1 Types and components of

computer systems
In this chapter you will learn about:
★ hardware
★ software
★ analogue and digital data
★ central processing unit (CPU)
★ internal memory (RAM and ROM)
★ input and output devices
★ backing store
★ operating systems
★ types of computer – desktop computers and mobile computers (laptop,
smartphone, tablet and phablet)
★ emerging technologies – artificial intelligence (AI) and extended reality
(virtual and augmented).

Computer systems are now commonplace in every part of our daily life.
This first chapter introduces the basic components that make up these
computer systems; most of which will be described in much greater depth
in later chapters. Basic components, including hardware (both external
and internal) and software (both applications and system), are all briefly
introduced in the following sections.
Comparing books with computers is a good analogy: the actual pages
and the ink used on the pages are equivalent to the hardware used to
make up computers; the words written on these pages are equivalent to
the software. Without the words, the book is useless. Similarly, without
software, computers would be of little use to any of us.

1.1 Hardware and software

1.1.1 Hardware
Hardware is the general term for the physical components that make up a typical
computer system. For example:
» keyboard
» mouse input device
» camera
» monitor
» printer output device
» plotter
Hardware falls into two categories: internal and external. The list above are
examples of external hardware, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Figure 1.1 considers the following internal hardware devices:
» motherboard
» central processing unit (CPU)/processor
» random access memory (RAM)
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 1.1 Hardware and software

» read-only memory (ROM)

» graphics card
» sound card
» network interface card (NIC)
» internal storage devices (hard disk drive and solid-state drive).
Because it is not always possible to see the internal hardware devices, the
photographs in Figure 1.2 will give you some idea of the physical appearance of
the components described in Figure 1.1.
Motherboard Random access memory (RAM) Read-only memory (ROM)
The motherboard is a printed circuit Random access memory (RAM) is an Read-only memory (ROM) is a memory
board found in all computers. It allows internal chip where data is temporarily used to store information that needs
the processor and other computer stored when running applications. This to be permanent. It is often used to
hardware to function and communi- memory can be written to and read contain, for example, configuration
cate with each other. One of the major from. Since its contents are lost when data for a computer system. These
functions of a typical motherboard is power to the computer is turned off, it chips cannot be altered and can only
to act as a kind of 'hub' which other is often referred to as a volatile or be read from (hence their name). One
computer devices connect to. A typical temporary memory. of the main advantages is that the
motherboard consists of a sheet of RAM stores the data, files or part of information stored on the ROM chip is
non-conductive material, such as hard the operating system currently in use. not lost even when power is turned off
plastic. Thin layers of copper or to the computer. They are often
aluminium are printed onto this sheet. referred to as non-volatile memories.
These form the circuits between the
various components. In addition to
circuits, a motherboard contains
several sockets and slots to connect
the other components.

Central processing unit Network interface card (NIC)

(CPU)/processor A network interface card (NIC) is a
A central processing unit (CPU) or component that allows a computer or
processor is an electronic circuit board any other device (for example, a
in a computer that can execute printer) to be connected to a network
instructions from a computer program. (for example, the internet); it can be
INTERNAL COMPUTER
The two main components are: wired or wireless.
HARDWARE
• arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) where Each NIC is hard-coded with a unique
arithmetic and logical operations are MAC (media access control) address
carried out code – refer to Chapter 4)
• control unit (CU) which takes
instructions the decodes and executes
the instructions.

Graphics card Sound card Internal hard disk drive/

A graphics card allows the computer to A sound card is an integrated circuit solid-state drive (HDD/SSD)
send graphical information to a video board that provides a computer with These two devices are covered in
display device such as a monitor, the ability to produce sounds. These considerably more depth in later
television, or projector. It usually sounds can be heard by the user either chapters of this book. Basically, hard
connects to the motherboard (see through speakers or headphones. disk drives (HDDs) are magnetic in
above). Graphics cards are usually made Sound cards also allow a user to record nature and are one of the main
up of: sound input from a microphone methods for storing data, files (text,
• a processing unit connected to the computer, and photos and music) and most of the
• memory unit (usually RAM) manipulate sound stored on a disk. system and applications software.
• a cooling mechanism (often in the More modern computers (and all
form of a heat sink since these cards tablets) use the newer storage systems
generate a lot of heat) which make use of solid-state (SSD)
• connections to a display unit technology and are replacing HDDs in
(monitor, TV or projector). many cases. Their function is the same
as an HDD.

▲ Figure 1.1 Internal computer hardware

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

Motherboard: RAM:

ROM: Graphics card:

Sound card: SSD:

HDD:

▲ Figure 1.2 Examples of internal hardware

1.1.2 Software
Software is the general term used for the programs that control the computer
system and process data. The software considered in this book falls into two
categories: applications and system.
Applications software provides the services that the user requires to solve a
given task. For example:
» word processing
» spreadsheet
» database (management system)
» control and measurement software
» apps and applets
» video editing
» graphics editing
» audio editing
» computer-aided design (CAD).
(Refer to Figure 1.3 for more details.)
System software is the software designed to provide a platform on which all
other software can run. For example:
» compilers
» linkers
» device drivers
» operating systems
» utilities.
(Refer to Figure 1.4 for more details.)
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 1.1 Hardware and software

Word processing Spreadsheet Database (management system)

Word processing software is used to Spreadsheet software is used to organise Database software is used to organise,
manipulate a text document, such as an and manipulate numerical data (in the manipulate and analyse data. A typical
essay or a report. Text is entered using a form of integer, real, date, and so on). database is made up of one or more
keyboard and the software provides tools Numbers are organised on a grid of tables. Tables consist of rows and
for copying, deleting and various types lettered columns and numbered rows. The columns. Each row is called a 'record'
of formatting. Some of the functions of grid itself is made up of cells, and each cell and each column is called a 'field.' This
word processing software include: is identified using a unique combination of provides the basic structure for the
• creating, editing, saving and columns and rows; for example: B6. Some organisation of the data within the
manipulating text of the functions of spreadsheets include: database. Some of the functions include:
• copy and paste functions • use of formulae to carry out • ability to carry out queries on database
• spell checkers and thesaurus calculations data and produce a report (DBMS)
• import photos/images into a structured • ability to produce graphs • add, delete and modify data in a table.
page format • ability to do modelling and 'what if'
• translation into foreign language. calculations.

Apps and applets

Applets are small applications that
perform a single task on a device (they
are usually embedded in an HTML page
on a website and can be executed from
within a browser).
Apps refer to software which can
perform a fairly substantial task (such
Control and measurement software as, video and music streaming, banking
Control and measuring software is application or social media). The term
designed to allow a computer or originally referred to software that ran
microprocessor to interface with sensors on a smartphone and could be
so that it is possible to: downloaded from an ‘app store’.
• measure physical quantities in the real APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE
world (such as temperatures) Programs that allow the
• control applications (such as a Computer-aided design (CAD)
user to do specific tasks
chemical process) by comparing sensor software
data with stored data and sending out This is software used to help in the
signals to alter process parameters (for creation, manipulation, modification
example, open a valve to add acid and and analysis of a drawing/design.
change the pH). It can be used to produce 2D or 3D
diagrams which:
• can be rotated to view the drawing
from any angle
• can produce full dimensions
• can be used to estimate
manufacturing costs of the
final product
• predict any structural problems.

Audio editing software Video editing software Graphics editing software

Audio editing software allows a user to Video editing software allows a user the Graphics editing software allows bitmap
edit, manipulate and generate audio data ability to manipulate videos to produce and vector images to be changed.
on a computer. It allows the user to alter: a new video. It enables the addition of Bitmap images are made up of pixels
• length of track titles, colour correction and altering/ which contain information about image
• start/stop time of track adding sound to the original video. brightness and colour. Bitmap graphics
• conversion between audio file formats Essentially it includes: editors can change the pixels to produce
• volume of track • rearranging, adding and/or removing a different image. Vector graphic editors
• fading in/out sections of video clips and/or audio operate in a different way and do not use
• combine multiple sound tracks clips pixels. This type of software manipulates
• noise reduction • applying colour correction, filters and lines, curves and text to alter the stored
• to create another version of the sound other video enhancements image as required. Both types of editing
track (for example, a continuous loop • creating transitions between clips in software are chosen depending on the
or phone ring tone). the video footage. format of the original image.

▲ Figure 1.3 Applications software

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

Compiler Linkers Device driver

A compiler is a computer program that A linker (or link editor) is a computer A device driver is the name given to
translates a program written in a program that takes one or more object software that enables one or more
high-level language (HLL) into machine files produced by a compiler and hardware devices to communicate with
code (code that is understood by the combines them into a single program the computer’s operating system.
computer) so that it can be directly that can be run on a computer. For Without drivers, a hardware device (for
used by a computer to perform a example, many programming example, a printer) would be unable to
required task. The original program is languages allow programmers to work with the computer. All hardware
called the source code and the code write different pieces of code, called devices connected to a computer have
after compilation is called the object modules, separately. This simplifies the associated drivers. As soon as a device is
code. Once a program is compiled, programming task since it allows the plugged into the USB port of a
the machine code can be used again program to be broken up into small, computer, the operating system looks for
and again to perform the same task more manageable sub-tasks. However, the appropriate driver. An error message
without recompilation. Examples of at some point, it will be necessary to will be produced if it cannot be found.
high-level languages include Java, put all the modules together to form Examples of hardware devices that
Python, Visual Basic, Fortran, C++ the final program. This is the job of require drivers include printers, memory
and Algol. the linker. sticks, mouse, CD drivers, and so on.

Operating systems (OS) Utilities

The operating system (OS) is essentially Utility programs are software that has
software running in the background of been designed to carry out specific
a computer system. It manages many tasks on a computer. Essentially, they
of the basic functions. Without the OS, are programs that help to manage,
most computers would be very maintain and control computer
user-unfriendly and the majority of resources. Examples include:
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
users would find it almost impossible • antivirus
Programs that allow the
to work with computers on a • anti-spyware
hardware to run properly
day-to-day basis. Operating • backup of files
and allow the user to
systems allow: • disk repair
communicate with
• input/output operations • file management
the computer
• users to communicate with the • security
computer (for example, Windows) • screensavers
• error handling to take place • disk defragmenter.
• the loading and running of
programs to occur
• managing of security (for example,
user accounts, log on passwords).

▲ Figure 1.4 System software

1.1.3 Analogue and digital data

Computers can only understand data which is in a binary format (that is, a base 2
number system where only the values 0 and 1 can be used). This is often referred
to as digital data (because it can only have discrete, discontinuous values).
However, data in the real world is actually analogue in nature. Analogue data
is physical data that changes smoothly from one value to the next, and not in
discrete steps as with digital data.
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0

▲ Figure 1.5 Analogue and digital data

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 1.2 Main components of computer systems

In Figure 1.5, the graph on the left shows analogue data; an infinite number of
values can exist between 0 and 6 (for example, 2.5, 4.652, and so on) because
the curve is smooth in shape. The graph on the right shows digital data; notice
only the exact values of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 can be taken.
If analogue data is being sent to a computer, it must first be converted into
digital data; this is done by hardware known as an analogue to digital converter
(ADC). If the computer is controlling a device (such as a motor) then the digital
output from the computer needs to be converted into analogue form. This is done
by a digital to analogue converter (DAC).

1.2 Main components of computer systems

As already mentioned in Section 1.1, a typical computer system is made up
of hardware and software. The diagram in Figure 1.6 shows an example of a
computer system consisting of input devices, output devices and secondary
storage. These will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, but some examples
are listed in Table 1.1.

▼ Table 1.1 Examples of input, output and secondary storage devices

Device Examples
Input devices keyboard, mouse, camera, microphone, sensor, scanner
Output devices monitor, printer, speakers, projector, (graph) plotter
Secondary storage devices hard disk drive, solid-state drive, pen drive

The internal hardware devices were shown in Figure 1.2 – these consist of four
key components:
» the central processing unit (CPU) (contained on the motherboard)
» internal hard disk drive or solid-state drive
» random access memory (RAM)
» read-only memory (ROM).
microprocessor and
internal memory
and storage devices

computer
monitor

printer

mouse keyboard

▲ Figure 1.6 A typical computer system

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

1.2.1 CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer that interprets
and executes the commands from the computer hardware and software. It is
normally part of the computer motherboard.
CPUs used to be made up of discrete components and numerous small integrated
circuits; these were combined together on one or more circuit board(s). However,
due to modern manufacturing techniques, the CPU is now referred to as a
microprocessor. This is a single integrated circuit which is at the heart of most PCs
and is also found in many household devices and equipment where some control or
monitoring is needed (for example, the engine management system in a car).
The CPU/microprocessor is made up of a control unit, which controls the input and
output devices; an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), which carries out calculations
and makes logical decisions, and small memory locations called registers.

