CVE302: Civil Engineering Materials

1 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS AND MIXTURES

1.1 Bituminous Materials

The term bituminous material is generally used to denote substances in which bitumen is
present or from which it can be derived.

Bitumen is defined as an amorphous, black or dark-coloured, (solid, semi-solid, or viscous)

cementitious substance, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, and
soluble in carbon disulfide. For civil engineering applications, bituminous materials include
primarily bitumen and tars. Bitumen may occur in nature (natural asphalts) or may be
obtained from petroleum processing (petroleum bitumen).

Natural asphalt is found in nature, either as lake (pit) or rock asphalt:

• Lake asphalt. It is formed when crude oil seeps to the surface of the earth and lighter
fractions (volatile materials) are driven off by the action of sun and wind. Large deposits of
lake asphalt exist in Trinidad and Venezuela.
• Rock asphalt. It occurs in more than one form. It may be asphalt that is impregnated in
porous rocks, or it may be asphalt that is hardened into rock-like forms.

Manufactured bitumen is more uniform in quality than natural asphalt. It is the residue (waste
product) of crude-oil distillation. It is used alone or in combination with other materials to
form bitumen cutbacks and emulsions.
Tars do not occur in nature and are obtained as condensates in the processing of coal,
petroleum, oil-shale, wood or other organic materials. Coal-gas tar is a by-product of coke
production, and water-gas tar is distilled from tar vapours. Both are produced, condensed, and
collected during the production of illuminating gas and are used in paving tar. Water-gas tar
combines with coal-gas tar as a flux. The two types of paving tar are road tar (RT) and road-
tar cutback (RTCB)

Pitch is formed when a tar is partially distilled so that the volatile constituents have
evaporated off from it.

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1.1.1 Types of bituminous materials used in pavement construction

Bitumen is a bituminous material that has been specially refined as to quality and consistency
for direct use in the construction of asphalt pavements. Bitumen has to be heated to an
appropriate high temperature in order to be fluid enough to be mixed and placed.

Cutback bitumen is liquid bitumen that is a blend of asphalt and petroleum solvents (such as
gasoline and kerosine). Cutback bitumen can be mixed and placed with little or no
application of heat. After a cutback bitumen is applied and exposed to the atmosphere, the
solvent will gradually evaporate, leaving the bitumen to perform its function as a binder.

Types and grades of cutback bitumen

Cutback bitumen is classified into three main types on the basis of the relative speed of
evaporation of the solvents in them.

A Rapid-Curing (RC) cutback bitumen is composed of bitumen and a solvent of a volatility

similar to that of naphtha or gasoline, which evaporates at a fast speed.

A Medium-Curing (MC) cutback bitumen contains a solvent of volatility similar to that of

kerosine, which evaporates at a medium speed.

A Slow-Curing (SC) cutback bitumen contains an oil of relatively low volatility.

Within each type, cutback bitumens are graded by kinematic viscosity at 60 ˚C. It is
designated by the type followed by the lower limit of the kinematic viscosity at 60 ˚C in units
of centi-stokes (cSt). The upper limit for the viscosity is twice its lower limit. For example,
an “RC-70” designates a rapid- curing cutback asphalt with a kinematic viscosity at 60 ˚C
ranging between 70 and 140 cSt, while an “SC-800” designates a slow-curing cutback
bitumen with a viscosity ranging between 800 and 1600 cSt.

Emulsified bitumen (or bitumen emulsion) is an emulsion of bitumen and water that contains
a small amount of emulsifying agent. In normal emulsified bitumen, the bitumen is in the
form of minute globules in suspension in water. Emulsified bitumen can be mixed and
applied without any application of heat. After a bitumen emulsion is applied, sufficient time
is required for the emulsion to break and the water to evaporate to leave the bitumen to
perform its function as a binder. In inverted emulsified bitumen, minute globules of water are

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in suspension in liquid bitumen, which is usually a cutback bitumen. Inverted bitumen

emulsions are seldom used in pavement applications.

Types and grades of emulsified bitumen

Emulsified bitumen (or bitumen emulsion) is divided into three major kinds, namely anionic,
cationic and nonionic, on the basis of the electrical charges of the asphalt particles in the
emulsion. An anionic bitumen emulsion has negatively-charged bitumen particles, and is
usually more suitable for use with calcareous aggregates, which tend to have positive surface
charges.

A cationic bitumen emulsion has positively charged bitumen particles, and is usually more
suitable for use with siliceous aggregates, which tend to have negative surface charges.

A nonionic bitumen emulsion contains bitumen particles that are electrically neutral.
Nonionic bitumen emulsions are not used in pavement applications.

Bitumen emulsions are further classified into three main types on the basis of how quickly
the suspended bitumen particles revert to bitumen. The three types are Rapid-setting (RS),
Medium-Setting (MS) and Slow-Setting (SS).

An RS emulsion is designed to demulsify (to break away from the emulsion form such that
bitumen particles are no longer in suspension) upon contact with an aggregate, and thus has
little or no ability to mix with an aggregate. It is best used in spraying applications where
mixing is not required but fast setting is desirable. An MS emulsion is designed to have good
mixing characteristics with coarse aggregates and to demulsify after proper mixing. It is
suitable for applications where mixing with coarse aggregate is required. An SS emulsion is
designed to be very stable in the emulsion form, and is suitable for use where good flowing
characteristics are desired or where mixing with fine aggregates is required. The three types
of cationic bitumen emulsions are denoted as CRS, CMS and CSS. The absence of the letter
“C” in front of the emulsion type denotes an anionic type.

Two other standard types of anionic bitumen emulsions available are High-Float Rapid
Setting (HFRS) and High-Float Medium Setting (HFMS). This type of bitumen emulsion
contains bitumen which has a Bingham plastic characteristic (resistant to flow at low stress
level). This flow property of the bitumen permits a thicker film coating on an aggregate
without danger of runoff.

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Within each type, bitumen emulsions are graded by the viscosity of the emulsion and the
hardness of the bitumen. The lower viscosity grade is designated by a number “1” and the
higher viscosity grade is designated by a number “2,” which is placed after the emulsion type.
A letter “h” that follows the number “1” or “2” designates that harder bitumen is used. For
example, an “RS-1” designates a rapid-setting anionic type with a relatively low viscosity.
An “HFMS-2h” designates a high-float medium setting anionic type having a relatively
higher viscosity and containing hard base asphalt. A “CSS-1h” designates a slow-setting
cationic type having a relatively lower viscosity and containing hard base bitumen.

1.1.2 Conventional tests on bitumen and their significance

Penetration Test

The penetration test is one of the oldest and most commonly used tests on bitumen or
residues from distillation of bitumen cutbacks or emulsions. It is an empirical test that
measures the consistency (hardness) of bitumen at a specified test condition. In the standard
test condition, a standard needle of a total load of 100 g is applied to the surface of an asphalt
sample at a temperature of 25 ˚C for 5 seconds. The amount of penetration of the needle at
the end of 5 seconds is measured in units of 0.1 mm (or penetration unit). A softer bitumen
will have a higher penetration, while a harder bitumen will have a lower penetration. The
penetration test can be used to designate grades of bitumen, and to measure changes in
hardness due to age hardening or changes in temperature.

Flash Point Test

The flash point test determines the temperature to which bitumen can be safely heated in the
presence of an open flame. The test is performed by heating the bitumen sample in an open
cup at a specified rate and determining the temperature at which a small flame passing over
the surface of the cup will cause the vapours from the asphalt sample temporarily to ignite or
flash. The commonly used flash point test methods include (1) the Cleveland Open Cup
(ASTM D92) and (2) Tag Open Cup (ASTM D1310). The Cleveland Open-Cup method is
used on bitumen or asphalts with relatively higher flash points, while the Tag Open-Cup
method is used on cutback bitumen or asphalts with flash points of less than 79 ˚C.

