Introduction

Laser, perhaps one of the most exciting discoveries of the

twentieth century, is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. The first successful operation of a laser was done by Maiman in 1960
using a ruby crystal. Laser light, like light from any other ordinary source, is
emitted when atoms make a transition from quantum state of higher energy to a
state of lower energy. However, it has unique properties not found in the light
from ordinary sources. Let us now discuss its basic principle, working of some
laser systems, and its important applications.

3.1 Characteristics of Laser

The enormous growth of laser technology has stimulated a

broad range of scientific and engineering applications that exploit some of the
unique properties of laser light. These properties are derived from the distinctive
way laser light is produced in contrast to the generation of ordinary light. Light
from a laser differs from light from conventional sources in number of ways. The
most striking feature of a laser beam are

i) Monochromaticity

If light from a source has only one frequency of oscillation, the

light is said to be monochromatic and the source, a monochromatic source. In
practice it is not possible to produce light with only one frequency.
 Light coming out of any source consists of band of frequencies
closely spaced around a central frequency ′𝜈0′. The band of frequencies, ∆𝜈, is
called the linewidth or bandwidth. The light from conventional sources has large
linewidths of the order of 1010 Hz or more. On the other hand, light from lasers is
more monochromatic having linewidths to 100 Hz.

ii) Higher degree of coherence

Light waves are said to be coherent if they are in phase with

each other. For example if they maintain crest-to-crest and trough-to-trough to
correspondence. λ

Two things are necessary for light waves to be coherent. First

they must start with same phase at the same position. Secondly their wavelengths
must be the same or they will drift out of phase because the crusts of the higher
frequency will arrive ahead of the crests of the lower frequency wave.

The light that emerges from a conventional light source is a

jumble of short waves which combine with each other in a random manner. On
the other hand the light from a laser is a resultant of a large number of identical
photons which are in phase and therefore exhibits a high degree of coherence.

iii) High Intensity

The power output of a laser may vary from a few milliwatts to

a few kilowatts. But this energy is concentrated in a beam of very small cross
section. The intensity of a laser beam is approximately given by

𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝑰 = ( ) 𝑷 − − − −(𝟑. 𝟏)
𝝀
where P is the power radiated by the laser.

In the case of 1m W He-Ne laser

𝜆 = 6328 × 10−10𝑚
100
𝐼= × 10−3𝑊 = 2.4973 × 1011 𝑊/𝑚2
(6328 × 10−10)2𝑚2

To obtain light of same intensity from a tungsten bulb, it would have to be raised
to a temperature of 4.6 × 106 . The normal operating temperature of the bulb is
about 2000 K.

iv) Directionality

Conventional light sources emit light in all directions. But light

from laser diverges very little. Light beam can travel as a parallel beam upto a
distance of 𝑑 2⁄𝜆 where d is the diameter of the aperture through which the light
is passing and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light used. After travelling the distance
𝑑 2⁄𝜆 , the light beam spreads radially. In ordinary light beam the angular spread is
given by ∆𝜃 = 𝜆⁄𝑑 . For a laser beam the angular spread is 1 mm per 1m, but for
an ordinary source of light the angular spread is 1 m per 1 m. This shows the
directionality of laser beam. A 10-cm wide laser beam has a diameter of only 5 km
after reaching the moon which is at an approximate distance of 3,85,000 km.

3.1.1 Coherence

This sub topic is given from some other book that is available
is separate file.

3.2 Einstein’s Prediction

When we see light from any source, we actually see electrons jumping
from excited states to lower states. This type of emission of light which
occurs on its own is known as spontaneous emission and is represented
for the light coming from candles, electric bulbs, fire, sun etc.
Einstein predicted in 1917, there must be a second emission process to
establish thermal equilibrium. For example, if we illuminate a material
with light of suitable frequency, the atoms in it absorb light and go to
higher energy state.
The excited atoms tend to return randomly to the lower energy state. As
the ground state population is very large, more and more atoms are
excited under the action of incident light and it is likely that a stage may
reached where all atoms are excited. This violates thermal equilibrium
condition. Therefore Einstein suggested that there could be an additional
emission mechanism, by which the excited atoms can make downward
transitions. He predicted that the photos in the light field induce the
excited atoms to fall to lower energy state and give up their excess
energy in the form of photos. He called this type of second emission as
stimulated emission.
The Three Fundamental Processes
Let us consider a medium consisting of identical atoms capable of being
excited from the energy level 1 to the energy level 2 by absorption of
photons. Let the levels be denoted by E1 and E2 and their populations be
N1 and N2 respectively. Let the atoms be in thermal equilibrium. In the
equilibrium condition the number of atomic-upward transitions must be
equal to the number of downward transitions. Thus no net photos are
generated or lost. However, when the atoms are subjected to an external
light of frequency, ‘ν’, the following three processes occur in the
medium.
i) Absorption
An atom in the ground state E absorbs an incident photon and makes a
transition to the excited state E2. This transition is known as induced or
stimulated absorption or simply absorption.