1.2.2 Internal memory

Random access memory (RAM) is an internal chip where data is temporarily stored
when running applications. This memory can be written to and read from. Because
its contents are lost when power to the computer is turned off, it is often referred
to as a volatile or temporary memory. This was fully described in Figure 1.1.
Read-only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that needs to
be permanent. It is often used to contain, for example, configuration data for
a computer system. Chips used for ROM cannot be altered and can only be read
from (hence their name). One of the main advantages is that the information
stored on the ROM chip is not lost, even when power is turned off to the
computer. They are often referred to as non-volatile memories. This was fully
described in Figure 1.1.
It is worth noting that that ROM also contains some coding known as the boot
file. This code tells the computer what to do when it first starts up; it is often
referred to as the BIOS (basic input/output system).
When the computer is turned on, the BIOS carries out a hardware check to find
out if all the devices are present and whether they are functional. Then it loads
the operating system into the RAM.
The BIOS stores the date, time and system configuration in a non-volatile chip
called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) – this is usually
battery powered.
Table 1.2 provides a summary of the main differences between RAM and ROM.
▼ Table 1.2 RAM and ROM differences

RAM ROM
Temporary memory device Permanent memory device
Volatile memory Non-volatile memory device
Can be written to and read from Read-only, data stored cannot be altered
Used to store data, files, programs, part of
operating systems (OS) currently in use Used to store BIOS and other data needed at
Can be increased in size to improve start up
operational speed of a computer

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 1.2 Main components of computer systems

1.2.3 Input and output devices

Input devices are hardware that allows data to be entered into a computer (these
are covered in detail in Chapter 2). They use either manual entry (such as a
keyboard or a mouse) or direct data entry (such as sensors or optical character
readers). Essentially, these devices turn input into a form the computer can
understand – for example, a mouse turns hand movements into cursor movements
on the screen. As mentioned earlier, sometimes the data has to go through an
ADC before the computer can make any sense of it.
When a computer processes data, and the human operator wants to see the
results of the processing, then the computer sends the data to an output device.
An output device shows the computer’s output in a form that is understood by a
human – for example, as text on a printer or moving images on a monitor.
Some devices can act as both input and output. For example, a touch screen can
do both, as can a DVD writer/player; but most devices are only capable of either
inputting data into a computer or displaying the results of computer processing
(output device).
Table 1.3 summarises the differences between input and output devices.
▼ Table 1.3 Comparison of input and output devices

Input devices Output devices

An output device is any hardware device that
An input device is any hardware device that
takes the output data from a computer and
allows a user to enter data or instructions
puts it into a human-readable format or uses
into a computer directly.
it to control another device.
An output device is capable of receiving data
An input device can send data to another
from another device in order to generate an
device, but it cannot receive data from
output, but it cannot send data to another
another device.
device.
Input devices are necessary for a computer Output devices are needed by a computer
to receive commands from its users and data so it can share the results of its processing
to process; the devices are under the control with a human; output devices are under the
of the user or can be direct data entry. control of the computer.
Input devices can be fairly complicated Output devices are less complex than input
because they have to ensure that the user devices because they only have to turn
can interact with the computer correctly. computer signals into an output.

1.2.4 Backing storage

The main memories in a computer are RAM and ROM. However, to permanently
store large amounts of data it is necessary to use backing storage. This normally
takes the form of the internal hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD).
This is the computer’s main internal storage where the applications software,
disk operating system and files (for example, text, photo or music) are stored. A
key feature of a backing store is that it must store data permanently – that is, it
must be non-volatile.
Unlike RAM and ROM, backing storage is not directly addressable (that is, it
cannot be read directly by the CPU). The data access time for RAM and ROM is
much shorter than it is for backing storage. Backing storage is considerably larger
than RAM because it is considerably less expensive per byte.

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

Backing storage can either be fixed (very often internal to the computer) or
removable. The advantage of removable backing storage is that it can be used as
a backup in case of data loss or corruption. Data from the main HDD or SSD can
be copied onto another device (such as a pen drive or portable HDD) and then
stored in a separate location. If the original data on the HDD/SSD has been lost
or corrupted, it can be restored from the backup device.
Examples of removable storage include external hard disk drives (HDD), external
solid-state drive (SSD) and Blu-ray discs.
Table 1.4 summarises the differences between backing storage and internal
memory.
▼ Table 1.4 Comparison of internal memory and backing storage

Internal memory Backing storage

RAM contents are lost when computer is
Backing storage devices hold their contents
powered down; ROM contents are readable
permanently, even when powered down.
only.

RAM and ROM are much smaller memories Have considerably larger capacity to store
than backing storage. data than RAM or ROM.

Data access time on RAM and ROM is Has much slower data access time than
extremely fast. RAM and ROM.

Much more expensive per byte than backing

Is much cheaper per byte than RAM or ROM.
storage devices.

RAM and ROM are fixed inside the computer Backing storage can either be fixed
(internal memories). (external or internal) or it can be removable.

Before data on a backing storage device can

RAM and ROM can be read directly by the be read by the CPU, it must first be moved
CPU. into RAM; this means backing storage is not
directly addressable by the CPU.

1.3 Operating systems

Reference to operating systems has already been made earlier on in this chapter
(see Figure 1.4).
To enable computer systems to function and to allow users to communicate with
computer systems, special software, known as operating systems (OS), have
been developed. The general tasks for a typical operating system include:
» control of the operation of the input, output and backing storage devices
» supervising the loading, running and storage of applications programs
» dealing with errors that occur in application programs
» maintaining security of the whole computer system
» maintaining a computer log (which details computer usage)
» allowing communication between user and the computer system (user
interface).

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 1.3 Operating systems

1.3.1 User interfaces

Operating systems offer various types of user interface. We will consider four
different types:
» command line interface (CLI)
» graphical user interface (GUI)
» dialogue-based user interface
» gesture-based user interface.
Command line interface (CLI)
A command line interface (CLI) requires a user to type in instructions to choose
options from menus, open software, etc. There are often a number of commands
that need to be typed in, for example, to save or load a file. The user has to learn
a number of commands just to carry out basic operations. It is also slow, having
to key in these commands every time an operation has to be carried out. However,
the advantage of a CLI is that the user is in direct communication with the
computer and is not restricted to a number of pre-determined options.
For example, Windows has a CLI called the ‘command prompt’. The following
command opens the desktop folder in Windows Explorer:
%windir%\explorer.exe C:\Users\YourName\Desktop

▲ Figure 1.7 Sample of CLI code

The statements in Figure 1.7 show how complex it is just to carry out a fairly
straightforward operation using CLI.
Graphical user interface (GUI)
A graphical user interface (GUI) allows the user to interact with a computer (or
MP3 player, gaming device, mobile phone, etc.) using pictures or symbols (icons)
rather than having to type in a number of commands. For example, the whole of
the CLI code in Figure 1.7 could have been replaced by clicking on the Desktop
icon within Windows Explorer.
Simply selecting this icon would automatically execute all the commands shown
in Figure 1.7 without the need to type it in.
GUIs use various technologies and devices to provide the user interface. One
of the most common is WIMP (windows icons menu and pointing device)
which was developed for use on personal computers (PC). Here, a mouse is used
to control a cursor and icons are selected to open/run windows. Each window
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 1 Types and components of computer systems

contains an application and modern computer systems allow several windows to

be open at the same time. An example is shown in Figure 1.8 (here, a number of
icons can be seen on the on the bottom of the screen ‘window’):

▲ Figure 1.8 Screen image showing icons

A window manager looks after the interaction between windows, the applications
and window system (which handles the pointing devices and the cursor’s position).
In recent years, devices such as touch screen smartphones and tablets use post-
WIMP interaction, where fingers are in contact with the screen allowing actions
such as pinching and rotating, which would be difficult to do using a single
pointer and device such as a mouse.
Table 1.5 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI.
▼ Table 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI interfaces

Interface Advantages Disadvantages

The user needs to learn a number
of commands to carry out basic
The user is in direct communication
operations.
with the computer.
All commands need to be typed in,
Command line The user is not restricted to a
which takes time and can be error-
interface (CLI) number of pre-determined options.
prone.
It is possible to alter computer
Each command must be typed in
configuration settings.
using the correct format, spelling,
and so on.
The user does not need to learn any This type of interface uses up
commands. considerably more computer
memory than a CLI interface.
It is more user-friendly; icons are
Graphical used to represent applications. The user is limited to the icons
user interface provided on the screen.
A pointing device (such as a mouse)
(GUI)
is used to click on an icon to launch Needs a more complex operating
the application – this is simpler than system, such as Windows, to operate,
typing in commands. which can be slower to execute
commands.

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 1.3 Operating systems

Who would use each type of interface?

CLI: a programmer, analyst or technician; basically, somebody who needs to have
direct communication with a computer to develop new software, locate errors and
remove them, initiate memory dumps (contents of the computer memory at some
moment in time), and so on.
GUI: the end-user who does not have to (or does not need to) have any great
knowledge of how the computer works; a person who uses the computer to run
software, play games or store/manipulate photographs, for example.
Dialogue-based user interfaces
Dialogue-based user interfaces use the human voice to give commands to a
computer system. An example of its use is in some luxury modern cars, where
voice activation is used to control devices such as the in-car entertainment
system or satellite navigation system. By speaking certain commends, such as
‘Hey BMW, drive me to the nearest airport’, the system allows natural speech to
enable the driver to intuitively interact with the car. The satellite navigation
system will automatically direct the driver to their chosen destination (in this
case, the nearest airport). This type of interface could also be used in the
home; by using voice commands, it is possible to switch on/off lights, operate
electronic equipment and so on. In recent years, devices such as Amazon Alexa,
Google Now, Apple Siri and Microsoft Cortana have all been developed to interact
with a human by recognising verbal commands. These devices act as a personal
assistant.

Hey, Alexa, when 11:45 from Terminal 1.

is the next flight Would you like me to
to Paphos? make you a booking?

100011
011001
001110
011111
000001

Smart device is Human voice is Smart device processes

asked question converted into the human command and
by a human a binary stream outputs a verbal response

▲ Figure 1.9 Smart voice activated devices

Gesture-based interfaces
Gesture-based interfaces rely on human interaction by the moving of hands,
head or even the feet. Gesture recognition allows humans to interface with a
computer in a more natural fashion without the need for any mechanical devices.
This type of interface uses techniques known as computer vision and image
processing. For example, using our car example again, the following gestures can
be used to carry out certain functions:
» rotating a finger clockwise near the radio will increase the sound volume
(rotating the finger anti-clockwise will reduce the sound volume)

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

» opening the thumb and next finger will change the track being listened to (for
example, in a playlist)
» moving the foot under the rear bumper of the car automatically opens the
boot lid
» moving a hand near a window switch automatically opens a window.

There are many other examples. Either a sensor or a camera is used to pick up the
gesture and a signal is sent to an on-board computer to carry out the required
action. It eliminates the need for an array of buttons and dials on the dashboard.
Table 1.6 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of dialogue-based
and gesture-based interfaces.
▼ Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of dialogue-based and gesture-based interfaces

Interface Advantages Disadvantages

» no need for a driver to take their » still unreliable, with many
hands off the steering wheel commands not being
» in a home, very useful for people recognised or needing
with disabilities, because many to be repeated several
Dialogue-based tasks can be carried out by the times (especially if there is
interface spoken word only background noise)
» possible to use as a security » can be quite complex to set
feature, because voice recognition up
could be used to identify a person » user needs to know which
commands can be used
» replaces mechanical input devices » possible for unintentional
» no physical contact required movement to be picked up
» very natural interface for a human » only works fairly near to the
operator camera or sensor (maximum
» no training needed to interface with of 1.5 metres)
Gesture-based
interface the computer » may only accept a limited
number of movements (for
example, it may take several
attempts to find out exactly
what finger movements are
recognised)

1.4 Types of computer

There are many types of computer systems in existence.
The following summarises some of the more common types
currently available:

1.4.1 Desktop computers

Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer that is
made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse and processor
unit. It is distinguished from, for example, a laptop computer
by the fact that it is made up of a number of separate
components, which makes them not very portable.
Because laptop and desktop computers tend to be used for very
similar purposes, it is worth making a comparison between the
two types of computer. ▲ Figure 1.10 Desktop computer

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 1.4 Types of computer

The advantages of desktop computers over laptop computers are:

» Spare parts and connections tend to be standardised, which usually results in
lower costs.
» Desktop computers are easier, and less expensive, to upgrade or expand.
» The desktop tends to have a better specification (for example, faster
processor) for a given price (often due to size and construction constraints in
laptops).
» Power consumption is not critical because they usually plug straight into
a wall socket, and the larger casings allow a better dissipation of any heat
build-up.
» Because they are usually fixed in one location, there is less likelihood of them
being damaged or stolen.
» Internet access can be more stable because a desktop computer is more likely
to have a wired internet connection (the user will always have the same data
transfer rate); however, due to their portability, laptop computers usually use
wireless internet connectivity where the signal can be very variable (giving
variable data transfer rate).

