Chapter 1 : Mathematics in Our World

Nature of Mathematics

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

 Unbelievable patterns of numbers formed by nature and universe

 Language in different forms like patterns, shapes, music, among others
 what we perceive in our physical environment
 Language we understand

WHERE IS MATHEMATICS?

 exists in nature (thunderstorm, animals, lakes, and water)

 daily routines (computations, time, measurement, probability of weather, money, geometry,
problem solving, fractions, patterns, and estimations.)
 world of work (pilot, construction, engineers, teaching)

WHAT ROLE DOES MATHEMATICS PLAY IN OUR WORLD?

 helps organize patterns and regularities in our world.

 helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the world.
 helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends.
 has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.

MATHEMATICS is Universal

 Any person can recognize the beauty of nature’s mathematical patterns without any
mathematical training.
PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

TYPES OF PATTERNS

1. Number Patterns
2. Logic Patterns
3. Nature Patterns
4. Geometric Patterns

Number Patterns /Sequence

What’s next? 13, 15, 17, 19, _

Answer: 13, 15, 17, 19, 21 Hint: common difference = 2 (Arithmetic sequence)

3, 6, 12, 24, _

3, 6, 12, 24, 48 Hint: common ratio = 2 (geometric sequence)

What’s next? 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, _

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 Hint: add preceding terms (Fibonacci sequence)

What’s next? 1, 0, 3, 8, 9, 5, 7, 5, 9, _, 3, 0, 1

1, 0, 3, 8, 9, 5, 7, 5, 9, 8, 3, 0, 1 Hint: PALINDROME (reads the same forward or backwards)

Logic Patterns
Nature Patterns
 Stars
 Snowflakes
 Fishes
 Animals
 Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world

Geometric Patterns

1. SYMMETRY
 a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of balance or an object is invariant to
any various transformations (reflection, rotation or scaling.)
 examples: 3-petal flower, jelly fish, and star fish

Bilateral Symmetry Radial Symmetry ( or rotational

symmetry )
a symmetry in which the left and right a symmetry around a fixed point known
sides of the organism can be divided into as the center and it can be classified as
approximately mirror image of each other either cyclic or dihedral
along the midline

ex. Tiger. Leaves, butterflies, tutubi ex. Star fish, jelly fish, and other flowers.

2. FRACTALS
 a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical character as the
whole. A fractal is a never-ending pattern found in nature. The exact same shape is
replicated in a process called “self-similarity.” The pattern repeats itself over and over
again at different scales
ex. Trunk of trees, thunderstorm, lightning, and human organs.
 3. SPIRALS
 logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is a self-similar spiral curve which often appears in
nature. It was first described by Rene Descartes and was later investigated by Jacob
Bernoulli. A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of
circular shapes that revolve around it

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Brief History

 Leonardo of Pisa
 Leonardo Pisano
 Liber Abacci (1202)
 Leonardo Fibonacci

FIBONACCI NUMBERS IN NATURE

1. The Rabbit Problem

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is found by adding up the two
numbers before it. Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so
forth.
Flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number,
white calla lily = 1

petal euphorbia = 2

petals trillium = 3

petals columbine= 5

petals bloodroot = 8

petals black-eyed susan = 13

petals shasta daisies = 21

petals field daisies = 34 petals

Human Body parts have Fibonacci sequence

Sunflower Seeds

Tree Branches
The Golden Ratio (𝜙) ≈ 1.618

Relationship of Fibonacci Sequence and Golden Ratio (𝜙) ≈ 1.618

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55,…

The Golden Rectangle and Golden Spiral

The Golden Ratio in Real Life

Mathematics Helps Predict the Behavior of Nature and Phenomena in the World

 Behavior of Nature (Natural Regularities of Nature:)

 Behavior of Nature (ex. Patterns of zebras)

 Behavior of Nature (ex. Spider web)
 Behavior of Nature (trees ring of time, turtle shell, lightning, and foam of bubbles, cracks in land,
and meander)