Corresponding to each absorption transition, one photon disappears from

the incident field and one atom adds to the population at the excited
energy level E2. This process may be represented as
atom + photon → 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚∗
 ∗ → atom is in the excited state
The number of absorption transitions occurring in the material at any
instant will be proportional to the population in the lower level and the
number of photons per unit volume in the incident beam. The rate of
absorption may be expressed as
R abs = B12 ρ(ϑ)N1
ρ(ϑ) − energy density of incident light
B12 − Einstein coefficient for absorption
At thermal equilibrium, the population in the lower energy state is far
larger than that in the higher energy state. Therefore as light propagates
through the medium, it gets absorbed.
ii) Spontaneous emission
An excited atom can stay at the excited level for an average life time
(10−8 Sec). If this atom is not stimulated by any other agent during its
short lifetime, the excited atom undergoes a transition to the lower level
on its own. During the transition it gives up the excess energy in the
form of photon. This process in which an excited atom emits a photon
without any external agent is known as spontaneous emission.
This process is represented as
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚∗ → atom + photon
The number of photons generated will be proportional to the population
of the excited level only. The rate of spontaneous emission may be
expressed as
R sp = A21 N2

A21 − Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission

Thus the process of spontaneous emission is independent of energy
density.
iii) Stimulated emission
An atom in the excited state need not wait for spontaneous emission to
occur. If a photon with appropriate energy (ℎ𝜗 = E2 − E1 ) interacts
with the excited atom, it can trigger the atom to undergo transition to the
lower level and to emit another photon.
The process of emission of photons by an excited atom through a force
transition occurring under the influence of an external agent is called
induced or stimulated emission.

The process may be represented as

𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚∗ + photon → atom + 2 photons
The rate of stimulated emission of photons is given by
R st = B21 ρ(ϑ)N2
B21 − Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission
3.4 Einstein’s A and B Coefficients
Einstein’s proof for the existence of stimulated emission grew out of this desire to
understand the basic mechanism in the interaction between electromagnetic
radiation and matter. Let us assume matter (a collection of atoms) is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with black body radiation field. The atoms and the
resonant radiation are contained in an enclosure at some temperature T and interact
with one another. The figure shows a simplified picture of two level atoms and
radiation bound inside of an arbitrary unit volume. If thermodynamic equilibrium
exists, the number of atoms N2 at energy level E2 , the number of atoms N1 at energy
level E1 , and the number of photons in the radiation field will all remain constant.
This condition requires that the number of transitions from E2 to E1must be equal
to the number of transitions from E1 to E2 . Thus

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = The number
of atoms emitting photons per second per unit volume

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = B12 ρ(ϑ)N1

The number of atoms emitting photons per second per unit volume = A21 N2 +
B21 ρ(ϑ)N2

In equilibrium condition, the number of transitions from

E2 to E1must be equal to the number of transitions from E1 to E2 .

Thus

B12 ρ(ϑ)N1 = A21 N2 + B21 ρ(ϑ)N2

ρ(ϑ)[B12 N1 − B21 N2 ] = A21 N2

A21 N2
ρ(ϑ) =
[B12 N1 − B21 N2 ]

A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ ]
B21 N1 B12 − 1
N2 B21
Einstein proved thermodynamically that the probability of absorption is equal to
the probability of stimulated emission.

i.e B12 = B21

Then we have

A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ ]
B21 N1 − 1
N2

The equilibrium distribution of atoms among different energy states is given by

Boltzmann’s law according to which
− E2
N2 e ⁄kT
=
N1 e−E1⁄kT

N2
= e−( E2 −E1 )⁄kT
N1

= e−(hϑ)⁄kT
A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ hϑ⁄kT ]
B21 e −1

This is the formula for the energy density of photon of frequency ϑ in equilibrium
with atoms in energy states 1 and 2, at temperature T.

Comparing it with Planck’s radiation formula

8πhϑ3 1
ρ(ϑ) = 3
[ hϑ⁄kT ]
c e −1
thus we get,

A21 8πhϑ3
=
B21 c3

This gives the relationship between Einstein’s A and B coefficients.