They do have disadvantages when compared to laptop computers:

» The most obvious is that they are not particularly portable because they are
made up of separate components.
» They tend to be more complicated because all the components need to be
hooked up by wiring, which also clutters up the desk space.
» Because they are not particularly portable, it is necessary to copy files on, for Link
example, a memory stick, when you want to do some work elsewhere (for For more on
example, doing office work at home); although cloud storage has diminished cloud storage see
this disadvantage recently, it still may not be possible to save sensitive data Section 4.1.
files on the cloud.

The main uses of desktop computers include:

» office and business work (word processing, spreadsheets, finance software and
databases being the main use)
» educational use (using interactive software to teach or learn from)
» use as a gaming device (for example, games such as chess, crossword puzzles,
fantasy games, and so on)
» general entertainment (for example, live or ‘catch-up’ streaming of television
programmes).

1.4.2 Mobile computers

Mobile computers, by their very name, suggest a group of computers which are
considerably more portable than desktop computers. Such computers fall into
four categories:
» laptop computers
» smartphones
» tablets
» phablets.

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Laptop (or notebook)

Laptop (or notebook) refers to a type of computer
where the monitor, keyboard, pointing device and
processor are all together in one single unit. This
makes them extremely portable.
Key features you would expect to find in a laptop:
» lightweight (to aid portability)
» low power consumption (and also long battery
life)
» low heat output (cooling is very important).

Laptop computers do have advantages when

▲ Figure 1.11 Laptop computer
compared to desktop computers:
» The most obvious advantage is their portability; they can be taken anywhere
because the monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor and backing store
units are all together in one single unit.
» Because everything is in one single unit, there are no trailing wires (only one
single cord is used).
» They take up much less room on a desk, so they can be used anywhere (for
example, in a café).
» Their portability allows them to take full advantage of Wi-Fi features.
» Because they are portable, they can link into any multimedia system.

Laptop computers also have disadvantages when compared to desktop

computers:
» Because they are easily portable, they are also easier to steal!
» They have limited battery life so the user may need to carry a heavy power
adaptor.
» The keyboards and pointing devices can sometimes be more awkward to use.
» It is not always possible to upgrade them, for instance by adding more RAM.

The main uses of laptop computers include:

» office and business work (word processing, spreadsheets, finance software and
databases being the main use)
» educational use (using interactive software to teach or learn from)
» used as a gaming device (for example, games such as chess, crossword
puzzles, fantasy games, and so on)
» general entertainment (for example, live or ‘catch-up’ streaming of television
programmes)
» used in control and monitoring (because they can be operated anywhere using
their internal battery, it is possible to use laptops to gather data directly from
the environment – for example, they can be plugged into a gas boiler during
maintenance to monitor its performance).

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Smartphones
Smartphones allow normal phone calls to be made, but also have
an operating system (such as iOS, Android or Windows) allowing
them to run a number of computer applications (known as apps or
applets). They allow users to send/receive emails, use a number of
apps, use a camera feature (to take photos or videos), MP3/4 players
(for music and videos), and so on. Smartphones communicate with
the internet either by using Wi-Fi hot spots or by using 3G/4G/5G
mobile phone networks.
Some of the typical features of smartphones include:
» high-definition, anti-glare displays
» front- and back-facing cameras (which are used to take photos,
videos or act as a webcam when doing video calls over the
internet)
» lower weight and longer battery life than laptops ▲ Figure 1.12 Smartphone
» use Bluetooth for connection to printers and other devices
» make use of flash (solid state) memory and cloud storage
facilities to back up and synchronise (often just referred to as ‘sync’) data
sources
» they use a number of sensors to carry out the following functions:
– proximity sensors to detect if the device is close to, for example the ear,
which allows it to block unintended ‘touches’
– accelerometers, which detect movement and orientation of the device (for
example, move the display from portrait to landscape to view videos, or
allow it to be used as a ‘steering wheel’ in-car racing games)
– can use sophisticated speech recognitions systems (such as Siri) to enable
the user to ask the device to look for things (such as search the address
book).
The new generation of smartphones are becoming even thinner and lighter,
because they make use of OLED (organic light emitting diode) touch screens.
Future smartphones will also use OLED touch screens that are coated with a
crystalline layer that allows the phones to be partially solar powered; this allows
them to use Li-Fi (similar to Wi-Fi, except communication uses visible light rather
than radio waves). Communication using Li-Fi is considerably faster than with Wi-
Fi (much higher data transfer rate); it is also more secure (by stopping internet
‘piggybacking’). The Li-Fi system can also be used during aeroplane flights
because it does not use radio waves and therefore does not interfere with flight
control systems.
Advantages of smartphones:
» They are very small in size and lightweight – therefore they are very easy to
carry and have on your person at all times (this is more difficult with laptops
because they are much bulkier and much heavier).
» You can use them to make phone calls, but also connect to the internet while
on the move.

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» Because they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks they can be used almost
anywhere (this is not the case with laptops or desktops; although tablets also
use the same technology).
» They have apps which make use of sensor data provided by the smartphone,
for instance location data for maps – this can provide services that are not
available on desktops or laptops.
» They have a reasonable battery life compared to laptops.

Disadvantages of smartphones:
» The small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read.
» It is more difficult and slower when typing things in (laptops and desktops
have much bigger screens and much larger keyboards).
» Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery.
» Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to laptops
and desktops – although it is comparable with tablets (however, the latest
generation smartphones come with 1 TiB memories).
» Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating systems.
» Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a smartphone or for it to
be stolen compared to laptops or desktops.
» The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than with
Wi-Fi – this makes streaming of video or music, for example,
less than satisfactory at times.

Tablets
Tablets are becoming an increasingly used type of mobile
computer. They work in a similar way to a smartphone. Tablets
use touch screen technology and do not have a conventional
keyboard. The keyboard is virtual; that is, it is part of the
touch screen and keys are activated by simply touching
them with a finger or a stylus. However, it is possible to
buy tablet cases which contain a normal-sized keyboard.
Internet access is usually through Wi-Fi or 3G/4G/5G (mobile
phone) connectivity. Like smartphones, tablets are equipped
with a series of sensors which include camera, microphone, ▲ Figure 1.13 Tablet
accelerometer and touch screen.
The typical features of tablets are identical to those of a smartphone (described
earlier).
Advantages of tablets compared to laptops:
» very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to load
up)
» fully portable – they are so lightweight that they can be carried anywhere
» touch screen technology means they are simple to use and do not need any
other input devices
» can use several apps as standard (such as built-in camera, MP3/4 players and
so on)

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 1.4 Types of computer

» not much heat – they use solid-state technology

» battery life of a tablet is a lot longer
» when the power button is pressed, it goes into standby, but remains
connected to the internet so the user still hears alerts when emails or other
‘events’ are received.

Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops:

» tend to be rather expensive when compared to laptops (but this will probably
change with time as they become more common)
» they often have limited memory or storage when compared to a laptop
(although some of the latest devices have 1 TiB memory capacity)
» if 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks are used, they can be expensive to run if
the internet is being accessed frequently
» typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a standard
keyboard
» transferring of files often has to be done through an ‘application atore’; this
lack of ‘drag and drop’ facility can prove to be irritating to users
» laptops tend to support more types of file format than tablets and are also
better equipped to run different types of software.

Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a hybrid between a tablet
and a smartphone; these are referred to as a phablet. They have much larger
screens than a smartphone but are smaller than a tablet. All the features of a
smartphone (described earlier) also apply to phablets together with the typical
features of a tablet.

Smartphones Phablets Tablets

up to 5.1 inches in size between 5.1 inches and 7 inches over 7 inches in size
(that is, 13 cm) (that is, 13 cm to 18 cm) (that is, over 18 cm)

▲ Figure 1.14 Comparison of smartphone, phablet and tablet

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

The main uses of smartphones, tablets and phablets include:

» entertainment (streaming of music, videos and television programmes)
» gaming (including group games)
» as a camera or video camera (the quality of videos and photos now matches a
good digital cameras)
» internet use (online sales, social networks, using QR codes, and so on)
» sending/receiving emails
» global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to a location)
» calendar functions
» telephone banking (sending and receiving money using the banking apps)
» Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – telephone network using the internet
which also allows video calling
» instant access to social networks (social contact with friends no matter where
you are in the world)
» instant messaging
» office and business management (particularly the features that allow rapid
voice and video communication)
» education use (using interactive software to teach or learn from)
» remotely control devices (it is possible to remotely operate devices in the
home, such as microwave ovens, which contain embedded microprocessors; by
using internet-enabled smartphones or tablets, it is possible to start/stop the
oven even while several kilometres away from home by using an App and the
internet).

Exercise 1a
Name a number of devices in the home that contain What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
embedded microprocessors, which can be controlled smartphones, tablets or phablets to control these
by smartphones, tablets or phablets using an app and devices?
the internet.

1.5 Emerging technologies

1.5.1 Impact of emerging technologies
Artificial intelligence
There are many definitions of artificial intelligence (AI). Essentially, AI is a
machine or application which carries out a task that requires some degree of
intelligence. For example:
– the use of language
– recognising a person’s face
– the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, aeroplane, train, and so on
– analysing data to predict the outcome of a future event, for example
weather forecasting.

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 1.5 Emerging technologies

AI duplicates human tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving

skills. Eventually, many tasks presently done by humans will be replaced by
robots or computers, which could lead to unemployment. However, the positive
side includes improvements in safety and quality of services and products. Some
examples are detailed below.
The impact of AI on everyday life
Whenever AI is mentioned, people usually think of science fiction fantasies and
think of robots. The science fiction writer Isaac Asimov even went as far as
producing his three laws of robotics:
» robots may not injure a human through action or inaction
» robots must obey order given by humans without question
» a robot must protect itself unless it conflicts with the two laws above.

Many science fiction movies continue to fuel people’s imagination with

slightly sinister interactions between humans and machines. However, AI
goes way beyond robotics and covers many areas, such as those shown in
Figures 1.15–1.11

▲ Figure 1.15 An autonomous ▲ Figure 1.16 Robotic research ▲ Figure 1.17 Robots are used to
(driverless) vehicle – we already is leading to improvements in help people carry out dangerous
have driverless trains and technology to help amputees and or unpleasant tasks – for example,
autopilots on aeroplanes, but future people with disabilities. bomb disposal, welding of car
developments include driverless bodies, entering nuclear disaster
cars. areas (such as Chernobyl or
Fukushima) where the radiation
would kill a human in under two
minutes.

There are many more examples and the list becomes longer and longer with time.
Negative impacts of AI
All of the above examples give a very favourable view of the effect of AI on our
everyday lives. However, in any balanced argument, we should also consider the
drawbacks of the new technology:
» could lead to many job losses in a number of areas (although it is true to say
that new technical jobs would also be created); many jobs could be lost in
manufacturing, but other roles are likely to be affected (such as bus, taxi,
lorry and train drivers)

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 1 Types and components of computer systems

» dependency on technology and the inability to carry out tasks done by robots,
for example, could be an issue in the future
» loss of skills – even now, skills from previous generations have been lost as
humans have been replaced by machines and software applications.

Extended reality
Extended reality (XR) refers to real and virtual combined environments, and is a
‘catch all’ term for all immersive technologies. The three most common examples
at the moment are:
» augmented reality (AR)
» virtual reality (VR)
» mixed reality (MR).

All these immersive technologies extend the reality we experience by either

blending the virtual and real worlds or by creating a fully immersive experience.
In this chapter, we will only consider the first two examples.
Augmented reality (AR)
The features of augmented reality include:
» allow the user to experience the relationship between digital (virtual) and
physical (real) worlds
» virtual information and objects are overlaid onto real-world situations
» the real world is enhanced with digital details, such as images, text and
animation
» the user can experience the AR world through special goggles or via
smartphone/phablet screens
» the user is not isolated from the real world and is still able to interact and see
what is going on in front of them
» examples include the Pokémon GO game which overlays digital creatures onto
real-world situations.