Chapter 2: Mathematical Language and Symbols

Topics

1. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

2. Expression versus Sentences
 3. Conventions in the Mathematical Language
4. Four Basic Concepts
5. Elementary Logic

Lesson 1: Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of Mathematics makes it easy to express the science of thoughts that mathematicians like
to express. It is:

 PRECISE (able to make very fine distinctions)

 CONCISE (able to say things briefly)
 POWERFUL (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)

Lesson 2: Expression vs. Sentence

Difference Between ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICAL language

ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
NOUNS NUMBERS/ EXPRESSIONS
VERBS EQUATION/ INEQUALITY SIGNS
PRONOUNS VARIABLES (x and y)

NOUN: Diana, Batangas, computer EXPRESSION:

7
SENTENCE: 1. Ean loves burgers. 2x + 6
2. Two and eight are even numbers 10xy

SENTENCE:
14 + 16 = 30
x + y = 20
2x < 5 + 2y

EXPRESSION SENTENCE
can be numbers/ variables or combination of the There are equation/inequality symbols
two using different operations but w/o (=. < , > , ≤ , ≥)
equation/inequality symbols
7 14 + 16 = 30
2x + 6 x + y = 20
10xy 2x < 5 + 2y

Mathematical Phrase Mathematical Sentence

 The product of twenty and a is five 20a = 5
Three times the sum of x and 7 results to ten 3 (x + 7) = 10
The difference of 3 and y divided by 10 is equal to 3−𝑦 = 29
29 10
11 added to the product of 5 and b equals 30 5b + 11 = 30

Lesson 3: Conventions in Mathematical Language

Mathematical Convention

 is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians

 symbols used in writing mathematical expressions and sentences, including their meaning and
rules in writing.

NUMBERS

 symbols used in counting

 Constant values
 Real and imaginary numbers
 Ex. Babylonian number system, Egyptian number system, roman number system, Hindu -Arabic
number system

English alphabets

 Represent possible values for quantities (variables) –

 Capital letters can be name of sets, points, etc.
 Lower case letters can stand as elements
 e is Euler’s number (e=2.718281…)
 i Imaginary number (i=square root symbol and -1)

Greek Alphabet

 Represents constants in formulas in mathematics, physics, chemistry and other related

branches
Symbols

 Operations and relationships

Lesson 4: Four Basic Concepts

 Language of Sets
 Language of Relations and Functions
 Language of Binary Operations

Language of sets
 Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or the mathematical science of the
infinite.
 George Cantor (1845-1918) is a German Mathematician
 He is considered as the founder of set theory as a mathematical discipline.

a. Sets and Elements

 A set is a well-defined collection of objects. {}
 The objects are called the elements or members of the set.
   element of a set
  not an element of a set

b. Language of Sets
 A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}
 B = {xx is a real number and x2 – 1 = 0}
 C = {xx is a letter in the word dirt}
 D = {xx is an integer, 1  x  8}
 E = {xx is a set of vowel letters}
 Set E equals the set of all x such that x is a set of vowel letters” or E = {a, e, i, o, u}

c. List the Elements of the Sets

 A = {xx is a letter in the word mathematics.} Answer: A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s.}
 B = {xx is a positive integer, 3  x  8.} Answer: B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 C = {xx = 2n + 3, n is a positive integer.} Answer: C = {5, 7, 9, 11, 13, …}

d. Methods of Writing Sets

1. Roster Method. The elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a
comma it is also called tabulation method.
 E = {a, e, i, o, u}
 Writing sets in Roster form
A= {xx is the letter of the word discrete} Answer: A = {d, i, s, c, r, e, t}
B = {x3  x  8, x  Z} Answer: B = {4, 5, 6, 7}
C = {xx is the set of zodiac signs} Answer: C = {Aries, Cancer, Capricorn,
Sagittarius, Libra, Leo, …}

