Advanced Principles and Methods of Teaching

COMPREHENSIVE REPORT

1. The Teacher and the Teaching Profession

1.1 Personal / Professional Qualities of an Effective Teacher
 Personal Qualities
a. Pleasing Personal Appearance
b. Good Physical health and Personal hygiene
c. Emotional stability, sound mental health and self-control
d. Superior intelligence
e. Pleasant modulated voice
f. Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience, and diligence
g. Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, sincerity
h. Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness
i. Fairness, firmness, impartiality, tolerance
j. Sociability, friendliness, cooperatives
k. Refinement in words, tact and courtesy, civility
l. Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm
m. Positive outlook, encouraging outlook
n. Promptness and efficiency
 Professional Qualities
1. Mastery of the Subject Matter.
2. Understanding of the learner.
3. Understanding the principles and methods of teaching and skill in the use of
strategies and techniques for proper implementation.
4. General understanding of other branches/field of knowledge.
5. Understanding and taking pride of teaching as a profession.
1.2 Professional Ethics and the Teacher
 A professional code of ethics identifies and explains instructors' primary
responsibilities to their students. Teachers must act impartially, with integrity, and
ethically in the classroom, whether virtual or in-person, as well as with parents and
coworkers.

1.3 The Subject Matter of Education, Nature of Strategy, and the School and the
Social Progress

 Subject Matter of Education

A teacher believes that a child's social life serves as the foundation for
concentration or correlation in all training or progress. The subject matter of the school
curriculum should represent a gradual differentiation of the primordial unconscious
unit of social existence.
The only way to make a child aware of his social background is to allow him to
participate in the essential activities that define society. The study of science is
educational in the sense that it reveals the materials and processes that shape social
life.
We are currently losing much of the value of literature and language courses
because we have removed the social component. True, language is a rational tool, but
it is also how one person comes to share the thoughts and feelings of another.
  Nature of Strategy
Strategy is a combination of internal and external forces. Internal factors are
matched with external forces to meet the opportunities and risks presented by them. A
strategy is a set of actions designed to meet a specific condition, solve a problem, or
accomplish a desired outcome.

 School and the Social Progress

Education is a process of coming to share social awareness, and the adjustment of
individual behavior based on this social awareness is the only definite technique of
social reconstruction.

1.4 Teacher’s Code of Professional Ethics

 Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall
make the best preparations for a career in teaching, and shall be always at his best
and in the practice of his profession.

1.5 The Filipino Teacher as a Professional

 The passage of Republic Act No. 7836, also known as the Philippine Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994, is a commendable piece of legislation that
recognizes the teaching profession.
Any person who has obtained professional expertise in teaching and is able to
apply it during the teaching-learning processes. A professional teacher is the sole
tool that can improve the success of the educational system's implementation.

2. Teaching and Learning

2.1 The Teacher, The Learners, The Instructional Methods, The Curriculum, The
Classroom and School Administration

 The Teacher
In the progressive school, the teacher plays variety of roles. These roles include
the following:
1. As a Manager
2. As a Motivator
3. As a Leader
4. As a Model
5. As a Surrogate-Parent
6. As a Social Catalyst
7. As a Facilitator/Instructor
8. As a Guidance Counselor

 The Learners
The student is regarded to be the most essential variable in the school system. To
have a wholesome learning experience, the learner must properly recognize and
understand the aim. Effective instruction is easy to achieve when the teacher and the
pupil/student communicate about the goal and objectives of instruction, especially when
concepts and ideas are directly relevant to his needs and difficulties. As an active
biological creature, the learner's motives, abilities, and needs--biological, social, and
emotional--must be recognized by the instructor. The instructor must also be familiar with
the culture that molds and influences the student.

 The Instructional Methods

Methodology is the ordered, logical, and systematic process of doing anything,
with a focus on the science and art of teaching. The instructor should have a clear and
thorough plan that includes a sequence of related and progressive acts that she should
carry out to achieve the precise goals of the day's session. Methods are regarded effective
when they use learning principles, take into account individual differences, and stimulate
thinking.

 The Curriculum
It has been defined as the aggregate course of study, courses given, and all planned
experiences provided by the school to help pupils/students achieve selected and desired
learning outcomes to the best of their abilities. According to Auglin and Goldwan (1982),
curriculum is a set of organized learning experiences that the school provides to
pupils/students in order to integrate them into the prevailing culture.

 The Classroom
The classroom is a place where formal learning takes place. This could be a
conventional classroom built to the necessary specifications for educational purposes,
where the teacher and pupils/students interact, and it should be favorable to both the
teaching and learning processes.

 The School Administration

Administration should be described as the structure, direction, and control of a
business. Coordination and control of people and material resources in an
environment in which individuals, working in groups, achieve specified desired
objectives efficiently.

