Computer organization

and Architecture
UNIT -0

ABHAY KUMAR SINGH 5/12/23 UNIT 0

  Example : Hard Disk Drive (HDD),Solid State Drive
(SSD) ,Op cal drives (e.g., CD/DVD drives)
 computer is a programmable machine processing data
through hardware and so ware, using binary code and
interac ng via input, output, and networks. Output Devices:

 Present or convey processed informa on from a

computer system to the user, such as through displays,
printers, or speakers.

It provides in-depth knowledge of internal working, structuring,

and implementa on of a computer system.

 Concerned with how hardware components are connected

to form a computer system.
 Acts as the interface between hardware and so ware.
 Helps understand the func onali es of a system.
Input Devices:  Viewed by programmers in terms of instruc ons,
addressing modes, and registers.
 It accepts instruc ons and data from outside of the world  Considered first in the design of a computer system.
 Keyboard,Mouse,touchpad, touchscreen  Deals with high-level design issues.
 Involves logic, including instruc on sets, addressing modes,
CPU (Central Processing Unit): data types, and cache op miza on.
 Executes instruc ons and manages opera ons.

 It has two parts : 1.control unit 2. Arithme c logic Unit

 Concerned with the structure and behavior of a computer
 Control Unit: Manages the execu on of instruc ons, system as seen by the user.
controls data flow, and coordinates internal opera ons  Deals with the components and their connec ons in a
within a computer's central processing unit (CPU). system.
 Tells how all units in the system are arranged and
 Arithme c Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithme c and logic
interconnected.
opera ons on binary data within a computer's central
processing unit (CPU).  Expresses the realiza on of architecture.
 Done on the basis of architecture.
Storage UNIT  Deals with low-level design issues.
 Stores data and instruc ons temporarily (RAM) or  Involves physical components, including circuit design,
adders, signals, and peripherals.
permanently (storage devices).

 It is also divided into two parts

 Primary Memory: It is a base-2 numerical system using only 0s and 1s.

 Temporary and vola le storage for ac vely used data
and instruc ons.  One byte has 8 bits (2^3), providing 256 possible
 RAM (Random Access Memory),ROM (Read-Only combina ons (2^8).
Memory),Cache memory

 Secondary Memory:

 Permanent and non-vola le storage for long-term

data reten on.
A register is a small, fast storage loca on within the CPU  Encoder Converts digital data to an analog signal.
used for quick data access and manipula on during  Decoder Converts an analog signal to digital data.
program execu on.  Mul plexer selects one from many.

Register Symbol Number of bits Func on

Data register DR 16 Holds memory operand

Address register AR 12 Holds address for the memory

Accumulator AC 16 Processor register

Instruc on register IR 16 Holds instruc on code

Program counter PC 12 Holds address of instruc on

Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data

Input register INPR 8 Carries input character

Output register OUTR 8 Carries output character

Fetch:
 The Program Counter (PC) holds the address of the next
instruc on.
 The Control Unit fetches the instruc on from the memory Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital circuits,
loca on pointed to by the PC. and they perform logical opera ons on one or more binary
 The fetched instruc on is stored in the Instruc on Register inputs to produce a binary output. Here are some common
(IR). types of logic gates:

Decode: AND Gate:

 The Control Unit interprets the instruc on in the IR, Output is true (1) only if all inputs are true (1).
determining the opera on to be performed.
Symbol: ∧
Execute:
Truth Table:
 The Control Unit coordinates with the ALU and other A | B | Output
components to execute the instruc on.
 Data may be fetched from memory into registers, 0 | 0 |0
processed by the ALU,
0 | 1 |0
Store 1 | 0 |0
 result stored back in memory or registers. 1 | 1 |1
OR Gate: XOR Gate (Exclusive OR):
Output is true (1) if at least one input is true (1). Output is true (1) if inputs are different.
Symbol: ∨ Symbol: A ⊕ B or (A ∨ B) ∧ ¬(A ∧ B)
Truth Table: Truth Table:
A | B | Output A | B | Output
0 | 0 |0 0 | 0 | 0
0 | 1 |1 0 | 1 |1
1 | 0 |1 1 | 0 |1
1 | 1 |1 1 | 1 |0
NOT Gate:

Output is the opposite (complement) of the input. Diagram of the all logic gates
Symbol: ¬ or A

Truth Table:

A | Output

0 | 1

1 | 0

NAND Gate:
Output is false (0) only if all inputs are true (1).

Symbol: A ⊼ B or ¬(A ∧ B)

Truth Table:

A | B | Output

0 | 0 |1

0 | 1 |1

1 | 0 |1

1 | 1 |0

NOR Gate:
Output is false (0) if at least one input is true (1).

Symbol: A ⊽ B or ¬(A ∨ B)

Truth Table:

A | B | Output

0 | 0 |1

0 | 1 |0

1 | 0 |0

1 | 1 |0