2. Rule Method. A descriptive phrase is used to describe the elements or members of

the set it is also called set builder notation, symbol it is written as {x P(x)}
 E = {xx is a collection of vowel letters}
 Writing sets in rule method
D = {Narra, Mohagany, Molave, …} Answer: : D = {xx is the set of non-
bearing trees.}
E = {DOJ, DOH, DOST, DSWD, DENR, CHED, DepEd,…} Answer: E = {xx is
the set of government agencies.}
F = {Botany, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, …} Answer: F = {xx is the set of
science subjects.}

Language of Sets: Some terms on Sets

1. Finite and Infinite Sets.

 is a set whose elements are limited or countable, and the last element can be identified.
 Ex. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 10}
C = {d, i, r, t}
 E = {a, e, i, o, u}
2. Infinite Sets
 is a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable, and the last element cannot be
specified.
 Ex. F = {…, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2,…}
G = {xx is a set of whole numbers}
H = {xx is a set of molecules on earth}
3. Unit Set
 is a set with only one element it is also called singleton.
 Ex. I = {xx is a whole number greater than 1 but less than 3}

J = {w}

K = {rat}

4. Empty Set
 is a unique set with no elements (or null set), it is denoted by the symbol  or { }.
 Ex. L = {xx is an integer less than 2 but greater than 1}
M = {xx is a number of panda bear in Manila Zoo}
N = {xx is the set of positive integers less than zero}

5. Universal Set
 is all sets under investigation in any application of set theory are assumed to be
contained in some large fixed set, denoted by the symbol U.
 ex. U = {xx is a positive integer, x2 = 4}
U = {1, 2, 3,…,100}
U = {xx is an animal in Manila Zoo}

6. Cardinality
 of a set is the number of elements or members in the set, the cardinality of set A is
denoted by n(A)
 ex. Determine its cardinality of the ff. sets
a. E = {a, e, i, o, u}, answer: n(E) = 5
b. A = {xx is a positive integer less than 1 0} answer: n(A) = 9 because A = {1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
c. C = {d, i, r, t} answer: n(C) = 4

Theorem 1.1: Uniqueness of the Empty Set: There is only one set with no elements.

Language of Sets : Venn Diagram

 is a pictorial presentation of relation and operations on set.

 also known set diagrams, it show all hypothetically possible logical relations between finite
collections of sets.
  Introduced by John Venn in his paper "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of
Propositions and Reasonings

Kind of Sets

1. Subset
 If A and B are sets, A is called subset of B, if and
only if, every element of A is also an element of
B.
 Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A  x  B.
 Ex. A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

2. Proper Subset
 Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if, every element of A is in B
but there is at least one element of B that is not in A.
 The symbol  denotes that it is not a proper subset.
 Symbolically: A  B  x, x  A  x  B
 Ex. A = {c, d, e}

B = {a, b, c, d, e}

C = {e, a, c, b, d}

U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}

Then A  B, since all elements of A is in B.

3. Equal Set
 Given set A and B, A equals B, written, if
and only if, every element of A is in B
and every element of B is in A.
 Symbolically: A = B  A  B  B  A.
 Ex. A = {a, b, c, d, e},
B = {a, b, d, e, c}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then then A  B and B  A, thus A = B.

4. Power Set
 Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by (S), is the collection (or
sets) of all subsets of S.
Ex. Determine the power set of
 (a) A = {e, f}, Answer: (A) = {{e}, {f}, {e, f}, }

(b) B = {1, 2, 3}. Answer: (B) = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, }.

Operations on Sets

1. Union

2. Intersection
 The intersection of A and B, denoted AB, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is
in A and x is in B.
 Symbolically: AB = {xx  A  x  B}.

3. Complement
 The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted A’, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is not in A.
 Symbolically: A’ = {x  U  x  A}.

4. Difference
 The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with respect to A), denoted A 
B, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is in A and x is not in B
 Symbolically: A  B = {xx  A  x  B} = AB’.

5. Symmetric Difference
 If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set consisting of all
elements that belong to A or to B, but not to both A and B.
 Symbolically: A  B = {xx  (AB)  x(AB)}
= (AB)(AB)’ or (AB)  (AB).
6. Disjoint Sets
 Two set are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if, they have no elements in
common
 Symbolically: A and B are disjoint  AB = .