Minimum flash point requirements are included in the specifications for bitumen for safety
reasons. Flash point tests can also be used to detect contaminating materials such as gasoline
or kerosene in bitumen. Contamination of bitumen by such materials can be indicated by a

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substantial drop in flash point. When the flash point test is used to detect contaminating
materials, the Pensky-Martens Closed Tester method (ASTM D93), which tends to give more
indicative results, is normally used. In recent years, the flash point test results have been
related to the hardening potential of bitumen. A bitumen with a high flash point is more likely
to have a lower hardening potential in the field.

Solubility Test

The bitumen content of a bituminous material is measured by means of its solubility in

carbon disulfide. In the standard test for bitumen content (ASTM D4), a small sample of
about 2 g of the bitumen is dissolved in 100 ml of carbon disulfide and the solution is filtered
through a filtering mat in a filtering crucible. The material retained on the filter is then dried
and weighed, and used to calculate the bitumen content as a percentage of the weight of the
original bitumen. Due to the extreme flammability of carbon disulfide, solubility in
trichloroethylene, rather than solubility in carbon disulfide, is usually used in bitumen
specifications. The solubility test is used to detect contamination in bitumen. Specifications
for bitumen normally require a minimum solubility in trichloroethylene of 99.0 percent.
Unfortunately, trichloroethylene has been identified as a carcinogen and contributing to the
depletion of the earth’s ozone layer. The use of trichloroethylene will most likely be banned
in the near future. There is a need to use a less hazardous and non-chlorinated solvent for this
purpose. Results of several investigations have indicated that the solvent n-Propyl Bromide
appears to be a feasible alternative to trichloroethylene for use in this application [Collins-
Garcia et al, 2000].

Ductility Test

The ductility test measures the distance a standard bitumen sample will stretch without
breaking under a standard testing condition (5 cm/min at 25 ˚C). It is generally considered
that a bitumen with a very low ductility will have poor adhesive properties and thus poor
performance in service. Specifications for asphalt cements normally contain requirements for
minimum ductility.

Viscosity Tests

The viscosity test measures the viscosity of bitumen. Both the viscosity test and the
penetration test measure the consistency of bitumen at some specified temperatures and are
used to designate grades of bitumen. The advantage of using the viscosity test as compared

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with the penetration test is that the viscosity test measures a fundamental physical property
rather than an empirical value.

Viscosity is defined as the ratio between the applied shear stress and induced shear rate of a
fluid. The relationship between shear stress, shear rate and viscosity can be expressed as:

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

When shear rate is expressed in units of 1/sec. and shear stress in units of Pascal, viscosity
will be in units of Pascal-seconds. One Pascal-second is equal to 10 Poises. The lower the
viscosity of a bitumen, the faster the asphalt will flow under the same stress.

For a Newtonian fluid, the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is linear, and thus
the viscosity is constant at different shear rates or shear stress. However, for a non-Newtonian
fluid, the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is not linear, and thus the apparent
viscosity will change as the shear rate or shear stress changes. Bitumen tends to behave as
slightly non-Newtonian fluids, especially at lower temperatures. When different methods are
used to measure the viscosity of bitumen, the test results might be significantly different,
since the different methods might be measuring the viscosity at different shear rates. It is thus
very important to indicate the test method used when viscosity results are presented.

The most commonly used viscosity test on bitumen is the Absolute Viscosity Test by
Vacuum Capillary Viscometer (ASTM D2171). The standard test temperature is 60 ˚C. The
absolute viscosity test measures the viscosity in units of Poise. When the viscosity of bitumen
at a higher temperature (such as 135 ˚C) is to be determined, the most commonly-used test is
the Kinematic Viscosity Test (ASTM D2170), which measures the kinematic viscosity in
units of Stokes or centi-Stokes. Kinematic viscosity is defined as:

𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

When viscosity is in units of Poise and density in units of g/cm3, the kinematic viscosity will
be in units of Stokes. To convert from kinematic viscosity (in units of Stokes) to absolute
viscosity (in units of Poises), one simply multiplies the number of Stokes by the density in
units of g/cm3.

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However, due to the fact that bitumen might be non-Newtonian and that the kinematic
viscosity test and the absolute viscosity test are run at different shear rates, conversion by this
method will not produce accurate results and can only serve as a rough estimation. The
standard temperature for the kinematic test on bitumen is 135 ˚C. The viscosity at 135 ˚C
approximately represents the viscosity of the bitumen during mixing and placement of a hot
mix.

Thin Film Oven and Rolling Thin Film Oven Tests

When bitumen is used in the production of asphalt concrete, it has to be heated to an elevated
temperature and mixed with a heated aggregate. The hot asphalt mixture is then hauled to the
job site, placed and compacted. By the time the compacted asphalt concrete cools down to the
normal pavement temperature, significant hardening of the asphalt binder has already taken
place. The properties of the bitumen in service are significantly different from those of the
original bitumen.

Since the performance of the asphalt concrete in service depends on the properties of the
hardened bitumen in service rather than the properties of the original bitumen, the properties
of the hardened bitumen in service need to be determined and controlled.

The Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) procedure (ASTM D1754) was developed to simulate the
effects of heating in a hot-mix plant operation on bitumen. In the standard TFOT procedure,
the bitumen sample is poured into a flat-bottomed pan to a depth of about 1/8 in. (3.2 mm).
The pan with the bitumen sample in it is then placed on a rotating shelf in an oven and kept at
a temperature of 163 ˚C for five hours. The properties of the bitumen before and after the
TFOT procedure are measured to determine the change in properties that might be expected
after a hot-mix plant operation.

The Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT) procedure (ASTM D2872) was developed for the
same purpose as the TFOT and designed to produce essentially the same effect as the TFOT
procedure on bitumen. The advantages of the RTFOT over the TFOT are that (1) a larger
number of samples can be tested at the same time, and (2) less time is required to perform the
test. In the standard RTFOT procedure, the bitumen sample is placed in a specially designed
bottle, which is then placed on its side on a rotating shelf, in an oven kept at 163 ˚C, and
rolled continuously for 85 minutes. Once during each rotation, the opening of the bottle

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passes an air jet, which provides fresh air to the asphalt in the bottle for increased oxidation
rate.

While the RTFOT and TFOT have generally worked well on pure bitumen, problems were
encountered when modified bitumen were used. Bitumen modified with crumb rubber and
SBR tended to spill out from the RTFOT bottles during the RTFOT process. When TFOT
was used on these modified binders, a thin skin tended to form on the surface of the modified
bitumen, which reduced the homogeneity and the aging of the samples. A feasible alternative
to the RTFOT and TFOT for use on modified bitumen appears to be the modified rotavapor
aging procedure. The rotavapor apparatus, which was originally used for recovery of asphalt
from solution (ASTM D5404), was modified to work as an aging device for bitumen. The
binder to be aged is placed in a rotating flask, which is immersed in a temperature-controlled
oil bath. An air pump is used to provide a controlled air flow to the flask. Different aging
effects can be produced by using different combinations of process temperature, process
duration and sample size.

Using a process temperature of 163°C, process duration of 165 minutes and a sample size of
200 g has been found to produce aging severity similar to that of the RTFOT.

Ring & Ball Softening Point Test

The ring and ball softening point test measures the temperature at which bitumen reaches a
certain softness. When the bitumen is at its softening point temperature, it has approximately
a penetration of 800 or an absolute viscosity of 13,000 poises. This conversion is only
approximate and can vary from one bitumen to another, due to the non-Newtonian nature of
asphalts and the different shear rates used by these different methods.