2.2 Educational Media Used in the Classrooms and the Three-Dimensional

Instructional Media

 Educational Media Used in the Classrooms

Effective instruction connects students' knowledge to the course's learning
objectives. Using media engages students, aids in knowledge retention, inspires
interest in the subject matter, and highlights the applicability of numerous topics.
There are various ways to categorize media. Print media, non-print media, and
electronic media are all examples of media. (1) Books, journals, periodicals,
newspapers, workbooks, and textbooks are examples of print media. These are
simple to use, portable, and reasonably priced.
 Three-Dimensional Instructional Media
1. Models and Mock-ups
2. Specimens
3. Dioramas
2.3 Recording and the Tape Recorder

 Audio Recording
 May be classified into two type-disc recording and magnetic tape recording. The
disc recordings come in various sizes and pin at different rates and have been used
for instructions purposes for many years.

 Tape Recorder
The tape recorder is a plastic tape coated with magnetic iron oxide. A magnetic
pattern is built up representing the sound. This also needs a playback head which
can convert the magnetic pattern act into electrical impulses which can produce
sounds at the speaker.

2.4 Computers in Education

 A device, usually electronic, that processes data in accordance with a set of
instructions. The digital computer stores information in discrete units and performs
arithmetic and logical functions at breakneck speed.

Students and teachers can use computers to download and save a variety of
educational materials such as books, presentations, lecture/address notes, question
papers, and so on. Students can come up with a variety of solutions to a particular
situation.

2.5 Desktop Computers

 A desktop computer is a type of personal computer that is designed to sit on top of
a standard office desk. It stores the physical hardware that allows a computer to
work and links to input devices like the monitor, keyboard, and mouse with which
users interact.

3. Principles and Methods of Teaching and Learning

3.1 Principles of teaching Postulated by Various Authors

 The teaching principles consist of five areas. These are:
1. Respect for the individual
2. Democracy as a way of life
3. Providing suitable conditions for the development and maintenance of a sound
personality.
4. Improving group living.
5. Improving the classroom environment.

3.2 Definition, Nature and Theories of Learning

 Learning is defined as modification of behavior through experience. It is also
defined as the acquisition of behavior pattern. It is an active process not a passive
observation of knowledge. It is not mere reading of books of listening to lectures, it
is an enrichment of experience. There is an interaction of the environment with the
organism.
 Learning like growth expands the possibilities of adaptive behavior. Learning
includes a wide variety of changes in behavior. It may involve with the adjustment
of others, or it may involve the learning of use of day-to-day work, or inculcation
of healthy habits. It may also involve the foster in of right attitudes or learning to
control our emotions. What we learn is learnable only after we have reached an
adequate level of physical growth and motivation.
  The concept of man hypothesized two theories of behavior and learning. One is the
behavior theory, which assumes that man is a collection of responses to specific
stimuli. Each specific response corresponds to an exact response to particular
stimuli and each of these can be accounted for.

3.3 The Learning Process

 Learning is an integrated, directed, systematic, purposive and ongoing process that
occurs in the individual that enables him to meet specific objectives, fulfil his
interests, and satisfy his needs, and cope with the various problems that confronts
him. Learning process involves five phases:
1. Unfreezing – individuals become motivated and ready to consider changes in
attitudes, behaviors, knowledge and skills.
2. Problem diagnosis – determining and examining the forces supporting the
need for change.
3. Goal setting – desired changes in attitudes, knowledge, skills and behavior
are explicitly stated.
4. New behavior – individuals learns, adapts and practice the newer
knowledges, attitudes, skills and behaviors which are earnestly desired.
5. Refreezing – novel learning has found to be relevant and to be beneficial and
assimilated into the learners’ ongoing framework of knowledges, attitudes,
skills and behaviors.

3.4 Conditions for Learnings

 Motivation – refers to the interstate or condition that influences behavior and gives
direction in relation to physical conditions, interests, attitudes and aspirations.
 Retention – occurs when learning has been incorporated into the learner’s behavior
patter, retained and remembered.
 Transfer of learning – is the application of knowledge learned in one situation to a
new or different learning environment or situation. The types of transfer or learning
are lateral transfer and vertical transfer.

3.5 Characteristics of Learning and the Factors that contribute to Learning

 Characteristics of learning:
1. Learning is fundamental.
2. Learning is interactive.
3. Learning is developmental.
 Factors that contribute to learning:
1. Drive and motivation.
2. Positive transfer of learning.
3. Usefulness of materials.
4. The numbers of senses involved.
5. Feedback of knowledge of results.

3.6 Conditions that Cause Forgetting

 Disuse – deterioration of connections in the brain when not used.
  Inference – recall of certain information is inhibited by the presence of other
information in memory.
 Retroactive inhibition – previously learned material is lost because it is mixed up
with new and somewhat similar information.
 Proactive inhibition – the tendency of previously learned material to hinder
subsequent learning.
 Motivated learning – individual decides not to remember.
3.7 Thinking and the Thinking Process
 Thinking is manipulating the word internally, using modification of the organism
which represents previous experiences. It is a behavior that uses ideas or symbols
which represents things or events.
 The thinking as a process has various aspects, but awareness of what we think is
very important. The first is our experience of thinking as a flowing, often chaotic,
stream of impressions, ideas and fragments of phrases. Characteristics patterns of
thinking process:
1. We think in patterns and sequences.
2. We think on planes of abstractions and levels of attention.