7. Ordered Pairs
 In the ordered pair (a, b), a is called the first component and b is called the second
component. In general, (a, b)  (b, a).
 Example: Determine whether each statement is true or false.
(2, 5) = (9 – 7, 2 + 3) Since 2 = 9 – 7 and 2 + 3 = 5, the ordered pair is equal. True

{2, 5}  {5, 2} Since these are sets and not ordered pairs, the order in which the
elements are listed is not important. False

(2, 5)  (5, 2) These ordered pairs are not equal since they do not satisfy the
requirements for equality of ordered pairs. True

8. Cartesian Product
 The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written AxB, is AxB = {(a, b)  a  A and b  B}
 Ex. Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. Find each set.
AxB = {(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}
 BxA = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 5), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 5)}

AxA = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 5)}

Operations on sets – Examples

Example 1. Suppose: A = {a, b, c} B = {c, d, e} U = {a, b,

c, d, e, f, g}

a. AB = {a, b, c, d, e}
b. AB = {c}
c. A’ = {d, e, f, g}
d. A  B = {a, b}
e. A  B = {a, b, d, e}

Example 2. LGUs is conducting a survey on the vaccines received by the people in their respective
barangay. They have done a random survey from 100 people. The results of the survey are shown
below.

42 people vaccinated with COVID19 vaccine.

31 people vaccinated with Measles vaccine.

28 people vaccinated with Nasal Flu vaccine.

9 people vaccinated with both Measles and Nasal Flu vaccine

10 people vaccinated with COVID19 and Nasal Flu vaccine

6 people vaccinated with Measles and COVID19 vaccine

4 took all the vaccine

How many are vaccine with COVID 19 vaccines only? 30

How many are vaccinated with COVID 19 or Measles vaccine? 67

How many are unvaccinated? 20

Language of Functions and Relations

1. Relation
 A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
  If x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists between x and y, then
we say that x corresponds to y or that y depends on x and is represented as the
ordered pair of (x, y).
 A relation from set A to set B is defined to be any subset of AB.
 If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b)  R, then we say that “a is related to b” and it
is denoted as a R b.

Example. Let A = {a, b, c, d} be the set of car brands, and

B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of the car manufacturer.

Then AB gives all possible pairings of the elements of A and B

let the relation R from A to B be given by

R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t), (b, u), (b, v), (c, s), (c, t), (c, u), (c, v), (d, s),
(d, t), (d, u), (d, v)}.

2. Function
 is a special kind of relation helps visualize relationships in terms of graphs and make
it easier to interpret different behavior of variables..
 Applications of Functions:
 financial applications
 Engineering
 calculating pH levels
 designing machineries
 economics
 medicine
 sciences natural disasters
 measuring decibels
 A function is a relation in which, for each value of the
first component of the ordered pairs, there is exactly
one value of the second component.
 The set X is called the domain of the function
 For each element of x in X, the corresponding element
y in Y is called the value of the function at x, or the
image of x.
 Range – set of all images of the elements of the
domain is called the of the function. A function can
map from one set to another.

Determine whether each of the following relations is a

function.

A = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}

 B = {(–2, 7), (–1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 5), (2, 5)}

C = {(3, 0), (3, 2), (7, 4), (9, 1)}

. Language of Binary Operations

 An operation on a set generalized structures as the integers together with the single operation
of addition, or invertible 22 matrices together with the single operation of matrix
multiplication.
 The algebraic structures known as group.
 Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function that assigns each ordered pair of element of
G.
 Symbolically, a  b = G, for all a, b, c  G.
 A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following properties:
(i) the set is closed with respect to the operation,
(ii) the operation satisfies the associative property,
(iii)there is an identity element, and
(iv) each element has an inverse
 A group is an ordered pair (G, ) where G is a set and  is a binary operation on G satisfying the
four properties.
a. Closure property. If any two elements are combined using the operation, the
result must be an element of the set.
 a  b = c  G, for all a, b, c  G.
b. Associative property. (a  b)  c = a  (b  c), for all a, b, c  G
c. Identity property. There exists an element e in G, such that for all a  G, a * e =
e * a.
d. Inverse property. For each a  G there is an element a –1 of G, such that a * a –
1 = a –1 * a = e.