The softening point temperature can be used along with the penetration to determine the
temperature susceptibility of bitumen. Temperature susceptibility of bitumen is often
expressed as:

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Since bitumen has approximately a penetration of 800 at the softening point temperature, the
softening point temperature can be used along with the penetration at 25 ˚C to determine the
temperature susceptibility as:

The M computed in this manner can then be used to compute a Penetration Index (PI) as
follows:

The Penetration Index is an indicator of the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen. A high
PI indicates low temperature susceptibility. Normal asphalt cements have a PI between -2 and
+2. Bitumen with a PI of more than +2 are of low temperature susceptibility, while those with
a PI of less than -2 are of excessively high temperature susceptibility.

1.2 Bituminous Mixtures

1.2.1 Types of bituminous mixtures used in pavement construction

A bituminous mixture is a combination of bituminous materials (as binders), properly graded

aggregates and additives. Since tar is rarely used in bituminous mixtures in recent years and
bitumen is the predominant binder material used, the term “asphalt mixture” is now more
commonly used to denote a combination of asphalt materials, aggregates and additives.
Asphalt mixtures used in pavement applications are usually classified by (1) their methods of
production, or (2) their composition and characteristics. Three main types of aggregates used
in bituminous mixtures are as follows:

Coarse aggregate (CA). It consists of crushed rock, broken gravel, slag, or other mineral
materials that are retained on a number 8 sieve.
• Fine aggregate (FA). It consists of sand or small pieces of crushed rock that pass through a
number 8 sieve but are retained on a number 200 sieve.
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• Mineral filler. It consists of inert, nonplastic particles that pass through a number 200
sieve. Rock dust, hydrated lime, inert fine soil, and portland cement can be used as mineral
fillers. Most clays are too plastic for this purpose.
Classification by Method of Production

Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is produced in a hot asphalt mixing plant (or hot-mix plant) by
mixing a properly controlled amount of aggregate with a properly controlled amount of
bitumen at an elevated temperature. The mixing temperature has to be sufficiently high such
that the asphalt is fluidic enough for proper mixing with and coating the aggregate, but not
too high as to avoid excessive aging of the bitumen. A HMA mixture must be laid and
compacted when the mixture is still sufficiently hot so as to have proper workability. HMA
mixtures are the most commonly used paving material in surface and binder courses in
asphalt pavements.

Cold-laid plant mix is produced in an asphalt mixing plant by mixing a controlled amount of
aggregate with a controlled amount of liquid bitumen without the application of heat. It is laid
and compacted at ambient temperature.

Warm mix asphalt concrete (commonly abbreviated as WMA) is produced by adding

either zeolites, waxes, bitumen emulsions, or sometimes even water to the asphalt binder
prior to mixing. This allows significantly lower mixing and laying temperatures and results in
lower consumption of fossil fuels, thus releasing less carbon dioxide, aerosols and vapours.
Not only are working conditions improved, but the lower laying-temperature also leads to
more rapid availability of the surface for use, which is important for construction sites with
critical time schedules. The usage of these additives in hot mixed asphalt (above) may afford
easier compaction and allow cold weather paving or longer hauls. Use of warm mix is rapidly
expanding. A survey of US asphalt producers found that nearly 25% of asphalt produced in
2012 was warm mix, a 416% increase since 2009

Mixed-in-place or road mix is produced by mixing the aggregates with the asphalt binders in
proper proportions on the road surface by means of special road mixing equipment. A
medium setting (MS) bitumen emulsion is usually used for open-graded mixtures while a
slow setting (SS) bitumen emulsion is usually used for dense-graded mixtures.

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1.2.2 Classification by Composition and Characteristics

Dense-graded HMA mixtures, which use a dense-graded aggregate and have a relatively low
air voids after placement and compaction, are commonly used as surface and binder courses
in asphalt pavements. A dense graded HMA mixture with maximum aggregate size of greater
than 25 mm (1 in.) is called a large stone dense-grade HMA mix. A dense-grade HMA mix
with 100% of the aggregate particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve is called a sand mix.
The asphalt concrete is a typical example of dense graded bituminous mixture.

Open-graded asphalt mixtures, which use an open-graded aggregate and have a relatively
high air void after placement and compaction, are used where high-water permeability is
desirable. Two primary types of open-graded mixes are (1) open-graded base mix and (2)
open-graded friction course (OGFC).

Open-graded base mixes are used to provide a strong base for an asphalt pavement as well as
rapid drainage for subsurface water. Open-graded base mixes usually use a relatively larger
size aggregate that contains very little or no fines. Due to the lower aggregate surface area,
these mixes have relatively lower bitumen content than that of a dense-graded HMA mix.
Open-graded base mixes can be produced either hot or cold in an asphalt plant.

Open-graded friction courses (OGFC) are placed on top of surface courses to improve skid
resistance and to reduce hydroplaning of the pavement surface. OGFC mixtures use
aggregates with a small proportion of fines to produce high air voids and good drainage
characteristics. Even though the voids content is higher, the bitumen film thickness is usually
greater than that for a dense-graded HMA, and thus a typical OGFC mixture has about the
same or higher bitumen content than that of a dense-graded HMA. A typical OGFC uses an
aggregate of ½ in. (12.5mm) maximum size, and is placed at a thickness of ¾ in. (19 mm).
An OGFC mixture is produced in a hot-mix plant in the same way as a dense-graded HMA
mixture. Crumb rubber modified bitumen has been used in OGFC mixtures in recent years to
improve their performance and durability. Due to the higher viscosity of the crumb rubber
modified binder, thicker film thickness can be used. This results in a higher binder content
and thus better durability for the crumb rubber modified OGFC mixtures.

The common bituminous mixtures used for the construction of pavement are Asphalt
concrete, Stone mastic asphalt; Hot rolled asphalt and Porous asphalt

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Asphalt Concrete

The term Asphalt Concrete is commonly used to refer to a high-quality, dense-graded HMA
mixture. The aggregate particles are continuously graded or gap-graded to form an
interlocking structure. Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt, blacktop, or pavement in
North America, and tarmac or bitumen macadam in Great Britain and Ireland) is a composite
material commonly used to surface roads, parking lots, and airports. It consists of mineral
aggregate bound together with binder (bitumen) laid in layers, and compacted. The terms
"asphalt (or asphaltic) concrete", "bituminous asphalt concrete", and "bituminous mixture"
are typically used only in engineering and construction documents, which define concrete as
any composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with a binder. The
abbreviation "AC" is sometimes used for "asphalt concrete" but can also denote "asphalt
content" or "asphalt cement", referring to the liquid asphalt portion of the composite material.
Asphalt deterioration can include crocodile cracking, potholes, upheaval, raveling, bleeding,
rutting, shoving, stripping, and grade depressions. In cold climates, frost heaves can crack
asphalt even in one winter. Filling the cracks with bitumen is a temporary fix, but only proper
compaction and drainage can slow this process.

Factors that cause asphalt concrete to deteriorate over time mostly fall into one of three
categories: construction quality, environmental considerations, and traffic loads. Often,
damage results from combinations of factors in all three categories.