3.4 Einstein’s A and B Coefficients
Einstein’s proof for the existence of stimulated emission grew out of this desire to
understand the basic mechanism in the interaction between electromagnetic
radiation and matter. Let us assume matter (a collection of atoms) is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with black body radiation field. The atoms and the
resonant radiation are contained in an enclosure at some temperature T and interact
with one another. The figure shows a simplified picture of two level atoms and
radiation bound inside of an arbitrary unit volume. If thermodynamic equilibrium
exists, the number of atoms N2 at energy level E2 , the number of atoms N1 at energy
level E1 , and the number of photons in the radiation field will all remain constant.
This condition requires that the number of transitions from E2 to E1must be equal
to the number of transitions from E1 to E2 . Thus

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = The number
of atoms emitting photons per second per unit volume

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = B12 ρ(ϑ)N1

The number of atoms emitting photons per second per unit volume = A21 N2 +
B21 ρ(ϑ)N2
In equilibrium condition, the number of transitions from
E2 to E1must be equal to the number of transitions from E1 to E2 .

Thus

B12 ρ(ϑ)N1 = A21 N2 + B21 ρ(ϑ)N2

ρ(ϑ)[B12 N1 − B21 N2 ] = A21 N2

A21 N2
ρ(ϑ) =
[B12 N1 − B21 N2 ]

A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ ]
B21 N1 B12 − 1
N2 B21

Einstein proved thermodynamically that the probability of absorption is equal to

the probability of stimulated emission.

i.e B12 = B21

Then we have

A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ ]
B21 N1 − 1
N2

The equilibrium distribution of atoms among different energy states is given by

Boltzmann’s law according to which
− E2
N2 e ⁄kT
=
N1 e−E1⁄kT

N2
= e−( E2 −E1 )⁄kT
N1

= e−(hϑ)⁄kT
 A21 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ hϑ⁄kT ]
B21 e −1

This is the formula for the energy density of photon of frequency ϑ in equilibrium
with atoms in energy states 1 and 2, at temperature T.

Comparing it with Planck’s radiation formula

8πhϑ3 1
ρ(ϑ) = [ ]
c 3 ehϑ⁄kT − 1
thus we get,

A21 8πhϑ3
=
B21 c3

This gives the relationship between Einstein’s A and B coefficients.

Significance of Einstein’s A and B Coefficients

1. Einstein coefficients A21 , B21 and B12 are all interrelated. If one is known, by
measurement or calculation, all are known.

2. The stimulated emission coefficient B21 and the absorption coefficient B21 , are
equal, at least for the case of non degenerate energy states.

The rates R st = B21 ρ(ϑ)N2 and R abs = B12 ρ(ϑ)N1 differ depending upon the
population densities N2 and N1 . If N2 is greater than N1 and a radiation field
interacts with the atoms, stimulated emission exceeds absorption and photos will
be added to the field.

If N1 is greater than N2 , absorption exceeds stimulated emission and photons will

be removed from the field.

N2 > N1 leads to increase in ρ(ϑ) and hence, amplification.

N1 > N2 leads to decrease in ρ(ϑ) and hence, attenuation.

For laser to operate, it is necessary that N2 > N1 . This is the condition of

population inversion. Without population inversion laser action cannot occur.
 B21
3. Since is proportional to the reciprocal of the cube of the frequency ϑ, the
A21
higher the frequency (shorter the wavelength) the smaller B21 becomes in
comparison with A21 . Since B21 is related to stimulated emission and A21 is related
to spontaneous emission it would seem that lasers of short wavelength radiation
would be more difficult to build and operate.

4. Although the relations A21 , B21 and B12 were derived based on the condition of
thermal equilibrium, they are valid and hold under any condition. The laser while
operating is hardly an enclosure in thermodynamic equilibrium. Yet A and B
coefficient relationships hold good because they are characteristic of the atom, are
equally valid whether the atom is on the intense radiation field of a laser cavity or
in a hot furnace that can be treated as a blackbody in thermodynamic equilibrium.

So, two important ideas emerge from a review of Einstein’s study of the interaction
of electromagnetic radiation with matter which is useful for the successful
operation of laser.

i) Stimulated emission that leads to light amplification.

ii) Population inversion of atoms in energy levels must be achieved if the

stimulated emission process producing coherent photons is to outrival the
absorption process removing photons.