3.8 Remembering, Thoughts, Consciousness, and Memory

 Remembering is to reinstate a previous experience, to recall or to produce what was
learned previously. For Hillgard, it is “to show in present responses some signs of
earlier learned responses.”
 Types of remembering:
1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning
4. Reintegration.
 A thought results from a “pattern” of simulation of many parts of the nervous
system at the same time and in definite sequence probably involving most
importantly the cerebral cortex, thalamus, limbic system, and upper reticular
formation of the brain stem.
 Consciousness can perhaps be described as the continuing efforts of awareness of
either our surroundings or our sequential thoughts.

3.9 Principles of Learning

 Learning is essential part of teaching-learning process. Principles to be observed
and considered in every teaching learning process are:
1. The pupils/students must have a clear idea of the goal.
2. The pupils/students must be physiologically and psychologically ready and
prepared to respond their new experience.
3. The pupils/students must be motivated to learn.

3.10 Principles of Motivation

1. In an effective learning environment, pupils/students are working at purpose that
are real to them.
2. Learning is most effective when pupils/students are motivated by goals which are
intrinsic to the learning activity.
3. The pupils/students overcome frustrations, obstacles and difficulties when they see
the goals as worthwhile.
 4. Successful experiences are important motivators.
5. Reward rather than punishment is a better motivation for learning.
6. The pupils/students interest is important in classroom learning.
7. Meaningful instructional devices and materials as well as wholesome tasks serve
as good motivators.
8. Success generally increases the level of aspiration and achievement of the
pupils/students.
9. Feedback as a tool about the pupils/students’ progress can be effective motivation.
10.The pupils/students who recognize the need for acquiring new skills and
experience can be effective motivation.
11.A pleasant learning environment can be effective motivator.
12.Learning is most effective when the situation has meaning for the pupils/students.
13.Intrinsic motivation is better than extrinsic motivation.

3.11 Methods of Teaching, Cognitive Learning, and Learning How to Learn

 The method of teaching can be utilized by the teacher during the teaching-learning
process is very important. Good teaching will adopt methods to each pupils/student
based on an understanding of his unique characteristics. A good method is straight
forward and promotes flexible intellectual interest, open-minded will to learn,
integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the consequences of one’s
activity.
 Cognitive learning:
1. Learning by doing is a good advice.
2. One learns to do what one does.
3. The amount of reinforcement necessary for learning relative to learners.
4. The principle of readiness is related to the learner’s stage of development
and their previous learning.
5. The learners’ self -concept and beliefs about their abilities are extremely
important.
6. Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate
practices.
7. Transfer of learning to new situations can be horizontal or vertical.
8. Learning should be goal-directed and focused.
9. Positive feedback, realistic and encouragement are motivating in the
teaching-learning process.
10.Metacognition is an advanced process whereby learners acquire specific
learning strategies and also sense when they are not working.
 Seven list of comprehension or skills that teachers should understand and help
learners acquire:
1. Analysis
2. Focusing or scanning.
3. Comparative analysis.
4. Narrowing
5. Complex cognitive
6. Sharpening
7. Tolerance
3.12 Identifying Effective Teaching and Functions of Teaching
 Effective teaching:
1. Classroom management.
 2. Direct instruction.
3. Time on task.
4. Questioning
5. Comprehension instruction.
6. Level of cognitive instruction.
7. Grouping

3.13 Laws of Learning

1. The law of readiness – the need for adequate motivation and preparation of the
learners by the way of setting the proper mind-set and fostering the level aspiration.
2. Law of exercise – “Practice makes perfect.”
3. The law of effect – response is rewarded and the reward is satisfying or unpleasant,
the learning connection is strengthened, if the effects are unpleasant and annoying,
the connection is weakened.

3.14 The Basic Principles of Today’s Teaching

 The Basic Principles of Today’s Teaching according to Mills and Douglas are:
1. Children learn by doing.
2. Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial.
3. Learning should be gradual and continuous.
4. Instruction should be adapted to individual needs.
5. Natural social settings should constitute learning situation.
6. Learning depends upon the child’s ability.
7. Learning comes through sense impression.
8. The child can best educate as a whole.
9. Teacher-pupil and inter-pupil relationship should be cooperative.
10.Education means improving the quality of living.

3.15 Learning and Education Cycle

 Knowing is all that the mind knows, from whatever sources derived or obtained, or
in whatever process, the aggregate facts, truths, or principles acquired or retained
by the mind, including alike intuition native to the mind and all that has been
learned respecting phenomenon, causes, laws, principles and literature.
1. The study of how the mind creates knowledge has resulted in what are
currently referred as constructivist view of education.
2. The study of how to help the learner gain understanding about how
knowledge is constructed and about the conscious control of tools for doing
so is the study of metacognition.
3. Reflection of learner capacity is resulting in the reassessment of the nature of
the mind particularly in the redefinition of the nature of intelligence.