Stone Mastic Asphalt

Stone Matrix/Mastic Asphalt (SMA), which was originally developed in Europe, was a
special asphalt mixture of improved rutting resistance and increased durability. SMA is
designed to have a large percentage of coarse aggregate with stone-on-stone contact, with the
remaining voids partially filled with mastic comprising fine aggregate, filler, fibre and
bituminous binder.
Both SMA and open graded asphalt (OGA) offer superior noise reduction compared to dense
graded asphalt (DGA). SMA has distinct advantages as a surfacing due to its potential for
high resistance to fatigue and rutting (wear and tear due to traffic loading).
SMA mixtures are designed to have a high coarse aggregate content (typically 70–80%), a
high binder content (typically over 6%) and high filler content (typically about 10%).
Asphalts modified with polymers and/or fibers are typically used. The improved rutting

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resistance of the SMA mixture is attributed to the fact that it carries the load through the
coarse aggregate matrix (or the stone matrix), as compared with a dense-graded HMA, which
carries the load through the fine aggregate. The use of polymer and/or fiber modified
asphalts, which have increased viscosity, and the use of high filler content, which increases
the stiffness of the binder, allow the SMA mixtures to have a higher binder film thickness and
higher binder content without the problem of drain down of bitumen during construction. The
increased durability of the SMA mixtures can be attributed to the higher binder film thickness
and the higher binder content. SMA mixtures require the use of strong and durable aggregates
with a relatively lower L.A. Abrasion Loss. SMA mixtures can be produced in a hot-mix
plant in a similar way as a dense-grade HMA mixture. The main disadvantage of using a
SMA as compared with a dense-grade HMA is its relatively higher cost due to the
requirement for the use of higher quality aggregates, polymer, fibers and fillers.

In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of SMA are as follows:

Advantages of SMA:
»» provides a textured, durable and rut resistant wearing course
»» surface texture characteristics are similar to OGA, so noise generated is lower than DGA
but slightly higher than OGA
»» can be produced and compacted with the same plant and equipment as for normal hot mix
DGA using procedural modifications
»» can be used on heavily trafficked roads where good deformation resistance is required
»» surfacings may reduce reflective cracking from underlying cracked pavements due to its
flexible mastic
»» durability (longer in-service life) of SMA should be equal to, or greater than, DGA and
significantly greater than OGA.

Disadvantages of SMA:
»» increased material cost associated with high bitumen and filler content
»» increased mixing time and time taken to add extra filler may result in reduced productivity
»» possible delays in openings (the road) as SMA should be cooled to 40°c to prevent early
flushing of the binder to the surface.

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Hot rolled Asphalt

This is a gap graded material. It is essentially a bitumen/fine aggregate/filler mortar into

which some coarse aggregate is placed. The mechanical properties are dominated by those of
mortar. It has been used extensively as the wearing course on major roads in the United
Kingdom. It provides a durable layer with good resistance to cracking and one which is
relatively easy to compact. The coarse aggregate content is low (typically 30%), which
results in the compacted mixture having a smooth surface. Accordingly, the skid resistance is
inadequate and pre-coated chippings are rolled into the surface at the time of laying to correct
this deficiency.
There are two types of HRA surface course, chipped and unchipped.
Chipped HRA is a mat of sand/filler/binder, bulked out with 14mm crushed rock aggregate,
onto which high polished stone value crushed rock chipppings, pre-coated with 50 pen
bitumen, are spread and rolled into the mat. We have 30/14 HRA and 35/14 HRA. These
contain 30% and 35% of 14mm aggregate. The bitumen is grade 40/60pen. All the HRA
mixtures are specified in BS EN13108-4. BSEN 13108-4 specifies 2 fine aggregate types,
Type F and Type C Type F uses either natural fines or a blend of natural fines and crushed
rock fines Type C uses only crushed rock fines.

Porous Asphalt

This is a uniformly graded material which is designed to provide large air voids so that water
can drain to the verges within the layer thickness. If the wearing course is to be effective, the
basecourse below must be waterproof and the Porous asphalt (PA) must have the ability to
retain it open textured properties with time. Thick binder films are required to resist water
damage and ageing of the binder. In use this material minimizes vehicle spray, provides a
quiet ride and lower rolling resistance to traffic than dense mixtures. It is often specified for
environmental reasons. The Highway Agency does not recommend the use of a PA made
with a normal 100pen binder at traffic levels above 6000 commercial vehicles per day.

Porous asphalt pavements offer developers and planners a new tool in their toolbox for
managing storm water. These pavements, used mostly for parking lots, allow water to drain
through the pavement surface into a stone recharge bed and infiltrate into the soils below the

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pavement. Such pavements have been proving their worth since the mid-1970s, and recent
changes in storm water regulations have prompted many consulting engineers and public
works officials to seek information about them. With the proper design and installation,
porous asphalt can provide cost-effective, attractive pavements with a life span of more than
twenty years, and at the same time provide storm-water management systems that promote
infiltration, improve water quality, and many times eliminate the need for a detention basin.
The performance of porous asphalt pavements is similar to that of other asphalt pavements.
And, like other asphalt pavements, they can be designed for many situations. Even after
twenty years, porous pavements show little if any cracking or pothole problems. The surface
wears well. Porous asphalt retains its ability to handle rain water for many years. One of the
best-known porous parking lots, located at the Walden Pond State Reservation in
Massachusetts, was constructed in 1977. While it has never been repaved, it is in good shape
and still drains effectively.

1.2.2 Effects of Aggregate Characteristics on Performance of Asphalt Pavements

Aggregate makes up 90 to 95% by weight and 75 to 85% by volume of most asphalt paving
mixtures. Aggregate provides most of the load-bearing capacity of the asphalt mixture. Thus,
the performance of an asphalt mixture is greatly influenced by the properties of the aggregate
used. The effects of aggregate characteristics on the performance of asphalt pavements, and
the commonly used methods to determine these aggregate characteristics are presented in this
section.

Aggregate Gradation

One of the most important characteristics of an aggregate, which affect the performance of an
asphalt mixture, is its gradation. The properties of an asphalt mixture could be changed
substantially when the aggregate gradation is altered.

What is the ideal gradation of an aggregate to be used in asphalt mixture? From the
standpoint of achieving maximum strength and bearing capacity of the asphalt mixture, since
an asphalt mixture derives its strength mainly from the aggregate, it would be preferable to
have a well-graded aggregate to achieve maximum volume of aggregate in the mix. However,
if the aggregate is too well graded, the voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) of the mix may be
too low to accommodate the proper amount of asphalt, which is needed to produce a certain
minimum asphalt film thickness on the aggregate surface. If the VMA is too low and the

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required amount of asphalt is added to the mix, the phenomenon of bleeding may occur as
there would not be enough voids in the mix to accommodate the asphalt. However, if a lower
asphalt content is used, the asphalt film thickness on the aggregate may be too low. The
asphalt concrete produced would not be durable, and the problem of raveling may occur.
Thus, the ideal aggregate should be fairly well graded to produce a high volume of aggregate
in the asphalt mix, but it should not be too well graded such that the VMA becomes too low.

The Figure below shows a 0.45 power gradation chart, which was developed by the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) of the U.S. in 1962 to plot aggregate gradation. The 0.45
power gradation chart was chosen so that a gradation that plots as a straight line on the chart
would define the maximum density gradation. Three different maximum-density aggregate
gradations are shown in Figure, each with a different top size coarse aggregate.

Maximum density gradations plotted on a 0.45 power gradation chart

The equation for the FHWA’s maximum density gradation is:

where P = total percent passing the specific sieve

d = the specific sieve size in question

D = maximum size of the aggregate

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Asphalt mixes that have aggregate gradations that plot above the maximum density line are
called fine-graded mixtures. Conversely, mixes that have gradations that fall below the
maximum density line are called coarse-graded mixes. When the other factors are constant,
the coarser-graded aggregate will require less asphalt binder in the mix to achieve adequate
coating and mix properties. It is also more tolerant to an increase in asphalt content than the
finer-graded mixtures. In general, the coarser mixes, when properly designed, are more
resistant to permanent deformation [Ruth et al, 1989].