In the future, augmented reality will have an impact on all the following areas:
» safety and rescue operations (for example, it is possible to provide 3D images
of an area where a rescue mission is to take place, giving the team the
opportunity to interact with the environment and try out rescue procedures
before doing the real thing)
» entertainment (for example, AR takes users into a virtual environment where
it is possible to interact with the characters; imagine the characters of your
favourite film interacting with you at home)
» shopping and retail (this is one of the big areas – for example, using your
smartphone camera you can try out make-up and see how it looks on you before
buying it, or you can experience a virtual tour of a new car where you can ‘sit’
in the interior and try out the driving experience before buying the car)

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 1.5 Emerging technologies

» healthcare (doctors can make use of AR to have a better understanding of a

patient’s body; software, such as Echopixel enables doctors to use CT scans
from patients to build up a 3D image of their body to help with surgery and
diagnosis).

Virtual reality (VR)

The features of virtual reality include:
» the ability to take the user out of the real-world environment into a virtual
(unreal) digital environment
» in contrast to AR, the user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
» users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360°
view of the virtual world (this ‘fools’ the brain into believing they are walking
on an ocean bed, walking in an alien world or inside a volcano)
» this technology can be used to good effect in: medicine (teaching operation
procedures), construction, engineering and the military.

In the future, virtual reality will have an impact on all the following areas:
» military applications (for example, training to operate a new tank)
» education (for example, looking inside an ancient building as part of a history
lesson)
» healthcare (for example, as a diagnostic tool to recommend treatment)
» entertainment (for example, games where gloves, goggles or helmets are worn
to fully immerse players and make it seem very real)
» fashion (for example, to do fashion shows before doing the real thing – see
the clothes on people, check out the venue and so on)
» heritage (for example, allowing users to walk around and close up to
monuments like Stonehenge)
» business (for example, training courses and role-playing scenarios for staff)
» engineering (for example, seeing how new designs like bridges will look in an
existing environment)
» sport (for example, a golfer trying to improve his swing can use this
technology and get feedback to improve his game)
» media (for example, interactive special effects in movies)
» scientific visualisation (for example, part of a molecular structure in
chemistry, or a cell in biology).

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Exam-style questions
1 There are a number of different types of computer. Write down the type of
computer that best fits the following descriptions.
a A computer that is difficult to move and has a separate monitor and
keyboard.[1]
b A portable computer that includes a physical keyboard.  [1]
c A thin portable computer that has a touch screen and a battery in a
single unit, not normally used to make phone calls. [1]
d A mobile phone that can be used as a computer. [1]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q1,
February/March 2016
2 Tick (✓) whether the following are features of operating systems
containing a command line interface (CLI) or a graphical user
interface (GUI).[2]
CLI (✓) GUI (✓)

Instructions have to be typed.

Applications are represented by icons.

Options are chosen from a menu.

Many instructions have to be memorised.

Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q2,

February/March 2016
3 Most smart phones can carry out many functions which, until recently,
only a computer could perform. Explain why computers of all types are
still needed. [7]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q10,
February/March 2015

4 Computer operating systems have developed since early computers

used Command Line Interfaces (CLI). Many computers now use Graphical
User Interfaces (GUI), some of which are capable of using touch screen
technology.
Compare and contrast CLI and GUI. [8]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q14,
May/June 2017

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 Exam-style questions

5 Nine statements about random access memory (RAM) and read-only

memory (ROM) are given below. By putting a tick (✓) in the appropriate
box, indicate whether each statement refers to RAM or ROM. [9]
RAM (✓) ROM (✓)

Data on a chip is stored permanently and cannot be deleted

It is not possible to alter or delete the data stored on the chip

Data on the chip is stored temporarily and can be deleted by the user

Data is retained even when the computer is powered down

Stores data, files or part of the operating system which is currently in use

Data is lost when power to the computer is turned off

It contains the basic input/output system used to boot up the computer

when it is first powered up

It is a form of volatile memory

It is a form of non-volatile memory

6 a Describe what is meant by augmented reality and virtual reality. [4]

b Describe how augmented reality and virtual reality could affect
society in the near future. [4]
7 Six descriptions are shown on the left and six computer terms are
shown on the right.
Draw lines to link each statement to its correct computer term. [6]
Method whereby a person uses their voice to
output device
carry out a function

Physical component that allows data to be

analogue
entered into a computer system

Physical component, such as a monitor, printer or computer-aided

projector under the control of the computer design

Small application that carries out a single task; dialogue-based

usually embedded in the html page on a website interface

Software used to help in the creation,

manipulation, modification and analysis of a input device
drawing

Physical data that changes smoothly and is not

step wise; has an infinite number of possible applet
values

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 2 Input and output devices
In this chapter you will learn about: For each device you will learn about:
★ input devices ★ characteristics
★ direct data entry (DDE) devices ★ uses
★ output devices. ★ advantages and disadvantages.

As the name suggests, these are hardware devices that allow data to be input
into a computer. Many such devices exist, ranging from the more common
ones, such as the keyboard, through to more specialist devices, such as
barcode readers. Some of these are described in this section.

2.1 Input devices and their uses

2.1.1 Keyboards
Keyboards are by far the most common method used
for data entry. They are used as the input device on
computers, tablets, mobile phones and many other
electronic items.
The keyboard is connected to the computer through a
USB or wireless connection. In the case of tablets and
mobile phones, the keyboard is often virtual or a type of ▲ Figure 2.1 Keyboard
touchscreen technology (see later).
When the character on the keyboard is pressed, it is converted into a digital
signal, which the computer interprets.
They are a relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to errors.
But keyboards are probably still the easiest way to enter text into a computer.
However, frequent use of these devices can lead to injuries, such as repetitive
strain injury (RSI) in the hands and wrists.
Ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this
problem – these have the keys arranged differently,
as shown in Figure 2.2. They are also designed to
give more support to the wrists and hands when
doing a lot of typing.
Figure 2.3 and the following description summarises
how the computer can recognise a letter pressed on
the keyboard:
» There is a membrane or circuit board at the base
of the keys.
» In Figure 2.3, the ‘H’ key is pressed and this
completes a circuit as shown.
▲ Figure 2.2 Ergonomic keyboard

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 2.1 Input devices and their uses

» The CPU in the computer can then determine which key has been pressed.
» The CPU refers to an index file to identify which character the key press
represents.

Letter “H” has been

GG J pressed and now makes
contact with bottom
H conductive layer

Letter “H”
Conductive interpreted
layers by computer

Insulating layer

▲ Figure 2.3 Diagram of a keyboard

Uses of keyboards
» Input of data into applications software (for example, text into word
processors, numbers into spreadsheets, and so on).
» Typing in commands to the computer (for example, Prnt Scrn, Ctrl+P to print
out, and so on).
Advantages of keyboards
» Fast entry of new text into a document.
» Well-known method.
» Easy to use for most people.
» Easier to do verification checks as data is entered (can immediately compare
the source document with typed data on the screen).
Disadvantages of keyboards
» Can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist use.
» Slow method when compared to direct data entry (for example, Optical Mark
Recognition – see Section 2.2).
» Fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.

Exercise 2a
Find out about a number of applications that use input/output devices and discuss
the reasons why they were chosen (that is, their advantages and disadvantages).

2.1.2 Numeric keypads

A numeric keypad is used to enter numbers only (although some have a
function key to allow alphabetic characters to be input).
Uses of numeric keypads
» Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the customer can key in
their PIN, amount of money, etc.
» Mobile phones to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed in. ▲ Figure 2.4 Numeric keypad
» Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode reader fails to read the
barcode – the number has to be keyed in manually by the operator.
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» Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards (key in PIN, amount
of money, etc.).
» Fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.
Advantages of numeric keypads
» Faster than standard keyboards when entering numeric data.
» Because many are small devices (for example, mobile phones) they are very
easy to carry around.
Disadvantages of numeric keypads
» Sometimes have small keys which can make input more difficult.
» Sometimes the order of the numbers on the keypad is not intuitive.

2.1.3 Pointing devices

Mouse
The mouse is an example of a pointing device. The user controls the position
of a pointer on the screen by moving the mouse around. There are usually two
buttons which have different functions; the left button is used to select items by ▲ Figure 2.5 Mouse
double clicking, while the right button brings up drop-down menus.
Many also have a scroll button, which speeds up the process of moving through a
document.
The optical mouse (where movement is detected by reflected light rather than
the position of a moving ball) and the cordless or wireless mouse (which
transmits signals to a USB wireless receiver plugged into the computer) are in
use on modern computers. The advantage of an optical mouse is it has no moving
parts and it also does not pick up any dirt. This makes it more robust
and improves its performance because the older type of mouse can ‘skid’ on
certain surfaces reducing the control of the pointer.
Uses of a mouse
Almost anything, depending on the software, but includes:
▲ Figure 2.6 Example of a
» opening, closing and minimising software
drop-down menu
» grouping, moving and deleting files
» image editing, for example, controlling the size and position of a drawing
pasted into a document
» controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection from a
menu or selecting an icon, and for scrolling up and down/left and right.
Advantages of a mouse
» Faster method for choosing an option rather than using a keyboard.
» Very quick way of navigating through applications and the internet.
» Does not need a large desk area when compared to a keyboard.

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Disadvantages of a mouse
» Can be more difficult for people with restricted hand/wrist movement than
using a keyboard for data entry.
» Easy to damage, and the older type of mouse quickly becomes clogged up with
dirt.
» Difficult to use if no flat surface readily available (for example, on an
aeroplane).

Touchpad
Touchpads are used as a pointing device in many laptop computers. The pointer
is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad and then gently
tapping it to simulate the left-hand button of a mouse (that is, selection). They
also have buttons under the touchpad which serve the same function as the left
and right buttons on a mouse.
▲ Figure 2.7 Touchpad
Use of a touchpad
Their uses are the same as those of a mouse.
Advantages of a touchpad
» Same as the mouse (faster than a keyboard for choosing options, used to
navigate applications and the internet, etc.).
» Because the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer there is no need
for a separate mouse – this aids the portability and is a big advantage if there
are no flat surfaces available.

Disadvantages of a touchpad
» People with limited hand/wrist movement find the device difficult to use.
» Can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared to a normal
mouse.
» More difficult to use when doing certain operations such as drag and drop.

Trackerball
Trackerballs are similar to a mouse, except that a ball is on the top or the side
of the device; the user controls the pointer on the screen by rotating the ball
with their hand. It is easier to use for people with limited hand/wrist movement.
Some trackerballs have two buttons, which have the same function as the left-
and right-hand mouse buttons. If they have a third button, it is equivalent to a ▲ Figure 2.8 Trackerball
double click. Because trackerballs do not physically move, there
is no need for a large amount of desk space.
Uses of a trackerball
» Can be a good alternative to a mouse for people with
conditions such as RSI.
» Used in an industrial control room environment where it is
faster than a mouse to navigate through process screens.
» Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as radio,
telephone, music, satnav and so on.

▲ Figure 2.9 Trackerball used in a luxury car

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 2 Input and output devices

Advantages of a trackerball
» Does not need the same fine control as a mouse.
» Easier to use than a mouse if the operator has problems with their wrist
or hand.
» More accurate positioning of the pointer on screen than a mouse.
» They are more robust than a mouse.
» Needs less desk space than a mouse or keyboard.

Disadvantages of a trackerball
» Not supplied with the computer as standard, therefore more costly.
» User may need training because it is not standard equipment.

2.1.4 Remote control

A remote control is used for the operation of other devices using infrared
signals.
The buttons on the keypad are used to select options (such as television
channels, sound levels on a Hi-Fi, timings on a DVD recorder, etc.).
Uses of a remote control
» Televisions, satellite systems, DVD/Blu-ray players and Hi-Fi systems all use
remote controls to alter functions such as sound volume, on/off, change
channels, open the disc drawer, and so on.
» Used to control multimedia systems. ▲ Figure 2.10 Remote
» Used in industrial applications to remotely control processes, stop and start control
machinery, etc.

Advantages of a remote control

» Can be operated from any reasonable distance, unlike, for example, a wired
mouse which is restricted by the length of the wire. Some industrial processes
are hazardous, so it is a big advantage to be able to select operations from a
distance.
Disadvantages of a remote control
» Difficult to use if the operator has limited hand/wrist movement.
» It is easier to block the signal if, for example, the walls in the building are
very thick.

2.1.5 Joysticks and driving wheels

Joystick
Joysticks have similar functions to a mouse and a trackerball. By gripping
the stick, a pointer on the screen can be controlled. Buttons are used to make
selections. Often they have another button on the top of the stick that is used
for gaming purposes for example to fire a weapon. ▲ Figure 2.11 Joystick

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 2.1 Input devices and their uses

Uses of a joystick
» Used in video/computer games.
» Used in simulators (for example, flight simulators) to mimic actual controls.

Advantages of a joystick
» Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen.
» Control is more realistic for some applications than, for example, using a
mouse.