4. Instructional Planning

4.1 Lesson Plan Defined and Its Component

 According to Nelson Bossing, a lesson plan is “a statement of achievement to be
realized and the specific means by which these are to be attained as a result of the
activities engaged in day by day under the guidance of the teacher.”
 Components of the lesson plan:
 1. Objective or target – definite statement of what are to be learned in the
lesson.
2. Content or Subject matter and material – the teacher indicates the subject
matter that he believes will help attain his objectives.
3. Procedure or strategy

4.2 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

 Cognitive Domain – emphasizes intellectual learning and problem-solving
activities. Behavior in this domain is very much concerned with knowledge
comprehension, information and intellectual abilities, comprehension involves
resting previously learned materials into one’s words; application relates to the
using of the knowledge into a new situation or new problems; analysis involves the
breaking of knowledge into parts and making relationship among ideas.
 Affective Domain – involves behavior and educational objectives that have some
emotional overtones that deal with attitudes, values, interests, beliefs and
application.
1. Receiving
2. Responding
3. Valuing
4. Organization
5. Characterization
 Psychomotor Domain – deals with manipulative and motor skills.
1. Perception
2. Relax movement
3. Fundamental movement
4. Physical abilities
5. Skilled movement
6. No discursive communication
7. Adaptation

4.3 Guidelines for Implementing Lesson Plans

 Factors needed to be considered by the teacher as she begins to move from
planning to performance:
1. Learner differences.
2. Length of period.
3. Flexibility
4. Learner participation
5. Learners understanding
6. Evaluation

5. Different Types of Lesson

 Lessons may be classified not only on the bases of procedure and methodology but
also in the basis of objectives and the subject matter. Some lessons may utilize a
combination of methods depending on the objectives and subject matter.

5.1 The Development Lesson

 The development lesson is type of something to be learned in which a new idea is
presented and developed. It may be a concept, principle, a theory, a skill or a
generalization. There are two types of development lesson – the formal and
 informal. The formal development lesson utilizes deductive and inductive methods,
while the informal development lesson does not use any particular method with
definite steps.

5.2 The Supervised Study Lesson

 The importance of supervised study:
1. The observation that a number of failures and dropouts in school are due to
poor study habits.
2. Many hours especially in the rural and slum areas do not have adequate
lighting. The learning environment is not conducive to learning.
3. Slow learners need motivation, guidance and supervised study.
 Types of supervised study lesson:
1. Group study
2. Study with printed materials such as books, manuals and other printed
materials and people.
3. Programmed instruction.
4. Science laboratories.
5. The library-study plan.
6. The study periods.

5.3 The Appreciation Lesson

 An appreciation lesson is designed to instruct the class to understand, appreciate
and enjoy something. It should focus on developing desirable values. A good
appreciation lesson should help learners to evaluate values and guide them to make
proper choices. The primary goal of the teacher in an appreciation lesson is to plan
interesting lesson that will stimulate and induce learners to appreciate what is
beautiful and worthwhile.
 Sources of appreciation lesson:
1. Literature
2. Art
3. Music
4. Nature
5. Religion
6. Culture
 Types of appreciation
1. Aesthetic appreciation – directly experience in marveling and appreciation of
natural creations in the environment.
2. Ethical-Social Appreciation – ethical values are universal and social
appreciation comes from satisfaction in reorganizing moral qualities of
goodness and truth.
3. Intellectual Appreciation – stems from the recognition and admiration of the
technique of a creative mind that produces a creation or an art.

5.4 The Review Lesson

 Purpose of the review:
 1. Retention of the facts and information learned operates directly through the
fact that practice works through repetition or correct responses.
2. Organization of materials and experiences.
3. Ability of the learner to evaluate the material.
4. Foundation of furthering learning.
5. Diagnosis of the learner’s weakness.
6. Development and interest in the old materials.
 Types of review:
1. The short daily review – done for five to ten minutes to provide and awaken
mental readiness of the learners which will serve as a basis for the new
lesson.
2. The post lesson until review – takes up more time and is used to organize
learning materials and experiences into bigger units.
3. Extensive unit review – large area of facts and information and emphasis is
on major problems and issues.
 Review Techniques:
1. Time frame of review
2. Length of review
3. Preparation for the review
 Principle for a Review Lesson:
1. The review must be of value to the learners.
2. The review must stimulate interest.
3. The review should adhere to pedagogical and psychological principles of
learning.

5.5 The Drill Lesson

 The drill lesson is intended for automatization of certain facts, information, habits,
attitudes and skills to fix association for permanency or to perfect a certain degree
of a particular skill.
 Characteristics of a good drill:
1. Motivation
2. Focalization
3. Repetition and attention
4. Application
 Principle of Drill Activity
1. Utilization of the principle in learning
2. Way of conducting the drill
3. Standards

5.6 The Application Lesson

 It is a type of learning instruction that gives the learners the opportunity to relate,
express and apply what they have learned. After arriving at the generalization, it is
important to apply further analysis and verification.
 Activities:
1. Story telling
2. Oral reading
3. Dramatization
4. Written composition
5. Construction and illustration
 6. Singing
7. Creative work and composition
8. Test