Recommended aggregate gradation specifications for dense-grade asphalt mixtures of various

nominal maximum aggregate sizes can be found in ASTM Standard Specification D3515
[ASTM, 2001]. For the most part, the FHWA maximum density curves fall inside the limits
of these gradation specifications for the corresponding maximum aggregate sizes.

Maximum Aggregate Size

Maximum aggregate size is the smallest sieve through which 100% of the aggregate particle
pass. Generally, using a larger maximum aggregate size in the asphalt mixture will increase
the bearing capacity and rutting resistance of the asphalt pavement. Using a larger maximum
aggregate size also reduces the design asphalt content and cost of the mix. However, mixtures
using a larger stone size are harder to place and to compact to the desired smoothness. The
lift thickness also limits the maximum aggregate size to be used. The maximum aggregate
size is limited to 0.5 times the lift thickness.

Asphalt mixture designations typically use the nominal maximum aggregate size rather than
the maximum aggregate size. However, the definition of nominal maximum size may vary
from one agency to another. ASTM C125 Standard [ASTM, 2001] defines nominal
maximum size as the smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of the
aggregate is permitted to pass, but up to 10 percent of the aggregate may be retained on the
nominal maximum size. In the Superpave mix design system, nominal maximum size is
defined as one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent, while
maximum size is one sieve larger than the nominal maximum size.

Mineral Filler

Mineral filler is the aggregate finer than the No. 200 mesh size. Proper amount of mineral
filler added to an asphalt mixture could improve the performance of the mix. Adding mineral
filler to an asphalt mixture has the effect of increasing the apparent viscosity of the asphalt

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binder. It could be used to decrease mixture tenderness during placement. Increased filler
content reduces the VMA in the asphalt mixture. A mineral filler content of 2 to 6% is
usually used in dense-grade HMA mixtures. General requirements for mineral filler can be
found in ASTM D242 Standard Specification for Mineral Filler For Bituminous Paving
Mixtures [ASTM, 2001].

Affinity for bitumen

The affinity for bitumen of an aggregate is its tendency to accept and retain bitumen coating.
An asphalt concrete using an aggregate with high affinity for bitumen will be less susceptible
to stripping of bitumen when exposed to water and thus more durable. Aggregates that are
basic, such as limestone and dolomite, are usually less susceptible to stripping. Aggregates
that are more acidic, such as sand and gravel, are usually more susceptible to stripping.
However, there are exceptions to this generalization. Some limestones have been known to
have stripping problems, while some gravels have been known to have no stripping problem
at all.

Stripping resistance of an aggregate is typically evaluated by testing the asphalt aggregate

mixture. A commonly used test for this purpose is AASHTO Designation T 283 Standard
Test for Resistance of Compacted Bituminous Mixture to Moisture Induced Damage
[AASHTO 1997]. In this test, a set of replicate specimens of the asphalt mixtures to be
evaluated are compacted to 7 ± 1% air voids. The specimens are divided into two subsets.
One subset is tested in the dry condition for indirect tensile strength. The other subset is
subjected to vacuum saturation followed by a freeze and warm-water soaking cycle and then
tested for indirect tensile strength. The tensile strength ratio, which is calculated by dividing
the average tensile strength of the conditioned subset by the average tensile strength of the
dry subset, is used as a indicator of stripping resistance. Other tests for stripping resistance
include ASTM D1075 Standard Test Method for Effect of Water on Compressive Strength of
Compacted Bituminous Mixtures [ASTM, 2001], and AASHTO T182 Standard Specification
for Coating and Stripping of Bitumen-Aggregate Mixtures [AASTHTO 1997].

It is to be pointed out that none of the existing stripping resistance tests have been found to be
completely reliable in predicting the performance of the asphalt-aggregate mixtures in actual
service.

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Aggregate Shape and Texture

The shape of an aggregate used in an asphalt mixture has a great effect on the tendency of the
mix to deform. Rounded aggregates have no interlocking ability and can easily “slide by”
each other when subjected to shear stresses. Increasing the amount of crushed coarse and fine
aggregates in an asphalt mixture can significantly increase the resistance of the mix to plastic
deformation. Thus, in order to increase the rutting resistance of the asphalt mixtures, many
asphalt mixture specifications have required a large percentage of the coarse aggregate to
have at least one or two crushed faces, and have limited the percentage of natural sand to be
used.

Flat or elongated particles are typically defined as particles having a ratio of maximum to
minimum dimension greater than five. Flat or elongated particles are undesirable. These
particles can be easily broken by traffic compaction and can reduce the strength of the asphalt
mixture. These particles also reduce the workability of the asphalt mixture and can impede
the compaction of the mixture during construction. Flat or elongated particles can be
determined using ASTM D4791 Standard Test Method for Flat or Elongated Particles in
Coarse Aggregate [ASTM, 2001].

Surface texture of aggregate particles also has a great effect on the ability of the mix to resist
plastic deformation. Some researchers consider this factor to be more important than particle
shape. A rough aggregate surface texture can provide good skid resistant characteristics of the
pavement surface. Asphalt can bond better to rough surfaces than to smooth ones. Aggregates
that have smooth surfaces, such as gravels, have a higher tendency to rut than do crushed
limestone aggregate, which have rougher surfaces. The overall measure of particle shape and
texture characteristics of an aggregate can be quantified by a particle index value by means of
ASTM D3398 Standard Test for Index of Aggregate Particle Shape and Texture [ASTM,
2001]. In this test, the aggregate to be evaluated is sieved into different specified size
fractions. The aggregate from each of the different size fractions is placed in 3 layers in a
special cylindrical steel mould and each layer is compacted with 10 tamps by a special
tamping rod. This procedure is repeated using a compaction of 50 tamps per layer. The
percent of voids in the compacted aggregate in each condition is determined from the weight
of the compacted aggregate and the bulk specific gravity of the aggregate. The particle index
for the aggregate in each size fraction is calculated from the following equation:

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where Ia = particle index value

V10 = percent voids in the aggregate compacted with 10 tamps per layer

V50 = percent voids in the aggregate compacted with 50 tamps per layer

The particle index of the aggregate is computed as the weighted average of the particle index
values from the different size fractions based on the percentages of the fractions in the
original aggregate. An aggregate containing round particles with smooth surface texture may
have a low particle index of 5 to 8, while an aggregate containing highly angular particles
with rough texture may have a particle index of 15 to 20.

A test that has been used to measure the angularity and texture characteristics of fine
aggregates is ASTM C1252 or AASHTO TP56–99 Method for Uncompacted Void Content
of Fine Aggregate (as Influenced by Particle Shape, Surface Texture, and Grading)
[AASHTO, 1999]. In this test, the fine aggregate to be evaluated is dropped through the
orifice of a funnel into a calibrated 100-cm3 cylinder. Excess material is struck off and the
cylinder with aggregate is weighed. Uncompacted void content of the sample is computed
using this weight and the bulk specific gravity of the aggregate. There are three different
variations of this method. Method A uses a sample of specified gradation. Method B uses
three different size fractions. Method C uses the actual gradation of the aggregate to be
evaluated. Superpave mix design system uses Method A.

A higher uncompacted void content is generally associated with higher angularity and
rougher texture of the fine aggregate. However, since the results of the uncompacted void
content test are influenced by the gradation of the aggregate, comparisons between different
aggregates can only be made when they are tested in the same grading.

Strength and Toughness

Since the aggregates provide most of the load carrying capacity of the asphalt mixtures,
aggregates must be sufficiently strong and tough to resist the applied loads. Insufficiently
strong and tough aggregates in the asphalt mixtures can be excessively broken and degraded
by the applied loads during construction and by traffic during service.