Disadvantages of a joystick
» More difficult to control the on-screen pointer than with other devices, such
as a mouse.
Driving wheel
A driving (steering) wheel is an example of an input device that is similar to
a joystick in many ways. It connects to a computer (or games machine), usually
through a USB port. The wheel allows you to simulate the turning of a steering
wheel, and there are associated devices (such as buttons or pedals) which allow
you to accelerate and brake. Sensors are used to pick up left/right movement so ▲ Figure 2.12 Driving wheel
that the user gets the sensation of steering a car around a circuit or on the road.
Uses of a driving wheel
» Used in video/computer games (for example, car racing games).
» Used in simulators (for example, car-driving simulators) to mimic actual
vehicle controls.

Advantages of a driving wheel

» Easier than a keyboard or joystick to control steering movements; it is more
natural.
» The ‘driving experience’ is nearer to how an actual steering wheel and other
controls operate in real life.

Disadvantages of a driving wheel

» It can be a rather expensive input device compared to mouse or joystick.
» Movements in the steering can be too sensitive, giving an unrealistic ‘feel’.
» Unless it is an expensive simulator, feedback to the driving wheel is
non-existent.

2.1.6 Touch screens (as an input device)

With a touch screen the user can choose an option by simply touching a
button/icon on the screen. The selection is automatically made without
the need for any pointing device.
Uses of touch screens
» Self-service tills, for example, petrol stations, where the user just
touches the screen to select the fuel grade and payment method. ▲ Figure 2.13 Touch screen

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 2 Input and output devices

» Automatic teller machines (ATMs) to choose from on-screen options.

» Point of sale terminals such as in restaurants.
» Public information systems at airports, railway stations, tourist offices, etc.
» Mobile phones, tablets and satellite navigation systems.
» Interactive white boards in education.
» Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are selected during on-screen
testing.
» They can obviously also be used as an output device because they also work
as a flat-screen monitor (see Section 2.3.2).

Advantages of touch screens

» Faster entry of options than using keyboard or mouse.
» Very easy method for choosing options.
» User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
» Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.

Disadvantages of touch screens

» Limited number of input options available.
» Can lead to problems if an operator has to use the system frequently
(straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc. are all possible).
» The screen can get very dirty with constant touching (giving a risk of
spreading infections, and reduce its responsiveness which makes it more
difficult to read in strong sunlight).

2.1.7 Scanners
Scanners are used to enter information from hard copy (for example, text
documents, photographs) into a computer. The most common type is the flatbed
scanner (see Figure 2.14), which is made up of a glass panel and lid. The
hard copy document or photo is scanned by a light source and produces a
computer-readable image.
The subsequent image can then be manipulated using a drawing package. Images
of text can also be used with optical character recognition (OCR) software to
produce editable text documents (see Section 2.2). There are also specialist ▲ Figure 2.14 Flatbed scanner
scanners which are designed to carry out a specific task, for example, barcode
scanners (see later).
Uses of scanners
» Scan in documents and convert into a format for use in various software
packages.
» Scan in old/valuable documents/books, thus protecting the originals, as well
as producing records in case the paper copies are lost/destroyed (this is also
known as archiving).
» Scan in photographs (not all cameras are digital and therefore photographs
are still printed on paper, requiring conversion to computer format for
storage).
» Scan in barcodes at POS terminals.

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Advantages of scanners
» Images can be stored for editing at a later date.
» When used with OCR, much faster and more accurate (no typing errors) than
typing in documents again.
» It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning in
and then using appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages of scanners
» Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is
capable of (most scanners have a range of resolutions you can choose from).
» They can be fairly slow at scanning, especially if the colour scanning mode is
chosen or if the chosen scanning resolution is high.

2.1.8 Digital cameras

Digital cameras have largely replaced traditional film-based cameras.
The images are stored on a memory card (solid-state memory) and can be
transferred to a computer by:
» directly reading the memory card (by slotting it into a card reader attached
to a computer or a printer)
» connecting the camera to the computer using a USB port
» using wireless data transfer (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth).
▲ Figure 2.15 Digital camera
The images are uploaded from the camera and stored in a file in the computer;
the user can select which photos to upload and which to discard. The images are
then available for printing out as photos, can be used in a ‘slide show’, imported
into software such as a word processor, or uploaded on to the internet.
Uses of digital cameras
» Taking photographs; they still take better photgraphs than smartphones or
tablets due to the use of expensive lenses and dedicated software.
» Used as a data-capture device; for example, as a reversing aid in a car
where small cameras (in the bumpers) help the driver to see their immediate
surroundings.
» Dentists use digital cameras to take photos of a patient’s teeth to help them
diagnose any problems; they are also used to improve colour matching when
doing dental fillings.
» The creation of virtual reality tours around houses, historical buildings,
industrial plants, and so on.
Advantages of digital cameras
» Easier to produce better-quality photographs than with a traditional camera.
» Easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer rather than having to
scan in hard copies when using traditional methods.
» No need to develop film and print out photographs anymore – this saves
money and is also environmentally more acceptable (saves paper and reduces
the use of the chemicals used in developing traditional film).
» Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.

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Disadvantages of digital cameras

» Need to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; also, the
transferring, storing and manipulating of the images via a computer requires
some understanding of how computers work.
» There is some artistry lost because clever software now corrects errors in the
photographs (for example, incorrect exposure, removal of red eye, etc.).
» Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used (a
single image can use more than 12 MB of memory, for example).
Many smartphones and tablets are now capable of taking photographs of a very
high quality. Some of the latest smartphones are essentially making cameras
almost obsolete for the casual photographer. Because the quality of the lens is
an important feature, professional photographers will continue to use digital
cameras for a number of years. However, it is now possible to get special
attachments for many smartphones to allow special effects, zooming functions
and even light filters.

2.1.9 Microphones
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices connected
through the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity. Figure 2.16 shows how
a microphone can convert sound waves into an electric current. The current
produced is converted to a digital format so that a computer can process it or
store it (for example, on a CD).

copper coil surrounded by

diaphragm cone a permanent magnet

sound waves

output from
the microphone

▲ Figure 2.16 Diagram of how a microphone works

» When sound is created, it causes the air to vibrate.

» When a diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations, the
diaphragm also begins to vibrate.
» A copper coil is surrounded by a permanent magnet and the coil is connected
to the diaphragm using a cone. As the diaphragm vibrates, the cone moves in
and out causing the copper coil to move backwards and forwards relative to
the magnet.
» This forwards and backwards motion cuts through the magnetic field around
the permanent magnet, inducing an electric current.
» The electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device. The
electric current is analogue in nature.

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 2.1 Input devices and their uses

The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer
where a sound card converts the current into a digital signal which can then be
stored in the computer.
Uses of microphones
» To input speech/sounds to be used in various applications, for example, in
presentations, sampling (in films, music, etc.) and special effects (films).
» Input in voice-recognition software:
– the software converts the speech into text that can be used in, for
example, a word processor or to input commands into a computer
– to recognise commands; for example, some cars now have voice-activated
systems to switch on the lights, turn up the radio volume, etc. (see Chapter 1).
» Microphones can also be used as a sensor to pick up sound (for example, in an
intruder alarm system).
» Used in video-conferencing or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
applications.
Advantages of microphones
» Faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.
» It is possible to manipulate sound in real time using special software rather
than work on a recording done at some earlier stage.
» If used in a voice activation system, it has the advantage of improving safety
(because the car driver, for example, does not need to take their hands off the
wheel to operate a switch or alter the radio station, etc.).
Disadvantages of microphones
» Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.
» Voice-recognition software is not as accurate as typing in manually (for
example, the software cannot distinguish the difference between ‘their’
and ‘there’).

2.1.10 Sensors
This section deals with analogue sensors. A sensor is a device that inputs data Link
to a computer; the data is a measurement of some physical quantity that is
continuously changing (for example, temperature, light, moisture, etc.). These For more on the
differences between
physical quantities are analogue in nature. Because computers only understand
analogue and digital
digital data (1s and 0s), the information from the sensors needs to be converted; data see Section 1.13.
this is done using an analogue to digital converter (ADC).
Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications – various types of
sensors are used depending on the application (see Table 2.1). When monitoring,
the data sent to the computer is often transferred directly to a spreadsheet
package (for example, taking measurements in a scientific experiment, measuring
atmospheric pollution, etc.).

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 2 Input and output devices

Uses of sensors
▼ Table 2.1 Uses of sensors

Type of sensor Applications

Temperature Used in automatic washing machines, central heating systems,
automatic glasshouses, ovens
Pressure Used in intruder alarm systems, washing machines, robotics,
environmental monitoring
Light Used in automatic glasshouses, automatic doors, intruder alarm
systems, street lighting control
Sound/acoustic Used in intruder alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in
pipes
Humidity/moisture Used in automatic glasshouses, environmental monitoring,
in factories where moisture levels are crucial (for example,
manufacture of microchips, paint spraying)
pH Used in automatic glasshouses, chemical processes, environmental
monitoring

Advantages of using sensors

» More accurate readings taken when compared to human operators.
» Readings are continuous – no break in the monitoring.
» Because it is a continuous process, any necessary action (control system) or
warning (monitoring system) will be initiated immediately.
» Systems can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention
(very important if the process is hazardous or needs precise control/
monitoring).

Disadvantages of using sensors

» Faulty sensors can give spurious results – for example, sensors on the rear
bumper of a car that monitors obstacles; if these become dirty, they may
either not identify an obstacle or give a continuous alarm.
» Most sensors are analogue, therefore they require conversion using an ADC.

2.1.11 Light pens

Light pens are used with computers as an input device. They contain sensors
that send signals to a computer whenever light changes are detected. The
devices only work with CRT monitors (see Output devices section as they rely
on the screen image being built up row by row by an electron beam. The screen
is refreshed 50 times every second; because of this, the computer is able to
determine the pen’s position by noting exactly when the device detected the
electron beam passing its tip. Systems to allow light pens to operate with LCD ▲ Figure 2.17 Light pen
monitors are still at the development stage.
Uses of light pens
» Selecting objects on CRT screens.
» Drawing on screen (for example, with CAD packages).

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 2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

Advantages of light pens

» Greater accuracy than touch screens.
» Small (can be used where space is an issue).
» Easy-to-use technology.
Disadvantages of light pens
» Problems with lag when drawing on screen.
» Only works with CRT monitors (at the moment).
» Not that accurate when drawing.
» Rather dated technology.

2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

Direct data entry (DDE) devices are used to input data into a computer without
the need for very much, if any, human interaction. For example, barcode readers
are DDE and the only human involvement is to point a reader at the barcode. The
transfer of the data to the computer is done automatically.

2.2.1 Card readers

Magnetic stripe readers
These are used to read information on the magnetic stripe found on, for
example, the back of a credit or debit card. The stripe contains useful
information, such as: account number, sort code, expiry date and start date.
Uses of magnetic stripe readers
» On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs or EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer at Magnetic stripe
point of sale) terminals.
» Security devices to allow entry to buildings, hotel rooms, etc.
AUTHORISED SIGNATURE

Advantages of magnetic stripe readers

Contact Customer

S.J.Driver Services on
0840 5661 496
or from abroad
+44 5568 123 123

» Fast data entry, rather than keying in with a keyboard or keypad. TO BE USED ONLY BY THE AUTHORISED SIGNATORY

» Error-free (because no typing is involved).

▲ Figure 2.18 Magnetic
» Secure (information not in human readable form and, because there is no
stripe reader
typing, removes the risk of somebody observing your key strokes).
02.02 IGCSE ICT
» Prevents access to restricted/secure areas. Barking Dog Art
» Not affected by oil, water, moisture, etc.
» No moving parts – so physically very robust.
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe readers
» If the magnetic stripe gets damaged (for example, due to exposure to a strong
magnetic field) the data is lost. Hodder Bank
» Does not work at a distance (card needs to be in close contact with reader).
» Because the information is not human readable, this can be a disadvantage in
some applications. VALID
FROM
EXPIRES
END
VISA

Contactless debit card readers Chip

Contactless debit or credit cards allow customers to pay for items worth up to a ▲ Figure 2.19 Contactless
certain amount of money without entering their PIN. All contactless cards have debit card

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 2 Input and output devices

a small chip that emits radio waves embedded in them. The card is held within a
few centimetres of the payment terminal to pay for an item; the terminal picks
up the signal from the chip and allows the transaction to be processed.
The steps taken are:
1 Customers look out for the contactless symbol on the payment terminal.
2 The shop assistant enters the amount for payment.
3 The card reader informs the customer to present their contactless card.
4 The customer holds their card close to the front of the card reader.
5 The terminal display will indicate that the card has been read successfully.
Advantages of using contactless cards
▲ Figure 2.20 Contactless
» Faster transactions (typical transaction takes 10 seconds as opposed to card reader
30 seconds using magnetic stripe reader).
» The contactless card system uses 128-bit encryption systems to protect the
data.
» Customers do not have to worry about typing errors (such as incorrectly typing
in a PIN).
» Retailers no longer have access to the customer’s credit/debit card
information.
» The chip in the contactless credit card responds to the payment terminal
reader with a unique number used for that transaction only; it does not simply
transmit the consumer’s account number; this number is also encrypted.