6. Methods of Teaching

6.1 The Foundation of Contemporary Teaching, Methods and the Principles of

Methods Based on the Newer Psychology of Teaching, the Democratic Ideal, and the
Broad Objectives of Education
 The Foundation of Contemporary Teaching
1. The new psychology of teaching
2. The democratic ideal
3. The broader objective of education
 Principles and Method Based on the Newer Psychology of Learning
1. Methods should be utilizing the present interest of learners and stimulate the
development of further interests.
2. Method should encourage the pupil established worthwhile goals toward
which to work.
3. Method should provide the opportunities for developing the inherent talent
and creative abilities of learners.
4. Method should make provision for individual differences in abilities of
learners.
5. Method should utilize opportunities for learning through the use of concrete
and meaningful learning materials.
6. Method should provide for the development of basic skill through the use of
meaningful and real-life situations.
7. Method should provide experiences closely geared to maturity level of
learners.
8. Method should make meaning, explanations, and relationships of ideas clear
to learners.
 Principle of Method Based on the Democratic Ideal
1. Method should provide for the teacher-learner cooperation in planning,
executing ad evaluating learning activities.
2. Method should provide proper balance between learner freedom and teacher
guidance.
3. Method should provide learner maximum participation on the solution of
problems arising in connection with school living.
4. Method should provide varied opportunities for the learner to develop basic
skills in group consensual approval.
5. Method should provide opportunities for learners to make decision and
assume responsibilities.
6. Method should provide for the stimulation of individual effort through the
use of group consensus and approval.
 7. Method should provide for the gradual development of self-direction on part
of learners.
 Principles of Method Based on the Broad Objectives of Education
1. Method should be concerned with all aspects of child development- physical,
intellectual, social and emotional.
2. Method should provide a well-balanced program of activities for learners.
3. Method should provide orienting the learners about their community, their
nation, and the world.
4. Method should provide security and satisfaction of learning experiences for
every learner.
5. Method should reflect an understanding that the fundamental skills are
broader than the three R’s.
6. Method should reflect an understanding that the fundamental subjects such
as reading, writing, and arithmetic involve the development of attitudes,
desirable habits, appreciation and skills.

6.2 The Inductive Method

 The inductive method is simply an investigation method. This is a method of
drawing general conclusion from a particular or individual experiences.
 Purpose of inductive method:
1. To help students discover truths through careful and exhaustive observation
of valid and reliable data that will support the generalization.
2. To make concepts, meaningful explanation and relationships of ideas clear to
students.
3. To enable students, undertake an investigation of a problem independently.
 Five steps in the utilization of inductive method:
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Application

6.3 The Deductive Method

 It is a logical process for reasoning from general to specific. The deductive process
starts with a rule that is applied to a particular case for the purpose of determining
and testing the rule.
 Objectives of deductive method:
1. To teach students to master difficulties by using rules.
2. To remedy students’ tendency to readily jump to conclusion.
3. To teach students to delay their judgment until the facts are carefully
explained.
 Steps of Deductive Method:
1. Introduction
2. Statement of a generalization.
3. Explanation of a general idea.
4. Illustration
5. Evaluation

6.4 The Project Method

  A project is a significant, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned
and carried to completion by the student in a natural manner, and involving the use
of physical material to complete the unit of experience.
 Types of projects:
1. Construction project
2. Employment project
3. Problem project
4. Learning project

 Classification of project according to Risk (1965):

1. Physical or material project
2. Learning project
3. Intellectual or problem project
 Steps of the project method:
1. Purposing
2. Planning
3. Executing
4. Evaluating

6.5 The Laboratory Method

 It is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences regarding materials or
facts obtained from investigation, or application by individuals or small groups
dealing with actual materials.
 Types of Laboratory Method
1. Experimental type
2. Observational type
 Steps in the Laboratory Method:
1. Introduction step for orientation and motivation.
2. Work period.
3. Culminating activities.

6.6 The Unit/Morrisonian Method

 The Morrisonian plan is the process of taking the contents of a particular subject as
big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information. It is considered
the forerunner of the different kinds of units and the integrative technique in an
organized and integrative body, showing relevance and cognitive relationship.
 Steps of the Unit Method:
1. Exploration
2. Presentation
3. Assimilation
4. Organization
5. Recitation

6.7 The Expository Method

 It is usually used in the lower grades because there is a need of explaining about the
subject matter to be presented. This method is a detailed statement of a lesson for
the day.
  The expository method is often used under certain condition:
1. When suitable information is needed to make the learners understand a
portion of the lesson.
2. When the learners have some difficulty on having the information on hand,
and the teacher can save time by explaining it.
3. When a concept or principle can easily be learned through explanation and
interpretation.