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The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test is commonly used to control the desired strength and
toughness of the aggregate. ASTM C131 Standard Test Method for Resistance to
Degradation of Small-Size Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine is
used for coarse aggregate smaller than 37.5 mm (1½ in.). ASTM C535 Standard Test Method
for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the
Los Angeles Machine is used for coarse aggregate larger then 19 mm (3/4 in.) and up to 76
mm (3 in.) maximum aggregate size.

The L.A. abrasion test reports the results in terms of percent L.A. abrasion loss. A higher
percent L.A. abrasion loss generally indicates a less abrasion-resistant aggregate. Typical test
results range from 10% for extremely hard rocks to more than 60% for soft aggregates.
Specifications for aggregate for use in HMA mixtures typically limit the maximum allowable
L.A. abrasion loss to a certain level, which may vary from 40% by some agencies to 60% by
others. It is to be pointed out that the L.A. abrasion loss is mainly a measure of the resistance
to abrasion. Many aggregates have given satisfactory performance even though their L.A.
abrasion loss is high.

Durability

In order to ensure a durable aggregate, specifications for coarse aggregate for use in asphalt
mixtures typically include a soundness test using sodium or magnesium sulphate (ASTM
C88). This test involves submerging the different size fractions of the aggregate in a solution
of sodium or magnesium sulphate for 18 hours followed by oven drying. The process is
repeated for a specified number of cycles. The loss in weight for each size fraction is
determined, and the weighted average percent loss for the entire sample is computed and
reported as percent soundness loss. A higher percent soundness loss indicates a less durable
aggregate. ASTM D692 Standard Specification for Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous Paving
Mixtures specifies a maximum of 12% loss after 5 cycles when using sodium sulphate and
18% loss when using magnesium sulphate. The sodium and magnesium sulphate soundness
test was originally developed to simulate the damaging effects of freezing and thawing on
aggregates. However, this test is now used to screen aggregates regardless of whether or not
the aggregate is to be used in a freezing and thawing environment.

Cleanliness

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Clean aggregates that are free of deleterious materials are desirable for use in asphalt
mixtures. Deleterious materials that are to be avoided include clay, dust, friable particles and
organic impurities. The sand equivalent test (ASTM D2419) is used to determine the
proportions of clay and sands in a fine aggregate. In this test, a sample of the fine aggregate
to be tested is placed in a specified transparent cylinder filled with water and a flocculating
agent. The mixture is agitated, and allowed to settle for 20 min. The sand will separate from
the flocculated clay, and the heights of clay and sand in the cylinder are measured. The sand
equivalent is the ratio of the height of sand to the height of clay times 100. A higher sand
equivalent value indicates a cleaner aggregate. Specifications for aggregates in asphalt
mixtures typically specify a minimum sand equivalent of 25 to 35. Clay and friable particles
in aggregate can be determined in accordance with ASTM C142 Standard Test Method for
Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates. The amount of clay lumps and friable
particles are typically limited to a maximum of 1%. The amount of plastic fines in a fine
aggregate can be indicated by the plasticity index (PI) (ASTMD4318). ASTM D1073
Standard Specification for Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures limits the PI of
the fraction passing the No. 40 (425 mm) to 4.0.

1.2.3 Volumetric Properties of Asphalt Mixtures

A compacted asphalt mixture consists primarily of aggregate, asphalt and air. The
composition of an asphalt mixture can be characterized by the proportioning of the volumes
of these three components. Volumetric properties of asphalt mixtures are properties that are
directly related to the proportioning of the volumes of these three components. Volumetric
properties have been widely used in the design and control of production of asphalt mixtures.
The commonly used volumetric properties of asphalt mixtures are presented in this section.

Different Volumes in a Compacted Asphalt Mixture

Although there are only three components in a compacted asphalt mixture, numerous
different volumes can be computed when different combinations of the three components are
combined. This is further complicated by the fact that some asphalt can be absorbed into the
aggregate and occupy part of the bulk volume of the aggregate. The representation of the
different volumes in a compacted mixture is shown in the Figure below.

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Representation of volumes in a compacted asphalt mixture

Percent Air Voids

The percent air voids (Pa) of a compacted mixture is the ratio of the volume of air voids to
the total volume of the mixture. It can be expressed by the following equation:

Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate

Percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) is the ratio of the volume of voids in mineral
aggregate to the total volume of the mixture. It can be expressed by the following equation:

Percent Voids Filled with Asphalt

Voids filled with asphalt (VFA) is the ratio of the volume of effective asphalt to the volume
of the voids in mineral aggregate. It can be expressed by the following equation:

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Computation of Volumetric Properties

The maximum specific gravity (Gmm) of the asphalt mixture is needed in order to calculate
the percent air voids. The maximum specific gravity is the specific gravity when there are no
air voids in the mixture. The maximum specific gravity of the mixture can be determined by
running the ASTM D2041 Standard Test Method for Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity
and Density of Bituminous Paving Mixture on the loose mixture. This test is also known as
the Rice test.

The percent air voids (Pa) can be computed from the maximum specific gravity (Gmm) and
the bulk specific gravity of the mixture (Gmb) as follows:

The percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) can be computed as follows:

where P = aggregate percent by total weight of the mixture

G = bulk specific gravity of aggregate

The percent voids filled with asphalt (VFA) can be computed as follows:

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2. POLYMERS

2.1 Introduction
Polymers form a very important class of materials without which the life seems very difficult.
They are all around us in everyday use; in rubber, in plastic, in resins, and in adhesives and
adhesives tapes. The word polymer is derived from greek words, poly which means many and
mers, which means parts or units of high molecular mass each molecule of which consist of a
very large number of single structural units joined together in a regular manner. In other
words polymers are giant molecules of high molecular weight, called macromolecules, which
are build up by linking together of a large number of small molecules, called monomers. The
reaction by which the monomers combine to form polymer is known as polymerization. The
polymerization is a chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine together
with or without evolution of anything like water, heat or any other solvents to form a
molecule of high molecular weight. The product is called polymer and the starting material is
called monomer.

2.2 Historical Development of Polymers

Polymers have existed in natural form since life began and those such as DNA, RNA,
proteins and polysaccharides play crucial roles in plant and animal life. From the earliest
times, man has exploited naturally-occurring polymers as materials for providing clothing,
decoration, shelter, tools, weapons, writing materials and other requirements. However, the
origin of today’s polymer industry is commonly accepted as being the nineteenth century
when important discoveries were made concerning the modification of certain natural
polymers. In eighteenth century, Thomas Hancock gave an idea of modification of natural
rubber through blending with ceatrain additives. Later on, Charles Goodyear improved the
properties of natural rubber through vulcanization process with sulfur. The Bakelite was the
first synthetic polymer produced in 1909 and was soon followed by the synthetic fiber, rayon,
which was developed in 1911. The systematic study of polymer science started only about a
century back with the pioneering work of Herman Staudinger. Staudinger has given a new
definition of polymer. He in1919 first published this concept that high molecular mass
compounds were composed of long covalently bonded molecules.