Population Inversion
When an atomic system is in equilibrium, absorption and
spontaneous emission take place side by side. But, because
N2 < N1 , absorption dominates. However laser operation
requires obtaining stimulated emission exclusively. To achieve a
high percentage of stimulated emission, a majority of the
atoms should be at the higher energy level than at the lower
level. The non equilibrium state in which the population N2 of
the upper energy level exceeds the population N1 of the lower
energy level is known as population inversion.
Consider a system that has three energy states E1 , E2 and E3 .
With the system in equilibrium, the uppermost level E3 is
populated least and lowest level E1 is populated most. The
dotted curve shown in figure represents a normal Boltzmann
distribution. Since the population in three states is such
that N3 < 𝑁2 < N1 , the systems absorbs photons rather than
emitting photons. However if the system is supplied with
external energy such that N2 exceeds N1 , we say that the
system has reached population inversion. Under the population
inversion condition, the stimulated emission can produce a
cascade of light.
Pumping
In order to realize and maintain the state of population inversion,
it is necessary that atoms must be continuously promoted from
the lower level to the higher level. So, energy is supplied by
some means to the laser medium to raise atoms from the lower
level to the excited level, thus maintaining population at the
excited level at a value greater than that of the lower level.
The process by which atoms are raised from the lower level to
the upper level is called pumping.
Methods of pumping
a) Optical pumping
In optical pumping, a light source is used to supply luminous
energy. This energy comes in the form of short flashes of light.
For example in Nd:YAG laser a light source such as helical
flash lamp is used to illuminate the laser medium and the
photons of appropriate frequency excite the atoms to an
uppermost level. Optical pumping is suitable for any laser
medium which is transparent to pump light. Example: Nd:YAG
Laser.

b) Electrical discharge
This method is preferred in gases. In the case of gas lasers a high
voltage (KVm-1) causes the electrons emitted by the cathode to
be accelerated towards the anode. Some of these electrons will
collide on the atoms of the active medium, ionize the medium
and raise it to the excited state, thus producing the population
inversion needed. Example: CO2 laser.
c) Inelastic atom – atom collisions
In this type of pumping excitation by electric discharge still
provides the initial excitation which raises one type of atoms to
their excited state. These atoms then collide in-elastically with
another type of atoms and it is these latter atoms that provide the
population inversion needed for laser emission.
𝐴 + 𝑒 ∗ → 𝐴∗ + 𝑒
𝐴∗ + 𝐵 → 𝐴 + 𝐵∗
Example: He-Ne laser
d) Direct conversion
In the case of semiconductor lasers it is not the atoms that are
excited. It is the current carriers namely electrons and holes are
excited and a population inversion is achieved in the junction
region. The electrons recombine with holes in the junction
regions producing laser light. Thus in semiconductor lasers, a
direct conversion of electrical energy into light energy takes
place.

3.6.1 Active Medium

An active medium is a medium, which when
excited reaches the state of population inversion, and eventually
causes light amplification. The active medium may be solid, a
liquid or a gas.
Pumping schemes
3.6.2 Two level pumping scheme
It seems that the simple and straight forward method to achieve
population inversion is to pump and maintain excess of atoms
into the excited state by applying intense radiation. But basically
a two level pumping scheme is not suitable for attaining
population inversion.
This is due to two basic reasons.
1. It is difficult to keep a collection of atoms in their excited
state until they are stimulated to emit photon.
2. The atoms that happen to be in their ground state will undergo
absorption and will thus remove photons from the beam as it
builds up.