Disadvantages of using contactless cards:

» They are more expensive than normal credit/debit cards.
» A thief with a suitable reader could monitor your contactless card transaction
while standing at the counter with you, or just behind you (the third point
above reduces this risk considerably however; because you do not have to type
in a PIN, somebody standing behind you could not steal your PIN and use it).
» Can take money twice if the customer uses it as a chip and PIN card (one is
contactless and the other is chip and PIN).
» Transactions are usually limited to a small maximum value (for example, $50).
» Transactions have been carried out, in some countries, without the card
holder being aware of this while they were just standing in the payment queue
(although it should be pointed out that this is much rarer today with new
technologies in most countries).

Chip and PIN readers

Chip and PIN readers are similar to smart card readers but are used at EFTPOS
terminals. The device has a slot into which the card is placed and the chip is
read; the PIN is entered using the keypad. The reader also has a small screen
which gives instructions to the operator. They are similar to the contactless
system, except for two points:
1 The customer has to key in their PIN to make a transaction.
2 These cards do not make use of radio frequency technology.

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 2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

Uses of chip and PIN readers

» Where payments are made using cards (restaurants, supermarkets, travel
agents, etc.).
Advantages of chip and PIN readers
» More secure system than contactless payments (PIN typed in must match up
with PIN stored on chip).
» More robust system than magnetic stripe cards.

Disadvantages of chip and PIN readers

» Fraud – need to be careful to ensure PIN is not read by somebody else while
typing it in.

2.2.2 Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers

Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers use radio waves to read and
capture information stored on a tag. In some applications, the tag can be
read from a distance of several metres, which is one of its advantages over the
barcode system. The RFID tag is made up of two components:
» a microchip that stores and processes information
» an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information.

The tags can be passive or battery-powered. Passive tags use the reader’s radio
wave energy to relay back the information; battery-powered tags use a small
embedded battery to power the RFID.
RFID tag

antenna reader

computer

▲ Figure 2.21 RFID

Uses of RFID
» Livestock tracking (so that the whereabouts of each animal on a farm is
known; it also identifies which farm owns the animal).
» Retail (it is similar to barcodes, but does not require any scanning; details
such as price can be stored on the tag and then automatically read at a
checkout – a big advantage is that several tags can be read at the same time,
thus speeding up the checkout process).
» Admission passes (for example, in theme parks RFID cards eliminate the need to
scan or swipe people before ‘rides’, reducing the waiting time; it also allows the
tracking of people in the theme park and certain information, such as height or
age, can be stored to prevent entry to certain rides on safety grounds).
» Libraries (books can be tracked in and out automatically by readers at the
library entrance; no need to scan barcodes or use magnetic stripe cards,
making the process quicker and more accurate).

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Advantages of RFID
» No line-of-sight contact is necessary; the tags can be read from a distance.
» It is a very robust and reliable technology.
» Very fast read-rate (typically less than 100 milliseconds to respond).
» Bidirectional data transfer (that is, it allows read and write operations to take
place).
» Bulk detection is possible (that is, it can detect several RFID tags at the same
time).

Disadvantages of RFID
» Tag collision (this is when the signals from two or more tags overlap,
interfering with each other).
» Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively easy to jam or interrupt.
» It is relatively easy to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag.
» RFID is more expensive than a comparable barcode system.

2.2.3 Optical mark recognition/reader (OMR)

Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a device which can read marks written in pen
or pencil on a form. The places where the pen or pencil marks can be made are
clearly shown on the form, for example:

1 2 3
▲ Figure 2.22 OMR
In this example a pencil mark has been made between the dots on option 1. The
position of the mark is stored in the computer’s memory after being read by the
OMR device.
Uses of OMR devices
» Used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers, voting
papers and many other types of form where responses are registered in the
form of lines or shaded areas.
Advantages of OMR devices
» Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc. The documents are fed
in automatically and there is no user input.
» Because there is no typing, they are more accurate than keying in the data.
» They are more accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages of OMR devices

» The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks/shading are
correctly positioned to gather accurate information.
» There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly; sometimes
they have to be manually checked before being read, which is both time
consuming and expensive.

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2.2.4 Optical character recognition/reader (OCR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) is the name given to a device that converts
the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form. OCR software converts
this electronic data into a form that can then be used in various application
packages, such as word processors or presentation software.
Uses of OCR
» One of the most recent uses is the processing of passports and identity cards.
» Converting hard copy documents into electronic form which can be stored on
a computer.
» Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems in car parks.
» Digitising historic newspapers and rare books so they can be archived and
used by researchers, preventing damage to the originals. ▲ Figure 2.23 Using OCR
to process a passport
Advantages of OCR
» It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.
» Because there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is also reduced.
Disadvantages of OCR
» The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting.
» Still not a very accurate technique.
Comparison of OMR and OCR features
A company has decided to produce a questionnaire to gain information from
customers. What features of OCR or OMR need to be considered when designing
the data-capture form? This comparison is needed before the form is designed
and the appropriate input method chosen. Table 2.2 summarises the features of
both methods.

▼ Table 2.2 Comparison of OCR and OMR

OCR OMR
Because this method reads handwriting, it is possible for Because this involves shading in lozenges to answer set
customers to extend their answers to questions questions, the information obtained is limited to the choices
offered in each question
This method can read handwriting – but if the handwriting is OMR relies on simply detecting where marks have been
poor it may cause reading errors made on a page; the position of the marks is compared to a
template stored in memory
OCR is used for converting printed documents to an editable OMR simply reads the position of marks so it is ideal for
electronic format multiple-choice exam papers
OCR requires a complex recognition system This method requires complex (and expensive) forms to be
completed; but the recognition system is simpler than OCR
Fewer ‘how to fill in’ instructions are needed for forms While this method requires more ‘how to fill in’
designed to be completed and then read by OCR instructions, it is easier and faster for customers to
complete OMR forms than to complete OCR forms
While OCR is more accurate than data entered into a computer OMR is essentially a more accurate method for reading
by keyboard, there are still problems recognising all types of data than OCR
handwriting leading to inaccuracies

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2.2.5 Barcode readers

Barcode readers are used to read information in the form of a bar code (see
barcode example in Figure 2.24).
The readers are usually in the form of a barcode scanner and are often built into
POS terminals in supermarkets. Handheld scanners or wands (as shown in Figure
2.25) are also very common for reading barcodes if portability is required (for ▲ Figure 2.24 Sample
example, if the barcodes are on large or fixed objects). barcode

Uses of barcode systems

» Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked with a
barcode; the barcodes are used to give information about the product which
enables automatic stock control, itemised billing, etc. to take place.
» Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan.
» Used as a safety function in many companies to ensure that electrical
equipment is checked on a regular basis (barcodes are placed on an item to ▲ Figure 2.25 Portable
identify it and a database holds all the information related to that barcode so barcode reader
it is possible to interrogate the system as part of a safety audit). (scanner)

Advantages of barcode systems

» Much faster than keying in data manually and fewer mistakes will be made.
» If used as a way of recording safety testing of components (for instance
electrical components) they can help improve safety.
» They allow automatic stock control.
» They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages of barcode systems

» Relatively expensive system to administer.
» Not fool-proof (barcodes can be swapped around on items).
» Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic stripes.

2.2.6 Quick response (QR) code scanners (readers)

Another type of barcode is the quick response (QR) code. This is made up of a
matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background. For example, the QR code
in Figure 2.26 is a website advertising rock music merchandise. It includes a web
address in the code.
QR codes can hold considerably more information than the more conventional
barcodes described earlier.
Description of QR codes
A QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels. ▲ Figure 2.26 Sample
QR code
It can presently hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089 digits) and allows
internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code. This compares to the 30
digits which is the maximum for a barcode. However, as more and more data is
added, the structure of the QR code becomes more complex.

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 2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

The three large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of
alignment; the remaining small corner square is used to ensure the correct size
and correct angle of the camera shot when the QR code is read.
Because of modern smartphones and tablets, which allow internet access on the
move, QR codes can be scanned anywhere. This gives rise to a number of uses:
» advertising products (for example, the QR code in Figure 2.26)
» giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number Boarding Pass
» storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations BX 885
(Figure 2.27).
By using the built-in camera on a mobile smartphone or tablet and by
downloading a QR app (application), it is possible to read QR codes on the move
using the following method:
» Point the phone or tablet camera at the QR code. LHR to BUH
» The apps will now process the image taken by the camera converting the March 15 2023
squares into readable data.
» The browser software on the mobile phone or tablet automatically reads the
data generated by the apps; it will also decode any web addresses contained
within the QR code. ▲ Figure 2.27 Sample
» The user will then be sent to a website automatically (or if a telephone boarding pass
number was embedded in the code, the user will be sent to the phone
apps ).
» If the QR code contained a boarding pass, this will be automatically sent to
the phone/tablet.
Uses of QR codes
» Used in advertising to contain data such as business addresses, phone
numbers, email addresses and website addresses; scanning the QR code
gives all the necessary data on the smartphone screen, or the user is sent
automatically to the website embedded in the QR code.
» Contain links to apps (for example, they can be found in app stores to enable
the appropriate apps to be quickly downloaded onto a user’s device).
» Wi-Fi authentication; QR codes can be used to store Wi-Fi network
authentication (proof of identity) details, including passwords and type of
encryption used – when the QR code is scanned using a smartphone/tablet, it
will be able to automatically join that network.
» QR codes can be used to deliver augmented reality (see Chapter 1)
experiences, by helping an AR system to determine the positions of objects in
three-dimensional space.
» QR codes have been used to establish virtual online stores, where a gallery of
product information and QR codes are presented to the customer, for example,
on a train station wall. The customers scan the QR codes, and the products
are automatically delivered to their homes.

Advantages of QR codes
» They can hold much more information than normal barcode.
» There will be fewer errors than with barcodes; the higher data capacity of the
QR code allows the use of built-in error-checking systems; normal barcodes

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 2 Input and output devices

contain almost no data redundancy (that is, data which is duplicated) therefore
it is not possible to guard against badly printed or damaged barcodes.
» QR codes are easier to read; they do not need expensive laser or LED (light
emitting diode) scanners like barcodes – they can be read by the cameras used
on smartphones and tablets.
» It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
» It is also possible to encrypt QR codes, which gives them greater protection
than traditional barcodes.

Disadvantages of QR codes
» More than one QR format is available.
» QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes; known as attagging.
Because there are a large number of free apps available to a user for
generating QR codes, that means anyone can do this. It is relatively easy to
write malicious code and embed this within the QR code. When the code is
scanned, it is possible the creator of the malicious code could gain access
to everything on the user’s smartphone/tablet (for example, photographs,
address book, stored passwords, etc.). The user could also be sent to a fake
website, or it is even possible for a virus to be downloaded.

2.3 Output devices and their uses

As the name suggests, these are devices that usually show the result of computer
processing in a format that can be understood by a human (for example, on a
monitor or printed on paper). However, some output devices are part of a control
system. In these examples, the computer is controlling a process and sends
signals to these output devices.

2.3.1 Monitors (screens)

In this section we will consider two types of monitor:
» the cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor
» LCD (or TFT) screen (TFT means ‘thin film technology’; a general term for
modern thin screens).

While CRT monitors have just about been phased out everywhere, they are
included here because these are the only type of device which allows the use of
light pens (see Section 2.1.11). Consequently, some companies using CAD still
use large CRT monitors to enable the use of light pens as part of the drawing
environment.
CRT monitors
Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors are the least expensive type of monitor,
although they are becoming increasingly rare as LCD monitors are now taking ▲ Figure 2.28 CRT
monitor
over. They come in various sizes and make use of an electron gun firing against
a phosphor screen. The picture is made up of tiny dots which are coloured red,
green or blue – the intensity of each coloured dot makes up the vast range of
colours interpreted by the eye.