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2.3 Classification of Polymers

Polymer is a generic name given to a vast number of materials of high molecular weight.
These materials exist in countless form and numbers because of very large number and type
of atoms present in their molecule. Polymer can have different chemical structure, physical
properties, mechanical behavior, thermal characteristics, etc., and on the basis of these
properties polymer can be classified in different ways, which are summarized in Table 2.1,
whereas, important and broad classification of polymers are described in the next section.
Table 2.1: Classification of Polymers

2.3.1 Classification based on origin

On the basis of their occurrence in nature, polymers have been classified in three types:
Natural polymer: The polymers, which occur in nature are called natural polymer also
known as biopolymers. Examples of such polymers are natural rubber, natural silk, cellulose,
starch, proteins, etc.
Semi synthetic polymer: They are the chemically modified natural polymers such as
hydrogenated, natural rubber, cellulosic, cellulose nitrate, methyl cellulose, etc.
Synthetic polymer: The polymer which has been synthesized in the laboratory is known as
synthetic polymer. These are also known as manmade polymers. Examples of such polymers
are polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene, polystyrene, polysulfone, etc..

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2.3.2 Classification based on thermal response

On the basis of thermal response, polymers can be classified into two groups: -
Thermoplastic polymers: They can be softened or plasticized repeatedly on application of
thermal energy, without much change in properties if treated with certain precautions. They
are linear polymers and have weak van der Waals’ forces acting in the various chains. These
forces are intermediate of the forces present in the elastomers and in the fibres. When heated,
they melt and form a fluid which sets into a hard mass on cooling. Thus, they can be cast into
different shapes by using suitable moulds, e.g., polyethene, polystyrene polyolefins, nylons,
linear polyesters and polyethers, PVC, sealing wax etc..
Thermosetting polymers: Some polymers undergo certain chemical changes on heating and
convert themselves into an infusible mass. The curing or setting process involves chemical
reaction leading to further growth and cross linking of the polymer chain molecules and
producing giant molecules. They are normally semifluid substances with low molecular
masses. When heated, they become hard and infusible due to the cross-linking between the
polymer chains. As a result, they also become three dimensional in nature. A few common
thermosetting polymers are bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde resin and urea formaldehyde
resin, epoxy resins, diene rubbers, etc.

2.3.3 Classification based on mode of formation

On the basis of mode of formation, polymers can be classified as:
Addition polymers: They are formed from olefinic, diolefnic, vinyl and related monomers.
They are formed from simple addition of monomer molecules to each other in a quick
succession by a chain mechanism. This process is called addition polymerization. Examples
of such polymers are polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene.
Condensation polymer: They are formed from intermolecular reactions between
bifunctional or polyfunctional monomer molecules having reactive functional groups such as
–OH, -COOH, -NH2, -NCO, etc.

2.3.4 Classification based on line structure

On the basic of structure, polymers are classified in three:

Linear polymer: If the monomer units are joined in a linear fashion as shown below,
polymers are said to be linear polymers.

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Branched polymers: When monomer units are joined in branched manner, it is said to be
branched-polymers

Cross-linked polymers: A polymer is said to be cross-linked if the monomer units are joined
together in a chain fashion.

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2.3.5 Classification based on application and physical properties

2.3.6 Classification based on tacticity

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2.4 Mechanism of Polymerization

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Condensation Polymerization

Condensation Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which polymer is formed and a small

molecule of by-product with a lower molecular weight is released. The by-product eliminated
is called as condensate. The reaction can take place between two similar or different
monomers. It is also called as step-growth polymerization.

Addition Polymerization or Chain Polymerization

In addition polymerization, two or more molecules of monomers attach together to form a

polymer. In this polymerization, there is no elimination of any molecule. It is a chain reaction
and no by product is released. It is obtained by linking together the monomer molecules by a
chain reaction to give a polymer whose molecular weight is exactly an integral multiple of
that of the monomer as in the case of polyethylene obtained by polymerization of ethylene.
Only a single monomer is involved in addition polymerization and hence the polymer is
homopolymer and contains the same monomer units. Addition polymerization reaction is
usually induced by light, heat or a catalyst for opening the double bond of the monomer and
creating the reactive sites.

2.5 Mechanical Properties of Polymers

To study the necessary set of valuable properties, polymers differing from one another by
their chemical structure and properties are usually mixed together, either homogeneously or
heterogeneously. The mechanical properties of inhomogeneous mixture are worse than those
of individual polymers, while the mechanical properties of homogeneous mixture are good.
Polymers can exhibit the features of glassy, brittle solid or an elastic rubber, or that of a
viscous liquid, depending on the temperature and time scale of measurement.
The studies on mechanical properties of polymer can, therefore, be carried out by subjecting
them to some form of mechanical stress either continuous or in a periodic manner at different
rate. Some of the important properties of polymers with regard to their use as engineering
material are tensile strength, compressive and flexural strength, hardness, creep, fatigue
resistance and impact resistance.

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Toughness of a polymer is the ability to absorb mechanical energy without fracturing. The
property such as tensile strength is the maximum amount of tensile load per unit area a
material can withstand, while the tensile elongation gives the measure of increase in length in
response to a tensile load expressed as a percent of the original length. Elongation at break is
the maximum elongation the plastic can undergo. Engineering applications of polymers are
governed to a great extent by strain hardening considerations. The designer using polymeric
materials must, therefore, understand their mechanical behaviour with respect to the
maximum permissible strains to avoid failure. As for most materials, a simple tensile stress-
strain curve provides a good start towards understanding the mechanical behaviour of a
particular polymer. This curve is usually established by continuously measuring the force
developed as the sample is elongated at constant rate of extension until it breaks.
Portions of the curve in Fig.2.1 represent the stress-strain behaviour of any polymer and are
used to define several useful quantities. The initial slope provides a value for Young's
modulus (or the modulus of elasticity) which is a measure of stiffness. The curve also gives
yield stress, strength and elongation at break. The area under the curve or work to break is a
rough indication of the toughness of the polymeric material. The stress at the knee in the
curve (known as the yield point) is a measure of the strength of the material and resistance to
permanent deformation. The stress at the breaking point, commonly known as ultimate
strength, is a measure of the force required to fracture the material completely.
A hard, brittle material such as an amorphous polymer far below its Tg, usually has an initial
slope indicative of very high modulus, moderate strength, a low elongation at break, and a
low area under the stress-strain curve (Fig. 2.2).
Polymeric materials showing hard brittle behaviour at room temperature or below are
polystyrene, poly (methyl methacrylate) and many phenol-formaldehyde resins. Hard and
strong polymers have high modulus of elasticity, high strength, and elongation at break of
approximately 5 percent. The shape of the curve often suggests that the material has broken
where a yield point might be expected. This type of curve is characteristic of some rigid
poly(vinyl chloride) formulations and polystyrene polyblends. Hard, tough behaviour is
shown by polymers such as cellulose acetate,

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Figure 2.1: Generalized tensile stress-strain curve for some polymeric materials

Figure 2.2: Tensile stress-strain for four types of polymeric material

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2.6 Applications of Polymers in Civil Engineering

2.6.1 Polymers used in asphalt

The various proprietary polymer-modified binders used in the UK asphalt industry are based
on thermoplastic elastomers or thermoplastic plastomers (See Figures 2.3 and 2.4), although
there is also some experience in using thermosetting binders based on epoxy resins. The
essential differences between elastomeric and plastomeric polymers are however, becoming
less obvious with continuous research in this area, particularly with the growth in co-polymer
technologies. Other bitumen modifiers, such as natural rubber latex, pulverised crumb rubber
and waste plastic, have been trialled. Certain chemical modifiers, e.g., sulfur and
organometallic compounds, have also been trialed and claimed to have a finite stiffening
effect on bitumen. However, all of these have proven to be less successful in use due to
inferior performance, cost and health and safety grounds. A more practical reason restricting
the use of different polymer-modified binders is the need for dedicated storage tanks, which
is costly and potentially problematic for asphalt producers. Asphalt plants often have
restricted areas for accommodating additional PMB tanks, and fluctuating market demand for

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polymer-modified asphalt means PMB can be left in hot storage for lengthy periods,
sometimes resulting in remedial action being necessary to rectify the binder (take remedial
action to return the binder's properties back to being within specification). This is less
common these days, however, due to improvements made by the bitumen supply industry in
providing guidance on how to safely manage bitumen in storage.