3.6.3 Three level pumping scheme

In the three level pumping scheme the atoms originally in the

ground state are pumped into the excited state by some external
source of energy (an electric pulse or a flash of light). The
excited atoms decay by spontaneous emission very rapidly into a
lower excited which is a metastable state.
Atoms stay in metastable state for about 10−6 to 10−3 sec.
Therefore it is possible for a large number of atoms to
accumulate at a metastable sate. In the metastable state,
population can exceed the population of a lower level and lead
to the state of population inversion. If the metastable state does
not exist, there could be no population inversion, no stimulated
emission and hence no laser operation. This system solves the
first problem arose with the two level laser i.e., placing the
collection of atoms in their excited states. But it does not solve
the second problem i.e. any atom in the ground state will absorb
the lasing transition and remove photons from the beam. Three
level scheme requires high pump powers and can produce the
light only in pulses.
3.6.4 Four level pumping scheme
Four level laser relieves the difficulty. The ground state atoms
are pumped to the excited state and decay rapidly to the
metastable state as in the three level laser. The lasing transition
proceeds from the metastable state (𝐸3 ) to 𝐸2 a short lived state
from where the atoms decay rapidly to the ground state. The
atoms in the ground state cannot absorb at the energy of the
lasing transition. Four level laser requires less pumping energy
than three level laser and can operate in a continuous mode.
Principle of Laser
The outstanding feature of this process is the multiplication of
photons. For one photon hitting an excited atom, there are two
photons emerging. The two photons are in phase and travel
along the same direction. These two photons stimulate two
excited atoms in their path and produce four photons which are
in phase and travel along the same direction. These four photons
can in turn stimulate four excited atoms and generate eight
photons and so on.
Components required for laser action
A laser requires three components for operation
1. Energy source 2. Active medium 3. Optical cavity
The energy source that will raise the system to an excited state.
Next there is an active medium that, when excited, achieves
population inversion and subsequently lasers. The active
medium may be solid, a liquid or a gas. Third in most cases
there is an optical cavity that provides the feedback necessary
for laser oscillation. The optical cavity is formed by two mirrors
facing each other. One of the mirrors is coated to 100%
reflectance; the other mirror is partially transparent to let some
of the radiation pass through.

Threshold Gain Coefficient

If I0 is the initial intensity of light entering through a light

transmitting (e.g glass) solid rod (in the direction of length), then
after travelling L distance through it, the final intensity will be
I1 .
then I1 = I0 exp(−αL)
α is the loss coefficient
but instead of the glass rod if there is a solid rod which can
supply photons at each and every point of travel instead of
absorption, that it is called as amplifying medium. For this,
population inversion should be maintained throughout this
amplifying medium.
i. e N2 > N1 throughout the active medium
In this condition ,
If I0 is the initial intensity (minimum needed to start laser
amplification) of light entering through the active medium (in
the direction of length), then after travelling L distance through
it, the final intensity will be I1 .
I1 = I0 exp(kL)
k − the gain coefficient
if γ is the coefficient of practical losses
then I1 = I0 exp[(k − γ)L]
after reflecting at mirror M2 , I1 = I0 R 2 exp[(k − γ)L]
just before reaching M1 again, I1 = I0 R 2 exp[2(k − γ)L]
after refelcting from M1 , I1 = I0 R1 R 2 exp[2(k − γ)L]
To sustain the laser oscillations, the minimum intensity
amplified should be equal to the initial intensity I0 .
final amplified intensity
initial intensity = {
in one round trip
so I0 = I0 R1 R 2 exp[2(k th − γ)L]
k th − threshold gain coefficient
I0 = I0 R1 R 2 exp[2(k th − γ)L]
 1 = R1 R 2 exp[2(k th − γ)L]
ln 1 = ln R1 R 2 exp[2(k th − γ)L]
1
2k th L = 2γL + ln ( )
R1 R 2
1 1
Threshold gain coefficient, k th = γ + ln ( )
2L R1 R 2
γ − practical or volume losses
1 1
ln ( )} − useful laser output
2L R1 R 2

Nd:YAG Laser
In Nd : YAG laser the active element is Yittrium Aluminium
Garnet (YAG – Y3Al5O12).Yittrium ions (Y3+) are replaced by
Neodymium ions (Nd3+). Neodymium atoms are pumped by a
krypton flash lamp, which has krypton at high pressure or a
xenon lamp, which has xenon at moderate pressures. Nd : YAG
is shaped into a cylinder with parallel transparent sides and
reflectors at both ends.
The pumping of electrons and Infra-red laser (wavelength 1.06
µm) transitions are as shown in the energy level diagram
(shown below).
He-Ne Laser
Helium – Neon laser is an atomic laser. It is a four level laser.
Active medium is a mixture of 10 parts of Helium and one part
of Neon. Neon atoms are active centers. Neon atoms have
energy levels suitable for laser transitions; the Helium atoms
help efficient excitation of Neon atoms.
When the electrical power is on, electrons that come from
cathode and move towards anode will collide with the gas
atoms and ionize them. Since electrons have a smaller mass
they acquire a higher velocity. The electrons transfer their
kinetic energy to gas atoms through collisions. Helium atoms
are much more readily excited by electrons impact because
they are with light weight.
Electrons in Helium atoms are excited to 19.81 eV and 20.61 eV
energy levels from ground level. These two levels are meta-
stable levels; so the excited electrons stay there for longer
time. These excited helium atoms transfer these kinetic
energies to Neon atoms through collisions. The Neon atoms
have energy levels near to 19.81 eV and 20.61 eV; so the
energy is easily transferred from Helium atoms to Neon atoms
easily. This is resonant transfer of energy. The possible laser
transitions are shown in the diagram, with the wavelength
values.

