like A. longii, A. gollani, A.
fusiformis, A. punctatus, A. crispulus and A. himalayensis are monoecious while
some species like A. erectus, A. chambensis, A. hallii, A. pearsoni and A. laevis are
dioecious. The monoecious species are protandrous i.e., antheridia mature before
archegonia.

Antheridium:
Structure:
A mature antheridium has a stalk and club or pouch like body. The stalk attaches the
antheridium to the base of the antheridial chamber. Stalk may be slender and
composed of four rows of cells (e.g., A. punctatus, A. erectus, Fig. 3 I) or more
massive (e.g.. A. laevis Fig. 3 J). A single or a group of two to four or more antheridia
are present in the same antheridial chamber (Fig. 3 H). A single layered sterile jacket
encloses the mass of androcytes which metamorphosis into antherozoids.

In some species for e.g., A. punctatus and A. erectus jacket layer is formed of four
tier of cells. Each tier appears to be composed of elongated rectangular cells (Fig 3 I).
In A. laevis and A. himalayensis jacket is composed of many relatively smaller and
less regularly arranged cells (Fig. 3 1).

The cells of the upper most tiers are triangular with a narrow end towards the apex
(Fig. 3 J). Each cell of the jacket consists plastids. At maturity these plastids change
their colour from green to red to bright orange. Young antheridia are, therefore,
green and mature one turn bright orange or reddish.
The Antherozoid:
A mature antherozoid is unicellular, uninucleate, bi-flagellated and has a linear
body. The flagella are of almost the same length as the body (Fig. 3 K, L). Proskaeur
(1948) observed that in the body of antherozoids show some degree of residual
curvature (Fig. 3 M, N).

Dehiscence of Antheridium:
Water helps in the dehiscence of the antheridium. As the antheridia mature the roof
of the antheridial chamber breaks down irregular, exposing the antheridia in a cup
like chamber. The antheridia absorb water and the uppermost tier of triangular cells
fall apart releasing a mass of antherozoids.

After dehiscence the antheridium loses turgor and collapses. It is followed by

another antheridia to converge towards the opening in the roof and in this way a
continuous stream of antherozoids is possible. It explains the formation of large
number of sporophytes Hornworts. (fig 4).
Archegonium:
Archegonia develop in the flesh of the thallus on dorsal surface. The place of an
archegonium on a thallus can be identified by the presence of a mucilage mound
(Fig. 5).

Structure:
A mature archegonium consists of two to four cover cells, an axial row of four to six
neck canal cells, a venter canal cell and an egg. The jacket layer is not distinct from
the other vegetative cells like other Bryophytes (Fig. 6 G, H).
Fertilization:
Water is essential for fertilization. In the mature archegonium, the venter canal cell,
neck canal cells disintegrate and form a mucilaginous mass. It absorbs water, swells
up and becomes out of the archegonial neck by pushing the cover cells apart. This
mucilaginous mass becomes continuous with the mucilage mound and in this way an
open passage down to egg is formed.

The mucilaginous mass consists of chemical substances. Many antherozoids caught

in the mucilage enter in the archegonial neck because of the chemotactic response,
reach upto the egg, and fertilization is effected. Prior to fertilization, egg enlarges
and fills the cavity of the venter. Fusion of both male and female nuclei results in the
formation of diploid zygote or oospore. Fertilization ends the gametophytic phase.

Sporophytic Phase:
After fertilization the diploid zygote or oospore still enlarges in size and fills the
cavity of the venter of the archegonium. It secretes an outer cellulose wall.
On maturity the archesporium gives rise to two types of cells: spore mother cells and
elater mother cells. These cells are arranged in alternate manner one above the
another (Fig. 8 A).

Spore mother cells are spherical or oval with dense cytoplasm and large nuclei.
These cells divide by meiotic divisions to form spore tetrads (Fig. 8 A). Elater mother
cells are elliptical with small nuclei. These cells divide mitotically to form four celled
elaters.

The four cells of the elaters may remain attached to each other or may break into 1-
celled, 2-celled or 3-celled units. The broken units are called pseudo elaters. (The
elaters are without thickening bands and therefore, called pseudo elaters, Fig. 8 A).
By the activity of the meristematic zone various tissues of the capsule are
continuously produced so that it becomes elongated.