 Steps in the Expository Method:

1. Approach
2. Presentation
3. Application

6.8 The Problem Method

 This method is analogous to the inductive method except that only once case is
investigated. The primary objective of this method is to study a typical or common
case exhaustively and in detail in order to make the concept gathered and analyzed
as basis for comparison in investigating similar cases.
 Steps of Problem Method
1. The selection of the subject matter to be studied.
2. Apperceptive and motivation.
3. The model por typical case that will be subject of comparison.
4. Study of details
5. Comparison of details and other characteristics with the model.
6. Generalization
6.9 The Demonstration Method
 The demonstration method is sometimes called the imitative method (Garcia,1989).
Learning a skill is faster and more effective when the students are shown how the
job is done by using the actual tools, machines, and materials they are expected to
work with on the job.
 Steps of Demonstration Method
1. Purposing
2. Planning
3. Demonstration proper
4. Executing
5. Evaluation

7. Teaching Approaches/Strategies and Instructional Practices

7.1 The Conceptual Approach

 The concept approach is choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline to
be taught through the use of big or persuasive idea as against the traditional
practice of determining the content by isolated topics. (Dr. Liceria Soriano)
 The conceptual approach, like other approaches, is not a particular teaching method
with specific steps to follow. It is more of a viewpoint of how facts and topics
under a discipline should be dealt with (Garcia, 1989).
7.2 The Multi-Disciplinary Approach
 In the multi-disciplinary approach, attempts are made to relate the disciplines, but
the identity of each of the disciplines is maintained.

7.3 Intra-Disciplinary Approach

 The intra-disciplinary approach involves the organization of social science content
using only the disciplines. The social science then has become a series of courses in
the individual disciplines, such as course anthropology, economics, geography,
political science and sociology.

7.4 The Team Teaching

 According to Lardizabal, et. Al., team teaching is an approach that involves two or
more teachers who work cooperatively with the same group of students for some
period of time.
 Advantages of Team Teaching:
1. Specialization is recognized.
2. Careful planning and execution is possible.
3. Effective teaching is possible.
4. Learners are better stimulated and challenged.
5. More time is available for preparation.
6. Individual differences of the learners can be met.
7. Better education guidance of the students is possible.
8. No fixed pattern for team has yet been involved.
9. Allows more competent teachers to assume leadership in the team.
10.Teachers are encouraged and stimulated to specialize in those aspects of the
subjects for which they are best qualified.
11.It can be applied in every discipline.
12.Students are exposed to variety of point of views and teacher personalities.
 Disadvantage of Team Teaching:
1. Time
2. Space and facilities.

7.5 The Role-Playing Approach

 Role playing as an approach in teaching is one of the dramatic ways of presenting
learning episodes. This approach is an action-filled because it consist of an
enactment by the students of a learning situation through which the learner depict
real life responses and behavior.
 Steps in Role Playing
1. Identifying the problem and explain the roles to be played.
2. Establishing the situation in which the action is to happen.
3. Establishing descriptive role and selecting participants.
4. Presenting the act line of them.
5. Analyzing and evaluating the presentation of action of each role player.

7.6 The Experiential Approach

  The experiential learning is the basic mode of acquiring knowledge and
information or skills through direct and keen observation followed by an in-depth
analysis of what has been registered in the senses and how these are understood.
 Learning requisites:
1. Learners should be personally involved in the learning task.
2. Knowledge or information must be discovered by the learners.
3. The objective of the learning activity must be clearly understood by the
learner.
4. There should be degree of flexibility in the way the children pursue the
learning task.
5. The learner should be directly involved in the planning stage of the learning
experience.
6. Learners should be given sufficient time to reflect on the learning
experience.
7. The learner should be allowed to interact with each other about their
experience.
8. The tool and materials are readily available to facilitate simple investigation.
9. The learner should be recorded their observations for their analysis,
interpretation and conclusion.
10.The inclusion of a wide variety of real-life situation in planning the lesson is
carefully included.

7.7 The Cooperative Learning Approach

 Cooperative learning as an approach is basically a type of classroom organization
in which pupil/students work harmoniously in group or as a team to help each other
acquire academic knowledge and information through democratic procedure and
practices.

7.8 Programmed Instruction

 Programmed instruction is an instruction in which self-pacing method has a rightful
place.
 Barry Harley (1973) pointed out that it is an auto-instructional approach to teaching
which is charging the role of the classroom teacher. He specifically described the
method as follows:
1. Programming itself is the writing of sequential steps structured so as to bring
about a learning experience.
2. Programmed materials are self-instructional.
3. This type of instruction is highly individualized.
4. It requires the so-called criterion-referenced type of evaluation and not the
norm-referenced type.
5. It requires the teachers to play three distinct roles in today’s school director,
analysis and tutor.
6. It is not a complete instruction by itself.
7. Programmed instruction requires a lot of materials.

7.9 Inquiry Approach

 The inquiry approach is the research of truth, information or knowledge. It pertains
to research and investigation and to seeking for information by asking questions
(Kilnkmann,1970)
7.10 The Teacher’s Role
 The development and continuing search for knowledge and information as well as
the enhancement of new skills in the scientific process becomes the center of focus
in the teachers. Teachers should involve the learners in planning their own ways of
gathering data to test their hypothesis.

7.11 Round Table Conference

 A round table conference is a technique similar to a panel discussion. It is usually a
small group seated face to face around a table and has characteristic of an informal
social gathering. Most often the, the leader should be the source of information and
therefore, he must study the question in preparation for being a leader of the
discussion.
 Procedures in a round table conference:
1. Introductory remarks
2. Statement of the facts of the problem
3. Presentation of the agenda
4. Group discussion
5. Consideration and deliberation.

7.12 Panel Discussion

 In panel discussion, members are given the opportunity to interact freely. The
participants are supposed to give views a full and fair hearing.