Determine whether the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group

 Solution: Apply the four properties to test the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a
group.
Step 1. Closure property, choose any two positive integers,
8 + 4 = 12 and 5 + 10 = 15
The sum of two numbers of the set, the result is always a number of the
set.
Thus, it is closed.

Step 2. Associative property, choose three positive integers

3 + (2 + 4) = 3 + 6 = 9

(3 + 2) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Thus, it also satisfies the associative property.
 Step 3. : Identity property, choose any positive integer
8 + 0 = 8; 9 + 0 = 9; 15 + 0 = 15
Thus, it also satisfies the identity property

Step 4: Inverse property, choose any positive integer

4 + (–4) = 0;
10 + (–10) = 0;
‘23 + (–23) = 0
Note that a –1 = –a.
Thus, it also satisfies the inverse property.
Thus, the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a group,
since it satisfies the four properties.

Lesson 5. Elementary Logic

 The science or study of how to evaluate arguments & reasoning
 It differentiates correct reasoning from poor reasoning.
 It is important in sense that it helps us to reason correctly.
 The methods of reasoning

Mathematical Logic

 Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of mathematics with close connections to
computer science.
 Mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics
 It also studies the deductive formal proofs systems and expressive formal systems.
 Four Divisions:
o Set Theory
o Recursion Theory
o Proof Theory
o Model Theory

Statement

 A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false, but not both.
 The truth value of the statements is the truth and falsity of the statement.

Which of the following are statements?

 Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is true A statement

 What day is it? It is a question Not a statement.
 Help me, please. It cannot be categorized as true or false. Not a statement.
 4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not specified. Not a statement.
Propositional Variable

 A variable which used to represent a statement.

 A formal propositional written using propositional logic notation, p, q, and r are used to
represent statements.

Logical Connectives

Logical connectives are used to combine simple statements which are referred as compound statements

 A compound statement is a statement composed of two or more simple statements connected

by logical connectives
“or” “not” “if then” “and” “exclusive-or.” “if and only if”
 A statement which is not compound is said to be simple (also called atomic).

Conjunction

 The conjunction of the statement p and q is the compound

statement “p and q.” Symbolically, p  q, where  is the
symbol for “and.”
 Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true;
otherwise p  q is false. Meaning, the conjunction of two
statements is true only if each statement is true
 Ex. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal = FALSE
False True
 Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine
President. FALSE
 Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine President and Joseph Estrada is the only
Philippine President who resigns. TRUE

Disjunction

 The disjunction of the statement p, q is the compound

statement “p or q.”
 Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “or.”
 Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are
true, then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false. Meaning,
the disjunction of two statements is false only if each
statement is false.
 Ex. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao = TRUE
False true

 Joseph Ejercito is the only Philippine President who resigns or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the
first female Philippine President. TRUE
  Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine President or man is a mammal. TRUE

Negation

 The negation of the statement p is denoted by p, where  is

the symbol for “not.”
 Property 3: If p is true, p is false. Meaning, the truth value
of the negation of a statement is always the reverse of the
truth value of the original statement
 3 + 5 = 8. ANSWER: 3 + 5  8.
 Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a boy
 Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here

Conditional

 The conditional (or implication) of the statement p and q is

the compound statement “if p then q.”
 Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if then.” p
is called hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called
conclusion (or consequent or consequence)
 Property 4: The conditional statement p  q is false only
when p is true and q is false; otherwise p  q is true.
Meaning p  q states that a true statement cannot imply a
false statement.
 “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.”
The antecedent is “vinegar is sweet,” and
the consequent is “sugar is sour.”
Biconditional

 The biconditional of the statement p and q is the

compound statement “p if and only if q.”
 Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if and
only if.”
 Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q
is true; if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q
is false.