The young sporophyte of the Anthoceros is surrounded by a fleshy covering or

sheath. It is called involucre (Fig. 8 A). It is developed partly from the tissue of the
archegonium and partly from the tissue of the gametophytic thallus. In young stages
the sporophyte is completely surrounded by involucre.
Structure of Mature Sporogonium:
The mature sporophyte consist a bulbous foot and a smooth, slender, erect,
cylindrical, structure called capsule. Capsule varies in length from two to fifteen
centimeter in different species. The sporogonium appears like a ‘bristle’ or ‘horn’,
hence, the species are called ‘hornwoits’ (Fig. 1 A, 8 A).

Internal structure:
A mature sporogonium can be differentiated into three parts viz., the foe: seta and
the capsule.

Foot:
It is bulbous, multicellular and made up of a mass of parenchymatous cells. It acts as
ac haustorium and absorbs food and water from the adjoining gametophytic cells for
the developing sporophyte (Fig. 8 A).
Meristematic Zone or Intermediate Zone or Intercalary Zone:
Seta is represented by meristematic zone. This is present at the base of the capsule
and consists meristematic cells. These cells constantly add new cells to the capsule at
its base.

The presence of meristem at the base enables the capsule to grow for a long period
and form spores. It is a unique feature of Anthoceros and is not found in any other
bryophyte. We are able to see different stages of development from base upwards in
the sporogonium of Anthoceros (Fig. 8 A).
Capsule:
Its internal structure can be differentiated into following parts:
Columella:
It is central sterile pan, extending nearly to its tip. It is endothecial in origin. In
young sporophyte it consists of four vertical rows of cells but in mature sporophyte it
is made up of 16 vertical rows of cells (4 x 4). In a transverse section these cells
appear as a solid square (Fig. 8 D, E). It provides mechanical support, functions as
water conducting tissue and also helps in dispersal of spores.

Archesporium:
It is present between the capsule wall and the columella. It extends from base to the
top of the capsule. It originates from the inner layer of amphithecium. In young
sporophyte it over arches the columella (a feature in contrast to liverworts).

In a few species of Anthoceros for e.g., A. crenatifrons, A. hawaiensis and A. erectus,

the archesporium may remain one cell in thickness throughout its further
development.

However, in A. pearsoni and A. himalayensis it may become two layered thick a little
above the base. In A. hallii it may even become two to four cells in thickness (Fig. 8
A, a-a). In upper part of the capsule it is differentiated into sporogenous tissue which
produces spores and pseudo elaters.

Pseudo elaters may be unicellular or multicellular, branched or un-branched and

may consists more or less elongated cells (Fig. 9 A-D). The spiral thickenings are
absent (characteristic of Anthoceros) but in A. physocladus the cells have long and
thick walls with extremely reduced lumen (Pande, 1960). In some species of
Anthoceros their secondary walls possess helical thickenings (Proskauer, 1960).

Capsule wall:
It consists of four to six layers of cells, of which the outermost layer is epidermis
(Fig. 8 A, d-d). The cells of the epidermis are vertically elongated and have deposit of
cutin on their walls. The continuity of epidermis is broken by the presence of
stomata. The stomata are oriented vertically with the axis of the sporogonium and
are widely separated from each other.
Each stoma consists a pore surrounded by two guard cells (Fig. 8 F). The cells of the
inner layers have intercellular spaces and contain chloroplast. Thus, the
sporogonium is partially self-sufficient to synthesize its own organic food but
partially it depends on the gametophyte for the supply of water and mineral
nutrients.

Dehiscence of the capsule:

Capsule dehisces basipetally i.e., from apex to base. As the capsule matures, its tip
becomes brownish or black. Vertical lines of dehiscence appear in the jacket layer
(Fig. 9 E). The dehiscence of the capsule is usually by two longitudinal lines,
occasionally it is by single line (Fig. 9 F) or rarely by four lines. The capsule wall
dries and shrinks at maturity.

Consequently narrow slits appear in the capsule wall all along the shallow grooves
(line of dehiscence), which gradually widen and extend, towards the base. (In A.
crispulus capsule splits first along one line of dehiscence and it is followed by
splitting along other line of dehiscence). It results in the formation of two valves of
the capsule wall (Fig. 9 G).
Still attached at the tip and exposing the columella is the mass of spores and pseudo
elaters. The two valves thus separated, diverge and twist hygroscopically. The pseudo
elaters also dry out, twist and help to loosen the spores. Thus, the twisting of the
valves and the movement of the pseudo elaters in the exposed spore mass helps in
the shedding of the spores. Air currents also help in the dispersal of spores.