7.13 Symposium Forum

 The symposium is a form of meeting or a conference for the discussion of some
important subjects, at which several speakers discuss a topic before an audience.
 Points to consider in preparation for a symposium:
1. The purpose of the conference.
2. Choosing the topic that arouse and sustain interest.
3. Choosing the speaker.
4. Briefing the speaker on the objectives of the symposium and the procedures
to be observed.

7.14 Debate Forum

 Debate forum is a type of instructional practice which occurs when people with
different beliefs on the same problem present issues and discusses the pros and
cons and may arrive at different conclusion.

7.15 The Workshop

 The workshop is used as a technique of in-service education which involves group
planning. It involves the utilization of the group process in identifying, analyzing,
and solving educational problems and issue.
 Stages of a workshop:
1. Opening session
a) Opening remarks
b) Organization or sub-committees
2. Group work
 3. Consolidation of group reports leading to the formulation of recommended
resolution of the entire conference report.
4. Closing session.
a) Evaluation of the input of work conference
b) Disposition of the result
c) Planning for the future

7.16 Educational Field Trip

 Field-studies as a teaching approach is an out-of-the-classroom teaching activity to
introduce pupils/students on an environment which is the most natural and realistic
manner.
 Guidelines in planning a field trip:
1. The teacher should make final arrangement with school official at the
destination sites.
2. The teacher should make final arrangement with school official as to liability
coverage, absence of learners and other matters.
3. The teacher should state and classify the objective if the class about the field
trip.
4. The teacher should prepare guide sheets for the members of the class about
the trip and handed to them before the trip.
5. The teacher should be solely responsible for the observation during the trip.
6. The teacher should write a letter of thanks and appreciation to the officials of
placed/sites visited.

7.17 Integrative Teaching

 This teaching technique is concerned with the development of a well-rounded
personality – an individual who can adjust and respond to any given situation. This
mode of learning tries to move away with the study of subject in the traditional
manner and substitute learning activities as unit of work which would help the
learners solve their problem.

7.18 Thematic Teaching

 Involves organizing the curriculum around a theme or a rich and engaging topic
that crosses all learning domains.

7.19 Learner Apprenticeship

 Apprenticeship as a work-based learning must be in a school system. Work-based
learning to encourage the kind of learners who knows the meaning of work to earn
a living.

7.20 Personalized Teaching

 Teaching is an activity that can never be depersonalized. It is an educational
approach that aims to customize learning for each student’s strength, needs, skills
and interest.

7.21 Mastery Learning

 Mastery learning is an approach of teaching that offers promise in raising the
achievement level of every pupil/student by way of warding off his mental
problems.
  Two stages used in the application of basic principles in mastery learning:
1. Preparatory stage
2. Instructional stage

7.22 The Lecture Method/Lecture-Demonstration Method

1. Preparation for lecture
a) Cognitive framework
b) Appropriate language and manner of presentation
c) Selection of audio-visual aids and instructional materials
d) Planning the motivational technique
e) Anticipating problems during the lecture
f) Finding suitable solution to barriers of a successful lecture.
2. Introduction of the lecture
3. Giving the body of the lecture.
4. Conclusion of the lecture.
a) Summarizing major points presented
b) Paraphrasing the key ideas shared
c) Forming generalization
d) Giving implication

7.23 Classroom Demonstration

 It is usually employed in science, mathematics, vocational-technical base form
course and home economic lesson.
 The demonstration method requires careful preparation. A definite systematic
procedure in the presentation of the lesson together with the materials to be used
need extra care and safety precaution

7.24 Community-Based Activities

 This teaching approach involves the students’ active participation in various
activities of government and non-government agencies related to social and welfare
services such as child-care center, health and sanitation, beautification and other
work-experience program.

7.25 Reflective Teaching

 Reflective teaching involves the teaching ability of the teacher’s guide
pupil/students to reflect or contemplate on their personal experience in order to
arrive at a new understanding and meaning of concept.
 Pointers that may be observed to facilitate reflection:
1. There should be sufficient time for reflection and this must be incorporated
in the learning activity of the students.
2. Students should be allowed time to recall the experiences to their classmates,
to strengthen the experience gained.
3. Heed to the feelings especially the positive and the pleasant experience.
4. Carefully analyze and evaluate the experiences in the light of the learners’
intention.
7.26 The Seminar
 A seminar is conducted for the purpose of attempting to solve problem – social,
economic, political, cultural and educational. The discussion is centered on an
issue/problem/situation or proposition on which an answer or a policy is arrived at.
 Steps
1. Identify the problem
2. Gather data and relevant information
3. Synthesize and analyze the data
4. Test the hypothesis
5. Formulate conclusion
6. Proper recommendation

7.27 Modular Instruction

 Module as instructional materials have concertized pretty well the principle of
individual differences, allowing each student to proceed at his own pace.
 Components of a module:
1. Title
2. Target population
3. Overview
4. Objectives
5. Instructions to the learners
6. Entry behavior and prerequisite skills.
7. Pre-test
8. Pre-test feedback and evaluation
9. Learning activities
10.Post-test
11.Post-test feedback and evaluation
12.Teacher’s manual and guide.