CO2 Laser
Longitudinal/Temporal Coherence:
In this case all the optical waves inside the laser cavity are in the
same phase, at each and every point in the direction parallel to
the laser light. Or it can be said in the other way that is, for all
the waves the crust positions will meet crusts of all other waves
and similarly for troughs too.
This is said as Longitudinal/Temporal coherence.
If we check from one of the two mirrors in the cavity, we can
find that the longitudinal incoherence will be increasing. So
practically this is solved by reducing the distance between the
two mirrors. The distance till which the longitudinal incoherence
is accepted is called as length of longitudinal coherence.
The longitudinal incoherence is introduced because of the
emission of light rays from different energy levels that are
unwanted.

The estimation of longitudinal coherence is important in

designing the laser cavity.
Transverse/Spatial Coherence:
In this case all the optical waves differ in their direction. Still
due to diverging characteristics, light those start from sources
𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 (as shown in the diagram) will be coherent when they
reach points between A and B at a distance r.
This is said as Transverse/Spatial Coherence.
The estimation of transverse coherence is important in designing
the size of active centers inside the laser cavity.
Problem 1
1. The He-Ne system is capable of lasing at several different IR
wavelengths, the prominent one being 3.3913 µm. Determine
the energy difference (in eV) between upper and lower levels
for this wavelength.
Given data:
Wavelength, λ = 3.3913 µm
Solution

−34
6.63 × 10−34
ℎ = 6.63 × 10 𝐽. 𝑆𝑒𝑐 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑒𝑉. 𝑆𝑒𝑐
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34 −15 𝑒𝑉. 𝑆𝑒𝑐
ℎ= 𝑒𝑉. 𝑆𝑒𝑐 = 4.1437 × 10
1.6 × 10−19
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝐸

ℎ𝑐 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108 12.4311 × 10−1

∆𝐸 = = =
λ 3.3913 × 10−6 3.3913
E = 3.6656 𝑒𝑉
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Problem 2
2. Find the ratio of population of the two states in He-Ne laser
that produces light of wavelength 6328 Aº at 27 º C.
Given data:
Wavelength, λ = 6328 Aº
Temperature, T = 27 º C = 300 K
Solution
N2
= e−(E2−E1)⁄kT = e−(∆𝐸 )⁄kT
N1
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝐸
6.63 × 10 −34
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec (or) eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19
eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108 12.4311 × 103
∆E = = = =
λ 6328 × 10−10 6328
∆E = 1.9644 eV
−23
1.38 × 10
k = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽⁄𝐾 = 𝑒𝑉 ⁄𝐾 =
1.6 × 10−19
= 8.625 × 10−5 𝑒𝑉⁄𝐾
(∆𝐸 ) 1.9644 1.9644 × 103
= = = 75.9188
kT 8.625 × 10−5 × 300 8.625 × 3
N2
= e−(E2−E1)⁄kT = e−75.9188 = 1.1 × 10−33
N1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 3
3. The CO2 laser is one of the most powerful lasers. The energy
difference between the two levels is 0.117 eV. Determine the
frequency and wavelength of radiation.
Given data:
Energy interval, ∆𝐸 = 0.117 eV
Solution
6.63 × 10 −34
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec (or) eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19
eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108
∆E = 0.117 = =
λ λ
12.4311 × 10−7
λ= = 106.2487 × 10−7
0.117
λ = 10.6249 × 10−6 𝑚 = 10.6249 µ𝑚
𝑐 3 × 108
𝜗= = −6
= 0.2823 × 1014
λ 10.6249 × 10
ϑ = 2.823 × 1013 Hz
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 4
4. A He-Ne laser produces and output power of 5 mW. If it
emits light of wavelength 632.8 nm, calculate the number of
photons emitted by the laser in one second.
Given data:
Output power, P = 5 mW
Wavelength, λ = 632.8 nm
Solution
hc 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
Energy of one photon, hϑ = =
λ 632.8 × 10−9
hϑ = 0.0314 × 10−17 𝐽
output power
Number of photons emitted =
energy of one photon
output power = 5mW = 5 × 10−3 J⁄Sec
5 × 10−3
Number of photons emitted =
0.0314 × 10−17
Number of photons emitted per second} = 159.2357 × 1014
Problem 5
5. A transition between the energy level E2 and E1 produces a
light of wavelength 632.8 nm, calculate the energy of the
emitted photons.
Given data:
Wavelength, λ = 632.8 nm
Solution
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝐸
6.63 × 10−34
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec; (or) = eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19
eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108 12.4311 × 102
∆E = = = =
λ 632.8 × 10−9 632.8
Energy of the emitted photons = 1.9644 eV
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 6
6. A system has three energy levels E1 , E2 and E3 . The energy
levels E1 and E2 at 0.4 eV and 1.4 eV respectively. If the lasing
action takes place from the energy level E3 to E2 , and emits a
light of wavelength 1.15 µm, find the value of E3 .
Given data:
The value of first energy level, E1 = 0.4 eV
Value of second energy level, E2 = 1.4 eV
Wavelength, λ = 1.15 µm