Structure of Spore:
The spores are haploid, uninucleate, semicircular with a conspicuous triradiate mark
(Fig. 10 A).

Each spore remains surrounded by two wall layers. The outermost layer is thick
ornamented and is known as exospore. It varies in colour from dark brown to black
(e.g., A. punctatus) or yellowish (e.g., A. laevis). The inner layer is thin and is known
as endospore. Wall layers enclose colourless plastids, oil globules and food material.

Germination of spore and formation of young gametophyte:

Under favourable conditions the spores germinate immediately in A. erectus and A.
punctatus (Mehra and Kachroo, 1962).

However, in A. fusiformis the spores undergo a resting period of few weeks or

months before germination (Campbell, 1928). At the time of germination spore
absorbs water and swells up Exospore ruptures at the triradiate mark and endospore
comes out in the form of a tube. It is calledgerm tube (Fig. 10 B).

Contents migrate into the germinal tube where the colourless plastids turn green.
Two successive transverse walls are laid down at the tip of a the germinal tube
resulting in the formation of three celled filament (Fig. 10 C, D). The upper cell
divides by a vertical division (Fig. 10 E) followed by similar vertical division in the
lower cell (quadrant stage Fig. 10 F).

These four cells again divide by a vertical division at right angle to first to form eight
cells (octant stage). This octant stage is known as sporeling. The o.otal tier of four
cells function as apical cells and form the new gametophyte. First rhizoid develops as
an elongation of any cell of the young thallus (Fig- 10 G, H). As the growth proceeds,
the mucilage slits appear on the lower surface and these slits are infected by Nostoc.
Alternation of Generation:
The life cycle of Anthoceros show regular alternation of two morphologically distinct
phases. One of these generations is haplophase and the other is diplophase.

Haplophase or gametophytic phase:

In Anthoceros this phase is dominant and produces the sex organs. Sex organs
produce gametes to form a diploid zygote.

Diploid phase of sporophytic phase:

Zygote develops into sporophyte. In Anthoceros sporophyte is represented by foot,
meristematic zone and capsule. The sporophyte produces the spores in the capsule.
The spores on germination produce the gametophyte.

So, in Anthoceros, two morphologically distinct phases (haplophase and diplophase)

constitute the life cycle. The life cycle of this type which is characterised by
alternation of generation and sporogenic meiosis is known as heteromorphic and
diplohaplontic. (Fig. 11,12).

Affinities of Anthoceros or Primitive and Advanced Characters of

Anthoceros:
The thallus of Anthoceros shows both primitive and advanced characters.
Anthoceros on one hand forms a connecting link with the Chlorophyceae (green
algae), liverworts, mosses and on the other hand it is linked with primitive
Pteridophytes.
Primitive Characters:
1. Resemblances with chlorophyceae (green algae):
(a) Simple, green, gametophytic thalloid plant body.

(b) Presence of less number of chloroplasts per cell.

(c) Definite shape of the chloroplast.

(d) Presence of pyrenoid.

(e) Structure and function of pyrenoid is similar to that of green algae (form starch
grains at periphery).
2. Resemblances with liverworts:
(a) Simple, green, gametophytic plant body, without any differentiation of tissues
like Pellia.

(b) Similar apical growth.

(c) Biflagellated antherozoids.

(d) Periclinal division separates amphithecium and endothecium.

(e) Archesporium is differentiated into spore mother cells and elater mother cells.

Advanced Characters:
1. Resemblances with mosses:
(a) Presence of highly differentiated and ventilated system in the capsule wall.

(b) Presence of columella (endothecial in origin).

(c) Presence of reduced archesporium.

(d) Archesporium archs over the columella like Sphagnum.

2. Resemblance with Pteridophytes:
(a) Gametophytic plant body resembles with fern prothallus.

(b) Sunken sex organs.

(c) Structure of archegonium is similar.

(d) Semi-parasitic sporophyte of Anthoceros resembles with primitive fossil vascular

plants of order Psilophytales.