7.28 Simulation
 Simulation is an imitation of a real process or concept. Simulation require the use
of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected
system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model
over time.

8. Classroom Management

8.1 Classroom Management Defined

 Classroom management is the administration or direction of activities with special
reference to such problem as discipline, democratic techniques, use and care of
supplies and reference materials, the physical features of the classroom, general
housekeeping, and the social relationships of pupils as define by Carter V. Good’s
Dictionary of education.
 Classroom management includes operation and control of activities according to
Lardizabal, et. Al.

8.2 Classroom Management as Integral Part of Teaching

  Classroom management is an integral part of teaching and techniques of managing
students must be acquired by the teachers. The classroom cannot function well
without a teacher. The success of the activities in the classroom depends on the
ability of the teacher as classroom manager.

8.3 Approaches to Classroom Management

 The assertive approach – this approach to classroom management expects the
teacher to specify rules of behavior and consequences for disobeying them. These
rules and consequences should be communicated early to the students during the
first day of class. It is important that the learners know and realize that they should
be held accountable for their actions.
 Business-Academic Approach – a well manage classroom that is free from
disruptions, where students behave in an orderly manner and are involved
enthusiastically in learning, exist where teachers have a clear idea of the type of
classroom conditions, student’s behavior and instructional activities they wish to
produce.
8.4 Classroom Discipline
 Discipline, as applied to classroom instruction, is any means adopted by the
teachers for the orderly behavior of the learners.
 Suggestions and Tips for Classroom Discipline
1. Establish good routine habits and keep learners busy
2. Teacher should take stock to his ability to discipline his class by frequent
self-evaluation.
3. Punishment should be adjusted to the offender and the offense.
4. Show the right kind of interest in your learners and in their school work
5. Dress and behave in manner that becomes a mature individual of your
position.
6. Avoid gossip.
7. Make the learners believe and trust you.
8. Never promise anything that you cannot do.
9. Be genial, amiable, and friendly with your learners but maintain a dignified
reserve.
10.Learn how to smile.

9. Teaching and Learning: College Level

 Large Group Discussion. Large group instruction is a very effective means of
providing part of the learning experiences of today’s college and university
students.
1. Large-group lecturing, without media – the value of the formal, non-
mediated lectures seems to depend more upon the special abilities and
qualification of the individual who develops and delivers it than upon
advantages or disadvantages inherent in the method itself.
2. Mediated large-group lecturing – involves the use of a variety of
communication materials and devices to demonstrate, elaborate upon, or
sometimes substitute entirely for the professor’s own comments and
explanation.
3. In-Person Forum Lecture – this large group teaching format is widely used
with large groups, especially in auditorium situations in which facilities exist
to provide amplification of questions and comments from the floor.
 4. Symposium or Town Meeting – this is another variation of large group
teaching format. Each presents his ideas in a short speech. The moderator
them opens the meeting to questions from the floor.
5. Amplified Telephone Interview or Telelecture – this is a variation of the in-
person forum-lecture. Colleges and universities avail themselves of the
instructional contributions of guests who cannot come to their campuses, but
who are willing to devote time to a telephone dialogue with a remote class.
 Medium-Group Instruction – groups of from thirty-five to sixty students continue
to be a popular class size.
1. Informal lecture – provides students to participate by commenting about
points in the lecture.
2. Group discussion – includes panel discussion, debate discussion, dialogue,
buzz groups and brainstorming.
3. Role playing – is a means of providing spontaneous, unrehearsed life-like
representation of experiences or various teaching and learning objectives.
4. Demonstrations – help focus attention on steps and procedure involved in
executing various manual operations.
5. Laboratory instruction – to give students real experience and to discover
things by themselves. Also, to help students develop their skills.
6. Field trip and community study – introduce practical aspects of the subject as
application of the classroom theory.
 Small-Group Instruction – groups ranging from approximately five to fifteen
persons.
1. Small-group discussion – is widely regarded as basic to the democratic
process.
2. Seminars – a form of class organization in higher education in which a group
of graduate students engage in research or advanced study under the general
direction of one or more staff member for a discussion of problems and
mutual interest.
 Independent Study – it is a teaching-learning format that places increase
responsibility upon the student for his own education.
1. Assigned Reading – read materials that are required for their courses.
2. Assigned Listening – independent listening to prerecorded tapes and disks is
on the rise in college and universities.
3. Assigned Viewing – viewing films and other audio-visual materials, and is
accomplished by having students check out such material and view them in
carrels within the library of learning resources center.
4. Programmed and Computerized Instruction – is a technique of self-
instruction that presented in printed form, in simple or quite complicated
teaching machines, by several uses of tapes, by various audio-visual
projection or dial-access devices, or by computers.
5. Committee Work – to prepare for a report or discussion in class is another
opportunity for independent study.
6. Oral Reports – they may deal with reviews and critiques, books, the
presentation of results of student investigation or research, or a combination
of report and demonstration.
7. Creative Project, Work Experience, and Internships
8. Papers and Written Reports – provide a medium through which students may
combine study of facts and ideas with practice in written expression.
 Aside from the independent study format, other plans emerge for professional
literature from time to time.