SUMMARY

STATEMENT CONNECTIVE SYMBOLIC FORM TYPE OF STATEMENT

Not p not ~p Negation
P and q And p^q Conjunction
P or q or pvq Disjunction
If p, then q If…then p q Conditional
P if and only if q If and only if p q biconditional

Chapter 3: Problem Solving

Topics:

 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

 Intuition, Proof and certainity
 Polya’s Four System in Problem Solving
  Problem Solving Strategies
 Mathematical Problems involving Patterns
 Recreational Problem using Mathematics

TWO TYPES OF LOGICAL REASONING

1. INDUCTIVE
 Process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples. (specific –
general)
 Involves looking for patterns and making generalizations
 Ex. Premise 1: Oliver is a grandfather
Premise 2: Oliver is bald
Conclusion: All grandfather is bald
 Conjecture- conclusion formed by using inductive and it may or may not be correct
 Observe and look for pattern analyze what is really happening in the pattern
Make a conjecture

Ex. Conjecture pattern 2, 4, 12, 48, 240

Step 1: look for a pattern

 2, 4, 12, 48, 240, ….?

Step 2: Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.

 The numbers are multiplied by 2, then 3, then 4, then 5. Th enext number will
be the product of 240 times 6 or 1,440

Step 3: Make a conjecture

The answer is 1,440

2. DEDUCTIVE
 Process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures
(general-specific)
 Involves making a logical argument, drawing conclusions, and applying generalizations
to specific situations.
 General ideas first premise that fits within general truth second
premise that fits within the first premise specific conclusion
 Examples:
1st premise: if a number is divisible by 2, then it must be even.
2nd premise: 12 is divisible by 2
Conclusion: Therefore, 12 is even number

1st premise: all engineers are very good at math

2nd premise: rigor is an engineer
Conclusion: rigor is very good at math
 Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
Observation based Theory based
Process of reaching conclusions based Process of reaching conclusions based
on a series of observations on previously known facts
Conclusion may not be valid Conclusions are correct and valid
Used to form hypotheses Used to prove ideas
Draws general principle from specific Draws specific conclusions from general
instances principles
Always involves uncertainty Certain and true

INDUCTIVE VS, DEDUCTIVE

1. All dolphins are mammals.

All mammals have kidneys DEDUCTIVE REASONING
 Therefore, all dolphins have kidneys

2. Every windstorm in this area comes from north

I can see big cloud of dust in a distance INDUCTIVE REASONING
A new windstorm is coming from north

3. All cats have keen sense of smell

Fluffy is a cat DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Fluffy has a keen sense of smell

Intuition, Proof and certainty

Intuition

 Immediate understanding or knowing something without reasoning

 Is a reliable mathematical belief without being formalized and proven directly and
serves as an essential part of mathematics
Ex. Teacher: square, rectangle and rhombus are parallelograms. A quadrilateral
with opposite sides is parallel and equal. How many sides there in a square?

Student: There are four sides

Proof
  An inferential argument for mathematical statement.
 An argument that convinces other people that something is true
Ex. Teacher: how did you say so that there are four sides?
Student: because quadrilateral means polygon with four sides.

Certainty

 Proof are an example of mathematical logical certainty

 A conclusion or outcome that is beyond doubt
Ex. Teacher: please show an illustration on the board
Student: (draws square on the board)

Polya’s Four System in Problem Solving and Problem-Solving Strategies

Brief history

 George Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics educator who strongly belived that the
skill of problem solving can be taught
 He developed a framework known as Polya’s Four steps in problem solving.
 The process addressed the difficulty of students in problem solving
STEP 1: Understand the
problem
STEP 2: Devise a plan
STEP 3: Carry out the plan
STEP 4: look back
Simple and common problem-solving strategies to mention few:

 Guess (this includes guess and check and guess and improve)
 Act it out (it use equipment)
 Draw (includes drawing, pictures, and diagrams)
 List/tabulate (this includes making a table)

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING PATTERNS

RECREATIONAL PROBLEMS USING MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER 4: MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM
Part 1 Topics

 Modular arithmetic
 APPLICATIONS OF Modular arithmetic

MODULAR ARITHMETIC
Addition Modulo N

 Perform addition and then divide by the modulus. The answer is the remainder. The
results of an arithmetic operation mod n is always whole number less than n.
  Adding the modulus to the number does not change the value of the number

Subtraction Modulo n

 Perform subtraction and then divide by the modulus.