Solution
−34
6.63 × 10
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec; (or) = eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19
eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108 12.4311 × 10−1
∆E = = = =
λ 1.15 × 10−6 1.15
Energy of the emitted photons = 1.0809 eV
E3 − E2 = 1.0809 eV
E2 = 1.4 eV
 so E3 = 1.0809 + 1.4 = 2.4809 eV
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 7
7. A laser transition takes place from an energy level at 3.2 eV
to another level at 1.6 eV. Calculate the wavelength of the laser
beam emitted.
Given data:
The value of first energy level, E1 = 3.2 eV
Value of second energy level, E2 = 1.6 eV
Solution
E2 − E1 = 3.2 − 1.6 = 1.6 eV
−34
6.63 × 10
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec; (or) = eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19 eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108
λ= = = 7.7694 × 10−7 m
E 1.6
The wavelength of the laser beam = 7.7694 × 10−7 m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 8
8. The band gap of GaAs is 1.42 eV. What is the wavelength of
the laser beam emitted by a GaAs diode laser?
Given data:
Band gap of GaAs = 1.42 eV
Solution
−34
6.63 × 10
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J. Sec; (or) = eV. Sec
1.6 × 10−19
6.63 × 10−34
h= −19 eV. Sec = 4.1437 × 10−15 eV. Sec
1.6 × 10
hc 4.1437 × 10−15 × 3 × 108
λ= = = 8.7542 × 10−7 m
E 1.42
The wavelength of the laser beam = 8.7542 × 10−7 m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 9
9. Calculate the relative population of the energy levels
first and second at 300K?
Given data:
Temperature, T = 300 K
Wavelength, λ = 500 nm
Solution
From Maxwell and Boltzmann law, the relative population is given
by
N2
= e−(E2−E1)⁄kT = e−(∆𝐸 )⁄kT
N1
N2
= e−(E2−E1)⁄kT = e−ℎϑ⁄kT = e−(ℎc⁄ λkT)
N1
ℎc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
= = 96.08
λkT 500 × 10−9 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
1 1 1
e−(96.08) = = =
e(96.08) 2.71896.08 5.2806 × 1041
so the relative population among two energy levels
= 5.2806 × 1041
Problem 10
10. Examine the possibity of stimulated emission at 300K and λ
= 600 nm?
Given data:
Temperature, T = 300 K
Wavelength, λ = 600 nm
Solution
Rate of Stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜗)
Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2
Total rate of emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜗)

Rate of Stimulated emission

=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜗)
=
𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝜌(𝜗)

B21 N2 𝜌(𝜗)
= ( )
B21 N2 𝐴21 + 𝜌(𝜗)
𝐵21
 𝜌(𝜗) 1 1
= ( )=( )=
𝜌(𝜗) 𝐴21 𝐴21
+1 +1
𝐵21 𝜌(𝜗) 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜗)
e−ℎϑ⁄kT
1 1
( ) = ( ℎϑ⁄kT ) =
eℎϑ⁄kT −1+1 e
ℎϑ ℎc
= =
kT λkT
ℎc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
= = 80.0666
λkT 600 × 10−9 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
1 1 1
( 80.0666 ) = ( )=( )=
e 2.718(80.0666) 5.8732 × 1034
= 1.7026 × 10−35
Rate of Stimulated emission
= 1.7026 × 10−35
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 11
11. Calculate the efficiency of a He-Ne laser; if it produces an
output power of 5 mW and if it is operated with a current of 10
mA at 3 kV?
Given data:
Output power, P = 5 mW = 5 × 10−3 W
Current, I = 10 mA = 10 × 10−3 A
Voltage, V = 3 kV = 3 × 103 V
Solution
Output power
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
5 × 10−3
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% = 0.0167%
10 × 10−3 × 3 × 103
The efficiency of a He − Ne laser = 0.0167%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 12
12. A laser beam emits an output power of 1 mW. If it is focused
as a spot having a diameter of 1 µm, calculate the intensity of
the laser beam.
Given data:
Output power, P = 1 mW = 1 × 10−3 W
Diameter = 1µm
Radius = 0.5µm
Solution
power
Intensity of laser = =
area of cross section
1 × 10−3
= 1.2738 × 109 Wm−2
π × (0.5 × 10 )
−6 2