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Uses of CRT monitors

» They are only used in specialist areas, such as computer-aided design (CAD);
the screens are usually very large to enable complex diagrams to be created or
modified.
» They are used with light pens to allow designs to be created on screen.
Advantages of CRT monitors
» The screen can be clearly seen at a wider range of viewing angles than with
most LCD monitors.
» They allow the use of light pens in, for example, CAD/CAM applications.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors
» They tend to be rather heavy and present a weight hazard if not supported
properly; they also have a very large footprint on a desk (they cover about ten
times the area of an LCD monitor).
» They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended (especially as they
get older).
» They consume considerably more power than LCD monitors.
» They can flicker, which can lead to headaches and eyesight problems with
prolonged use.
LED and LCD screens
LED screens
An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED is either
red, green or blue in colour. By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its
brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours.
This type of screen tends to be used for large outdoor displays, due to the
brilliance of the colours produced. Recent advances in LED technology have led to
the introduction of OLED (organic LED) screens.
Many monitors and television screens are advertised as LED when in fact
they are LCD screens which are backlit using LEDs.
LCD screens
LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals. These tiny crystals make up an
array of pixels which are affected by changes in applied electric fields. How this
works is outside the scope of this book, but the important thing to realise is that
for LCD screens to work, they require some form of backlighting.
Modern LCD screens are backlit using light emitting diode (LED) technology and
must not be confused with pure LED screens. When LEDs are used, a matrix of
tiny blue-white LEDs is used behind the LCD screen. The use of LED backlighting
gives a very good contrast and brightness range.
Before the use of LEDs, LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL)
as the back lighting method. Essentially, CCFL used two fluorescent tubes behind
the LCD screen to supply the light source.
The reason that LEDs have become increasingly more popular as the method of
backlighting is due to a number of advantages over older CCFL technology:
» LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to
‘warm up’ before reaching full efficiency).
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» LEDs give a whiter light, which sharpens the liquid

polarising filter crystal colour filter
image and makes the colours appear more vivid;
CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint.
» LEDs produce a brighter light which improves the
colour definition. light polarising
filter
» Screens using LED technology are much thinner source

than screens using CCFL technology.

» LEDs last almost indefinitely; this makes the
technology more reliable and makes for a more display
surface
consistent product.
» LEDs consume very little power which means they
produce less heat as well as using less energy.

Uses of LCD screens electrodes electrodes

» Used as the main output device for most modern
computers. ▲ Figure 2.29 Inside an LCD screen
» Many LCD screens offer touch-screen input.
» Mobile phones, tablets, laptops and portable video games all use LCD screens.

Advantages of LCD screens

» Very efficient, low power consumption.
» Lightweight devices.
» Unlike CRT monitors, do not suffer from screen image burn-in (that is, a
permanent image burned into the screen due to unchanging images over a
period of time).
» Screens can be made in large variation of sizes.
» Do not suffer from a flickering image, unlike CRT monitors.
» Very sharp image resolution (allow a vast range of colours).
» Produce low electromagnetic fields compared to CRT monitors.

Disadvantages of LCD screens

» Colour and contrast from various viewing angles can be inconsistent.
» Motion blur is a common issue.
» Lower contrast than CRT monitors, because it is harder to produce a deep, rich
level of black.
» LCDs can have weak or stuck pixels, which are permanently on or off; some
pixels may be improperly connected to adjoining pixels, rows or columns.
» The LCD panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the back light, resulting in
uneven intensity and shading over the screen.

2.3.2 Touch screen (as an output device)

Touch screens can work as both an input device (see Section 2.1.6) and as an
output device. This is one of the few devices that can be used in this way. When
options appear on the screen, for example a food selection at a fast food outlet,
a user can make a selection by touching the screen (this is the input). Another
set of options then appear on the screen, such as choosing another drink – this is
the output produced based on the previous input.

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Uses of touch screens (acting as both input and output)

» Smartphones and tablets (allowing interaction with apps).
» ATMs at banks (where screen options displayed depend on previous input
response).
» Ticket collection machines at theatres, cinemas and railway stations (again
on-screen outputs will depend on previous inputs).
» Information kiosks at museums or art galleries.
Advantages of touch screens
» Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
» Very easy method for choosing options.
» User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
» Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.
Disadvantages of touch screens
» Limited number of options available.
» Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output because they
are not very accurate and the interface is not fast.
» The screen can get very dirty with constant touching (giving a risk of
spreading infections, as well as reducing its responsiveness and making it
more difficult to read in strong sunlight).
» Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions, which is a security risk
(for example, entering credit card details).

2.3.3 Multimedia projectors

Multimedia projectors receive signals that can be either analogue or digital
(although most modern projectors only work with digital inputs). The signal
source is usually from a computer, television or DVD player. The image from the
source is magnified and projected onto a large screen. The devices work with
a remote control which acts like a cordless mouse when interfacing with the
▲ Figure 2.30 Multimedia
screen. It is then possible to direct the computer presentation without being tied projector
to the computer (another feature of the virtual mouse is the laser pointer). Most
multimedia projectors take input from various types of video format.
Uses of multimedia projectors
» Training presentations (to allow the whole audience to see the images from a
computer).
» Advertising presentations (large images showing product features, for example
a new car; can be shown at exhibitions, shopping malls, etc.).
» Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a DVD or television).

Advantages of multimedia projectors

» Enables many people to see a presentation rather than crowding around a
small computer screen.
» Avoids the need for several networked computers (for example, when looking
at a video clip on an internet site, everybody can see the video on the large
screen rather than logging on to a number of computers).

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Disadvantages of multimedia projectors

» Images can sometimes be fuzzy.
» Expensive to buy.
» Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.

2.3.4 Printers
This section will consider the use of the three most common types of printer:
» laser printer
» inkjet printer
» dot matrix printer.

Laser printers
Laser printers produce very high-quality hard copy output. The print rate per
page is very quick if a large number of pages are being printed. They rely on large
buffer memories where the data for the whole document is stored before pages
can be printed out.
Let us briefly consider how a page is printed:
» The start of the printing process involves a printing drum being given a
positive charge; as this drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it
removing the positive charge in certain areas; this leaves negatively charged ▲ Figure 2.31 Laser
areas which exactly match the text/images of the page to be printed. printer
» The drum is then coated with positively-charged toner (powdered ink);
because the toner is positively charged, it only sticks to the negatively
charged parts of the drum.
» A negatively-charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum.
» The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of
the page sent to the printer.
» To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is
removed after one rotation of the drum.
» The paper finally goes through a fuser, which is a set of heated rollers; the
heat melts the ink so that it fixes permanently to the paper.
» At the very end, a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the
drum, making it ready to print the next page.

Uses of laser printers

» They are used where low noise is required (for example, in an office).
» If fast, high-quality, high-volume printing is required then laser printers are
the best option.

Advantages of laser printers

» Printing is fast (unless only a few pages are to be printed, in which case they
are little faster than inkjet printers).
» They can handle very large print jobs.
» The quality is consistently high.
» Toner cartridges last for a long time (and the printers can sometimes be a
cost-effective option, particularly if colour outputs are not required).

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Disadvantages of laser printers

» Only really fast if several copies are being made.
» Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run (four-colour/black cartridges
are needed, plus diffuser kits, which are expensive to purchase).
» They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their method
of printing and type of toner/ink used (these have been linked to health
hazards in the office).

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are used to produce good-quality hard copies. Unlike laser
printers, inkjet printers do not have large buffer memories, therefore printing is
done a bit at a time. This is why printing is sometimes paused – the whole print
job cannot be stored in the buffer, and it has to wait for the computer to send
more data.
Inkjet printers are essentially made up of:
» a print head, which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the ▲ Figure 2.32 Inkjet
paper to form characters printer
» an ink cartridge or cartridges; either one cartridge for each colour (blue,
yellow and magenta) and a black cartridge, or one single cartridge containing
all three colours plus black (note: some systems use six colours)
» a stepper motor and belt, which moves the print head assembly across the
page from side to side
» a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are
required.

The ink droplets are produced using two different technologies:

» Thermal bubble – tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink
vaporise. This causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands,
some of the ink is ejected from the print head onto the paper. When the
bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink to be drawn
into the print head. This continues until the printing cycle is completed.
» Piezoelectric – a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each
nozzle. The crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This
vibration forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time more ink is
drawn in for further printing.
Uses of inkjet printers
» Used where low-output volumes are required (high-volume jobs are difficult to
do because the ink cartridges tend to be used up very quickly).
» If high-quality printing is required for single pages (or only a small print job)
then these printers are ideal; for example, they are very good at producing
photo-quality printouts.
» 3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to produce prototypes (see
Section 2.3.6).

Advantages of inkjet printers

» High-quality output.
» Cheaper to buy than laser printers.

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 2 Input and output devices

» Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.

» Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.

Disadvantages of inkjet printers

» Slow output if several copies are needed (little buffer capacity to store the
pages).
» Cannot do large print jobs (ink cartridges run out too quickly).
» Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
» Can be expensive if used a lot (original ink cartridges are expensive to buy).

Dot matrix printers

Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer where a print head
(made up of a matrix of pins) presses against an inked ribbon. They
tend to be slow, noisy and the output is not that good compared to
inkjet and laser printers. They are still useful, however, where multi-
part stationery (carbon copies) or continuous rolls of paper (rather
than individual sheets) are being used. They also work well in dirty
atmospheres (such as on a factory floor), unlike inkjet or laser printers.
Uses of dot matrix printers
» They can be used in noisy or dirty environments (for example, ▲ Figure 2.33 Dot matrix printer
garage workshops) and in applications where print quality is not
that important.
» They are used in applications where multi-part stationery or the fact that
they are an impact printer is of value (for example, when producing physical
‘carbon copies’ such as when producing wage slips).
» Still widely used in till receipts.

Advantages of dot matrix printers

» They can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser or inkjet
printers (for example, dusty/dirty or moist atmospheres).
» Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
» Very cheap to run and maintain.
» Easy to use if continuous stationery is required (for example, long print jobs
such as wages slips).

Disadvantages of dot matrix printers

» Very noisy – not good in an office environment.
» Actually cost more than an inkjet printer to buy initially.
» Very slow, poor-quality printing.

2.3.5 (Graph) plotters

A (graph) plotter is an output device. Although they print on paper, they
work very differently to printers. Instead of toner or ink cartridges, plotters
use a pen, pencil or marker pen to draw multiple continuous lines, rather than
a series of dots like a printer. The size of the paper can be anything from A4
up to several metres. They produce vector graphic drawings and are often
used in conjunction with CAD and CAM (computer aided manufacturing). ▲ Figure 2.34 (Graph) plotter

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Some plotters are used to cut out material by replacing the pen with a cutting
blade. However, in general, plotters are being phased out, as wide-format inkjet
printers are being produced at lower cost.
Uses of plotters
» Producing architectural drawings.
» Producing engineering drawings.
» Drawing animation characters (cartoon characters).

Advantages of plotters
» Very high-quality output.
» Able to produce large, monochrome and colour drawings to a high accuracy.
» Able to print on a variety of materials (for example, aluminium, cardboard,
plastic, steel and wood) as well as paper.

Disadvantages of plotters
» Very slow at printing.
» Expensive equipment (and software) to purchase initially; although running
costs are low once purchased.
» Have a very large physical footprint compared to a printer.

2.3.6 3D printers
3D printers are primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD) applications.
They are primarily based on inkjet and laser printer technology and can produce
solid objects that actually work. The solid object is built up layer by layer using
materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.
The alloy wheel in Figure 2.36 was made using an industrial 3D printer.
It was made from many layers of powdered metal (0.1 mm thick) using a
technology known as binder 3D printing. ▲ Figure 2.35 3D printer
Other examples are discussed below.
The following information describes some of the features of 3D printing:
» Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a
microwave oven up to the size of a small car.
» 3D printers use additive manufacturing (i.e. the object is
built up layer by layer); this is in sharp contrast to the more
traditional method of subtractive manufacturing (i.e. removal
of material to make the object). For example, making a statue
using a 3D printer would involve building it up layer by layer
using powdered stone until the final object was formed. The
subtractive method would involve carving the statue out of solid
stone (i.e. removing the stone not required) until the final item
was produced. Similarly, CNC (computer-controlled machine – a
type of lathe) removes metal to form an object; 3D printing
would produce the same item by building up the object from ▲ Figure 2.36 Alloy wheel made by 3D
layers of powdered metal. printing

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» Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right
as in a normal printer. However, the print head can also move up and down
to build up the layers of an object – each layer being less than a tenth of a
millimetre (less than 0.1 mm).
» Binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing, but this method uses two
passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder, then, on the
second pass, a binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.
» Newer technologies are using lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers;
this further increases the diversity of products which can be made.

Uses of 3D printers
3D printing is regarded as being possibly the next ‘industrial revolution’ because
it will change the manufacturing methods in many industries. The following list
is just a glimpse into what we know can be made using these printers; in the
years that follow, the applications list could probably fill an entire book:
» Prosthetic limbs can be made to fit exactly on the injured body part.
» Making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (for example, facial
reconstruction following an accident); the parts made by this technique are
more precise in their design as they can be made from an exact scan of the
skull.
» In aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other aeroplane
parts using 3D technology; the bonus will be lightweight, precision parts.
» Fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed.
» Making parts for items no longer in production, for example, parts for a
vintage car.