 The answer is the remainder
 The result of an arithmetic operation mod n is always whole number less than n
Examples related to time and day:

Multiplication Modulo n

 Perform multiplication and then divide by the modulus.

 The answer is the remainder.
 The result of an arithmetic operation mod n is always the whole number less than n
 Additive Inverse modulo n

 Multiplicative Inverse modulo n

Solving Congruence equation
Part 2 of Chapter 4 Mathematical System
APPLICATIONS OF MODULAR ARITHMETIC

 This concept has an important role in different industry:

 Banking and finance
 Information and technology
 Medicine and health
 Trade and industry
 Education sector

ISBN

 International Standard Book Number

 Product Identifier used by publishers, booksellers, libraries, internet retailers, and other supply
chain participants for ordering listing, sales records and stock control purposes.
 Identifies the registrant, as well as the specific title, edition and format.
 10 digits-up to Dec 2006
 13 digits-since Jan 2007

Five Elements of ISBN

1. Prefix- can only be 978 or 979 (always 3 digits)

2. Registration group- identifies country, geographical region or language area participating in the
ISBN system (1-5 digits)
3. Registrant- identifies the publisher or imprint (up to 7 digits)
4. Publication- Identifies the edition or format of a specific title (up to 6 didgits)
5. Check Digit- Final digit that validates the rest of the digits
UPC

 Universal Product Code

 12-digit Number
o 6 digit- manufacturer date
o 5 digit- item number
o 1 digit- check digit
Credit Card Number

 13-16 digits
 1st-4th digit- identify card issuer
 Mastercard starts in 51-55 first two
digits
 Visa gold card starts by 4
 Credit card issuer prefix # of digits
Mastercard 51-55 16
Visa 4 13 or 16
American express 34 0r 37 15
Discover 65, 6011,644, to 649 16
Jcb 3528 to 3589 16 or 19
maestro 5018, 5020, 5038, 5893, 16 0r 19
6304, 6759, 6761, to 6763

CREDIT CARD NUMBER- VERIFICATION

 Luhn algorithm steps:

1. Starting from the next-to-last digit (the second to the last digit), reading from right to left,
Double every other digit
 If a digit becomes a two-digit number after being doubled, treat the number as
two individual digits
2. Get the sum of the digits
3. Check if the sum is equal to Zero in mod 10
PART 3 OF CHAPTER 4

CRYPTOGRAPHY

 Originated from the Greek words:

“krypto” means hidden
“graphene” means writing

 “Study of methods to write and solve secret codes”- Stewart (2008)

 Ex. Morse codes, storing email/data and bank security
 Cryptographic programs- prevent hackers from using your email address or making call using
your mobile number to access private information.
 Cryptocurrency- guarantees the security of the transactions and the participants, independence
of operations from central authority, and protection from double spending.
 Movie of Geostorm

GERARD BUTLER IN GEOSTORM

TWO PROCESSES

1. Encryption- the process of transforming plain text into a code from using a certain algorithm
(Math is Fun) -------- (PDWK LV IXQ)
Plain text Coded form/cipher text

E: P C
2. Decryption- the process of converting back the coded message into plain text
(PDWK LV IXQ) -------- (Math is Fun)
Coded form/cipher text Plain text
 D: C P

METHODS

1. Shift Cipher (Caesar Cipher)- uses key and direction (left to right)
2. Modulo Operator- uses key and modulo

Key- refers to the strings of information that is used to reveal the encrypted message into readable
forms.

Caesar Cipher

 First cryptosystem
 Shift Cipher/Caesar Code
 Used by Julius Caesar in sending messages to his troops
 He says that: Crytopgraphy used to secure messages and transactions, safeguard personal
identifiable information and other confidential data, authenticate identity, prevent document
tampering, and established trust between servers.