So, Intensity of laser = 1.2738 × 109 Wm−2

Problem 13
A laser of wavelength 632.8 nm is made to fall on a wall that
lies at a distance of 5 m and if it produces a spot having a
diameter of 1 mm, calculate the angular spread.
Given data:
Wavelength, λ = 632.8 nm
Distance, D = 5 m
Diameter, d = 1 mm
Solution
𝜆 632.8 nm
Angular spread, ∆𝜃 = = = 6.328 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝑑 1 mm

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem - Longitudinal (temporal) coherence
length
What is the temporal coherence length 𝑙𝑐 of a mercury vapor
lamp emitting in the green portion of the spectrum at a
wavelength of 546.1 nm with a bandwidth ∆λ = 5.96 ×
10−13 𝑚.
Given data:
Wavelength, λ = 546.1 nm
Bandwidth, ∆λ = 5.96 × 10−13 𝑚
Formula to be used
λ2
𝑙𝑐 =
∆λ
Solution
λ2 (546.1 × 10−9 )2
𝑙𝑐 = = = 0.5 𝑚
∆λ 5.96 × 10−13
So, the longitudinal (temporal) coherence length is 0.5 𝑚.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Problem - spatial (transverse) coherence

length
Laser produced plasma consisting of 100 µm diameter ball
radiates very strongly at a wavelength of 10 nm. At a distance
of 0.5 m from the source, what is the spatial (transverse)
coherence resulting from light emitted from opposite sides of
the plasma?
Given data:
Distance between point sources, s = 100 µm
Wavelength, λ = 10 nm
Distance between source to the coherent points, r = 0.5 m
Formula to be used
𝑟λ
𝑙𝑡 =
𝑠
Solution
𝑟λ 0.5 × 10 × 10−10
𝑙𝑡 = = = 5µm
𝑠 100 × 10−6
At a distance of 0.5 m from the source, the spatial (transverse)
coherence length is 5µm.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Laser Cutting
Vaporizing the material as quickly as possible -

Producing narrow heat affected zone –

- Minimum distortion of work piece

Advantages:
➢ minimal amount of mechanical distortion

and thermal damage.

➢ no contamination

➢ cutting in two and three dimensions

- complicated profiles also

➢ easy automation

➢ high production rates

Paper, cloth, plywood, glass, ceramics, sheet-metal and aerospace (space craft
fabrication) industries.

Pulsed lasers are used where heat produced in lateral direction will be a problem
(Example: for Paper cutting). Using continuous wave lasers, we cannot control the
heat produced in the lateral directions.

Laser welding
Advantages:
1. No physical contact

2. Localized heating

3. Dissimilar metals also can be welded

 4. Controlled atmosphere

5. Welding of inaccessible regions

example: curved contours under the body of automobiles

6. Welding of sheets of films of plastic materials.

Laser welding is normally carried out using a shielding gas. This is an inert gas,
usually argon or helium, which is applied to the welding are via a nozzle.

The main purpose of shielding gas is to cover the weld are and eliminate oxidation.
It also helps to remove any metal vapour that may be formed.

One typical example of laser welding is the welding of curved contours under the
body of automobiles.

The automobile is made to move while computer controlled beam deflectors

control the laser beam which performs the welding. A CO 2 laser can also weld
sheets of films of plastic materials.

Laser Drilling

➢ Intense evaporation of materials

 ➢ Powerful light pulses of 10-4 to 10-3 sec duration

➢ series of pulses – minimize – energy diffusion

laterally.

So controlled size and shape.

Advantages:
✓ non contact process – no need of physical drill bit

✓ no wear and broken drills

✓ no physical contact – faster process

✓ high precision in any direction

✓ drilling of hard materials is also possible

examples: hole: 4.7 mm dia. And 2 mm deep in diamond

die – in 15 min., by conventional, 24 hours

✓ high speeds, small holes in deformable materials

examples: perforation in plastic, nozzles and nylon buttons

and aircraft engine turbine blade.

Radiation Energy - E =∈ 𝜎𝑇 4
∈ −emissivity
σ = 5.670367(13)×10−8 W m−2 K−4
T − temperature