How to create a solid object using 3D printers

The steps in the process of producing an object using 3D printers is summarised
in Figure 2.37.

A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software.

The finalised drawing is imported into some special software that

prepares it in a format that is understood by the 3D printer.

The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made.

The solid object is built up layer by layer (often only 0.1 mm

thick); this can take several hours depending on the thickness of
the layers, the material used and the size of the final object.

The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared; for
example, some use a jelly-like support that needs to be washed
away by immersion in water, some require the removal of excess
plastic powder, and others require the cutting away of unused
material. In many cases, the object has to be left to ‘cure’ for
a few hours.

▲ Figure 2.37 Creating a solid object using 3D printers

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Advantages of 3D printers
» The manufacturing of items has become much easier than ever before. It is
now theoretically possible to manufacture any product a user wants using only
a 3D printer. This has led the way for customised products, as it allows a user
to create their own designs in 3D and have them printed in solid form.
» Because 3D printers can manufacture items relatively quickly, it allows rapid
prototyping. This means that it will take a really short length of time for
designs to be converted into working prototypes.
» Even though the cost of 3D printing is very high, it is still less when compared
to labour costs and other costs involved in manufacturing a product in the
more conventional way. The fact that the cost of manufacturing using 3D
printers is the same for both small-scale and mass production is also a very
useful benefit.
» Medical benefits are emerging, such as producing artificial organs, prosthetics
and precision-made items for reconstructive surgery.
» Parts for machinery that are no longer made could now be manufactured using
3D printers. A car made in the 1930s, for example, will no longer have parts
available off-the-shelf. By scanning the broken part (using a 3D scanner), or
by obtaining its blueprint, it will be possible to simply email the file to a
company and have the part made on an industrial 3D printer. This clearly has
many benefits in a number of applications.

Disadvantages of 3D printers
» The biggest possible drawback of 3D printers is the potential to make
counterfeit items or items that infringe others’ copyright. 3D printing
technology essentially turns every owner of one of these printers into a
potential manufacturer. Thus, it could become very difficult to trace the
source of fake items; copyright holders would also have great difficulty in
protecting their rights.
» All new technologies in the hands of the wrong people can lead to dangerous
or illegal activities. With the possibility of creating almost anything with the
use of a 3D printer, this technology could be used to manufacture dangerous
items by almost anyone.
» There is the potential for job losses if this technology takes over from some
types of manufacturing. Of course, this could also be seen as a benefit by some
companies as it could lead to lower manufacturing costs for certain items.

2.3.7 Speakers
Speakers (or loudspeakers) are output devices that produce sound. When
connected to a computer system, digitised sound stored on a file needs to be
converted into sound as follows:
» The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter
(DAC) where it is changed into an electric current.
» This is then passed through an amplifier (because the current generated by
the DAC will be very small); this creates a current large enough to drive a
loudspeaker.
» This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into
sound.

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The schematic in Figure 2.38 shows how this is done.

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 …. DAC amplifier

▲ Figure 2.38 Digital to analogue conversion

As Figure 2.38 shows, if the sound is stored in a computer file, it must pass
through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) to convert binary (digital) data
into an analogue form (electric current) which can then drive the loudspeaker.
Figure 2.39 shows how the loudspeaker converts the electric current into sound.

plastic or permanent
paper cone magnet

sound waves
coil of wire
wrapped
around an
iron core
sound waves
produced

electric current fed to wire

▲ Figure 2.39 Diagram showing how a loudspeaker works

» When an electric current flows through the coil of wire that is wrapped around
an iron core, the core becomes a temporary electromagnet; a permanent
magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
» As the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced magnetic
field in the iron core also varies. This causes the iron core to be attracted or
towards or repelled from the permanent magnet and as the current varies this
will cause the iron core to vibrate.
» Because the iron core is attached to a cone (made of paper or thin synthetic
material), this causes the cone to vibrate, producing sound waves.

Uses of speakers
» Used in all phones and built in to most computers.
» Outputs sound from multimedia presentations.
» Helps visually impaired people (together with speech generation software)
through reading aloud text on the screen.
» Plays downloaded sound files.

Advantages of speakers
» Sounds amplified through speakers can be much louder than the original
sound – this is important whenever more than a few people need to listen to
something.
» Everyone in a conference, for example, can hear the output from a computer.
» It can create a good atmosphere when making a presentation.

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 2.3 Output devices and their uses

» They can help visually impaired people as discussed.

» Very simple technology.

Disadvantages of speakers
» Speaker output can be disturbing to others in, for example, an office
environment.
» To get high-quality sound, the required speakers can be quite expensive.
» Speakers can take up a lot of desk space.

2.3.8 Actuators
When a computer is used to control devices, such as a conveyer belt or a valve, it
is usually necessary to use an actuator to, for example, start/stop the conveyer
belt or open/close the valve. An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical
device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. We will consider a solenoid as the
example; this converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field producing linear
motion:

electromagnetic field

solenoid coil

current out current in

▲ Figure 2.40 Solenoid

If a plunger (for example, a magnetised metal bar) is placed inside the coil, it
will move when a current is applied to the coil (see Figure 2.40). This would allow
the solenoid to operate a valve or a switch, for example. There are also examples
of rotary solenoids, where a cylindrical coil is used. In this case, when a current
is supplied to the coil, it would cause a rotational movement of the plunger.
Uses of actuators
» They are used to control motors, pumps, switches, buzzers and so on.
» They allow a computer to control physical devices that normally require
analogue inputs.

Advantages of actuators
» They allow remote operation of many devices (for example, pumps in a nuclear
reactor where remote operation is a big safety factor).
» They are relatively inexpensive devices.

Disadvantages of actuators
» They are an additional device in the system that could go wrong.
» Because they are usually analogue devices, computer signals need to
converted using a DAC to enable computer control.

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 2 Input and output devices

Exam-style questions
1 a State one suitable application for each of the following printers.
A different application should be given in each case.
» inkjet printer
» 3D printer [2]
b Name another type of printer and describe one way in which it is
different from the two printers named in part a.[3]
2 Contactless debit cards are replacing standard debit cards. Some
countries are introducing contactless debit card transactions at ATM machines.
Give three disadvantages to the customer of using these cards at an ATM.
[3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q12,
October/November 2017
3 In each of the following questions, only one of the responses is
correct. Choose one of the five options given.  [10]
a Which one of the following is the most suitable device for inputting
a short report into a computer?
a trackerball
b scanner
c keyboard
d optical mark reader (OMR)
e joystick

b Which one of the following would you use to produce a digital

image of a hard copy photograph?
a touch screen
b keyboard
c optical character reader (OCR)
d scanner
e QR scanner

c Which one of the following is NOT a suitable use for an optical mark reader?
a reading barcodes
b multiple-choice exam papers
c choice of candidate in voting forms
d opinion poll survey
e data collection with limited options

d Which one of the following is the most appropriate device for printing out
wage slips, where carbon copies are also required?
a laser printer
b (graph) plotter
c inkjet printer
d actuator
e dot matrix printer
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 Exam-style questions

e Which one of the following devices could be used to produce a very large
drawing on plastic sheeting?
a (graph) plotter
b laser printer
c dot matrix printer
d 3D printer
e touch screen

f Which one of the following printers is most suitable for printing a very
large number of high-quality black and white leaflets?
a (graph) plotter
b laser printer
c dot matrix printer
d inkjet printer
e computer-aided design (CAD)

g Which one of the following cannot be directly measured using a sensor?

a temperature
b light intensity
c heat
d air humidity
e pressure

h Which one of the following devices allows the use of a light pen?
a CRT monitor
b LCD monitor
c barcode reader
d QR reader
e touch screen

i Which one of the following cannot be used as an output device?

a touch screen
b (graph) plotter
c actuator
d speaker
e mouse

j Which one of the following cannot be used as an input device?

a touch screen
b 3D printer
c optical mark reader (OMR)
d QR reader
e (graph) plotter

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 2 Input and output devices

4 Five devices are shown on the left and five descriptions are shown on the right.
By drawing lines, connect each device to its correct description. [4]
Display that uses light modulating properties of
Inkjet printer
crystals

Image from a source is magnified and shown on a

LCD screen
large screen

3D printer Droplets of ink are ejected onto a sheet of paper

Electrically-charged powdered toner is melted

Digital projector
onto paper

Laser printer Produces solid objects using CAD software

5 Which ten computer terms are being described below? [10]

a A matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background; read using
a smartphone camera or tablet using an app.
b A device that can read marks written in pen or pencil; the pencil or
pen marks must be made in the correct position.
c An input device that takes physical readings from the surroundings and
sends the data back to a computer.
d An input device that converts sound into electric signals that can be
stored digitally on a computer.
e A device that converts a photograph or document into a
computer-readable file.
f A device used to control the operation of other electronic devices using
infrared signals.
g A direct data entry device that uses radio waves to read and capture
information stored on an electronic tag.
h A device that produces very high-quality hard copy output; uses dry ink
cartridges and an electrically charged drum.
i A device that prints by impacting a print head made up of an array of
pins against an inked ribbon.
j A pointing device that moves around on a surface in an X–Y direction to
control a cursor on a computer screen.
6 a i Describe how a QR reader works.
ii What are QR codes used for?  [4]
b Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using QR codes. [4]
c A touch screen can be used as both an input device and an output
device. Explain how this is possible. [2]
7 Give a use for each of the following input and output devices.  [10]
a Keyboard f Touch screen
b Driving wheel or joystick g 3D printer
c QR code reader h Dot matrix printer
d Barcode reader i RFID
e Microphone j chip and PIN reader
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 Exam-style questions

8 A home is fitted with a microprocessor-controlled burglar alarm system.

It is not connected to a police station.
Tick (✓) three sensors which would be used in such a system. [3]
(✓)
Pressure sensor
Oxygen level sensor
Wind speed sensor
Sound sensor
Body sensor
Moisture sensor
Infra-red sensor
Touch sensor
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q7 a,
May/June 2015
9 A school is holding an athletics competition. The timings of each running event
will be measured electronically using sensors at the start and finish. Runners
begin a race in starting blocks. When the starting pistol is fired the electronic
timing starts. The winner of the race is the first to break the light beam at the
end of the race.
a Complete the table using the most appropriate words from the list below.
Infra-red sensor Light sensor Moisture sensor Motion sensor
pH sensor Pressure sensor Sound sensor Temperature sensor
Device
Data from the starting pistol is read by this device
This device detects that the athlete has left the starting block
When the light beam is broken the data is read by this device
[3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q3,
October/November 2017
b A member of the sports department will use a computer to produce a
magazine of the competition. He will include photographs stored in a digital
camera as well as printed photographs.
Identify the methods he would use to transfer the photographs to the computer.
[2]
10 Tick (✓) whether the following statements are True or False. [2]
True (✓) False (✓)
Answers to multiple-choice examination papers can be read
using an optical mark reader (OMR)
The PIN is stored on the magnetic stripe on a credit card
The chip on a credit card is read by a PIN reader
An RFID chip can be used to track stock

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 3 Storage devices and media
In this chapter you will learn about:
★ storage devices:
– magnetic (hard disk drive (HDD) and magnetic tape drive)
– optical (CD, DVD and Blu-ray read/write devices)
– solid state (solid-state drive (SSD), pen drive and flash drive)
★ storage media:
– magnetic media (magnetic disks and magnetic tape)
– optical (CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs)
– solid state (including SD, XD and CFast).

Secondary storage includes all non-volatile devices that are not part of
primary memory. They allow data to be stored as long as required by the
user. This type of storage is much larger than RAM and ROM (primary
memory), but data access time is considerably longer. All applications,
the operating system, device drivers and general files (for example,
documents, photos and music) are stored in secondary storage. There
are three different categories of secondary storage which are based on
technology that uses the following media:
l magnetic
l optical
l solid state.

It is very important to distinguish between the terms storage media and

storage device. Media is the hardware on which the data is actually stored
(for example, a CD or a DVD); whereas the storage device is the hardware
used to read from or write to the media (for example, a CD/DVD reader or
writer).

3.1 Magnetic media and magnetic storage

devices
Using the properties of magnetism is one of the oldest known methods for the
electronic storage of data; its roots go back to the nineteenth century.
Today, magnetic media rely on the property that an iron oxide coating can be
magnetised to represent a binary 1-value and demagnetised to represent a binary
0-value. Because each magnetised area is very small, this allows a huge amount
of data to be stored. One of the big advantages of this technology is that the
magnetic state of the iron oxide is permanent unless it is written over again. The
two most common devices that use these magnetic properties to store data are
magnetic tape drives and hard disk drives (HDD).

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