Figure 2.3: Examples of different polymers used in asphalt - SBS/EVA

Figure 2.4: Examples of different polymers used in asphalt – Latex/Waxes

Elastomers
Elastomers are the most commonly used polymers in UK asphalt highway products. The most
frequently used elastomers include synthetic thermoplastic rubber polymers, such as SBS,

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styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), styrene ethylene butadiene styrene (SEBS) and
polybutadiene rubber (PB).
Typical elastomeric polymer properties are listed in the Table 2.2. However, in practice,
SBS-type polymers have emerged time and again as offering the optimum combination of
performance, reliability, ease of use and economy.
Styrenic block copolymers are based on styrene, butadiene and isoprene feedstocks. The
styrene is polymerised in a precisely controlled reaction with either butadiene or isoprene.
Both linear copolymers and radial (or branched) copolymers can be produced, with the latter
usually having superior structural properties in terms of bitumen modification. It is the
polystyrene (PS) component that imparts strength and elevates the bitumen softening point,
whilst the butadiene component is responsible for making the binder more elastic. The
polymer constituents will disassociate at elevated temperatures, then recombine to form a
three-dimensional polymer matrix throughout the bitumen as the binder cools. The polymer
constituents ultimately influence the properties of the end product. For example, SBS is
suitable for footwear and the modification of bitumen/asphalt.
Table 2.2: Typical elastomeric polymer physical properties

Elastomeric Modification of Bitumen

Elastomeric polymers such as SBS modify bitumen rheology by enhancing the elastic
component in the bitumen and effectively reducing the viscous component. This results in
improved elastic recovery after removing an applied stress, thus reducing the risk of
permanent deformation. This also results in the temperature susceptibility of the PMB being
reduced so the asphalt has reduced risk of rutting, particularly at elevated surface
temperatures, and is less prone to thermal cracking at low ambient temperatures.

Plastomers
Plastomers are the second most popular polymer type used in UK asphalt highway products.
The most commonly used plastomer is EVA. There are a number of grades available, varying
in terms of vinyl acetate content and molecular weight, which is usually defined in terms of a

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melt flow index. Table 2.3 shows typical plastomeric polymer physical properties. The type
of EVA used influences the degree of bitumen modification obtained, and this is usually
reflected in the modified binder's penetration value, softening point to a lesser extent,
dynamic viscosity and asphalt stiffness.
Other types of plastomers, including ethylene methyl acrylate, polypropylene (PP), PS and
polyethylene (PE), have also been evaluated for use in asphalt although have proven to be
less successful. They appear to make the bitumen too stiff and brittle, increasing the risk of
premature asphalt failure. Some of these polymers are derived from sources of waste plastic,
although refined to provide a consistent product.
EVA is thermoplastic in nature, and apart from being used in asphalt is also used in hot melt
glues. One of the most common grades of EVA used to modify bitumen for use in asphalt is
grade 18/150. This classification indicates a melt flow index of 150 and a vinyl acetate
content of 18%. Typically 5% EVA by mass of the bitumen content is used in asphalt
mixtures.
EVA was one of the first polymers to be used successfully in asphalt applications in the UK
and became accepted by the Highways Agency and many local authorities for use in HRA
during the 1980s. It essentially stiffens the binder and thereby makes the asphalt more
resistant to traffic loading and rutting, particularly at higher road temperatures during hot
summers when asphalt surfaces are at higher risk of softening and rutting under traffic.
One of the attractive features of using EVA is that it effectively acts as a diluent at elevated
mix temperatures, i.e., typically above 100 ˚C. The polymer effectively melts and dissociates
into the bitumen, thereby reducing the bitumen viscosity. As the temperature cools below 90
˚C, the EVA tends to associate (recrystallise) and significantly stiffens the binder, increasing
the binder viscosity. It is therefore important that the asphalt is fully compacted before this
polymer phase change occurs, otherwise the asphalt could stiffen too quickly resulting in
inadequate compaction which may result in premature failure. This problem can be
exacerbated when laying asphalt in thin layers during cold winter months since the cooling
rates tend to be faster, limiting the working window.

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Table 2.3 : Typical plastomeric polymer physical properties

Plastomeric Modification of Bitumen

Whereas elastomers work by making the binder more elastic with reduced stiffness and
improved ductility, plastomers effectively make bitumen stiffer. They reduce the binder's
temperature susceptibility, particularly at high service temperatures, which is important to
reduce risk of rutting during hot summer months. However, plastomers are less effective at
reducing the risk of low-temperature thermal cracking
compared to elastomers.

Natural Rubber
Natural rubber latex has been used in asphalt surfacing for over 30 years and is perceived to
improve asphalt performance, although polymer dispersion throughout the asphalt mixture is
usually less than homogenous. Synthetic polymer latexes have also been trialled in asphalt
with varying degrees of success. On the whole, latexes (aqueous polymer dispersions ) added
directly into the asphalt mixer do not modify asphalt properties to the same degree as
plastomers or elastomers that have been pre-blended into hot bitumen. The attraction in using
latex is ease of use, as it can be added directly into the asphalt plant with no need for PMB
storage tanks. Rubber latex is a natural polymer and behaves in a similar manner to that
expected from synthetic thermoplastic polymers.

2.6.1.1 Polymer-Modified Asphalt Applications

Polymer-modified binders are mainly used in proprietary ATS systems which are typically
laid 25 mm thick. These materials deliver high levels of traffic noise reduction whilst
retaining high surface texture under heavy traffic loading for maintained skidding resistance.
They also offer less disruption to the road user during installation, and when specified as an
asphalt overlay there is less need to adjust kerb levels. Also bridge height clearances are
protected.

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Polymers reinforce bitumen by improving cohesive strength, making it more resilient and
tougher. Thin
asphalt surfacings are relatively new to the UK following their introduction in the early to
mid- 1990s.
However, today, all of the major asphalt suppliers are able to supply such materials in
accordance with clause 942 for thin surface course systems in the specification for highway
works. Before ATS were introduced into the UK, the premier asphalt surfacing material was
HRA. Whereas ATS rely on having a high stone content bound together with a rich
bitumen/filler mastic matrix, HRA works in a different way by having a relatively low stone
content, relying on a stiff mastic made of bitumen and filler in combination with a high
stability sand to provide the necessary stiffness and resistance to rutting by traffic.
Polymers have been used, and are still occasionally used, in HRA mixtures in accordance
with clause 943 of the specification for highway works (Performance Related Design Mix).
This was introduced after the hot summers of the mid-1990s caused a number of rutting
problems across the road network. Hence they tend to be used on very heavily trafficked
roads when conventional paving grade bitumens are considered unable to cope. The polymers
used tend to be elastomeric (SBS usually) or plastomeric (EVA), however, a key requirement
is resistance to rutting at high temperatures i.e., 60 ˚C.
PMB are also used in a range of proprietary asphalts with special designed functionality, e.g.,
fuel resisting or coloured surfacings. Fuel resisting asphalt surfaces historically were
manufactured using tar-based binders. However, these are no longer used on health and
safety grounds as they are deemed to contain carcinogens.
Polymers are also used in asphalt 'bond coats', which are spray-applied bitumen emulsion
products used to promote formation of a good bond between asphaltlayers.
Polymers are also used in bitumen emulsions for coldmix asphalt manufacture. These
materials are still under development in the UK, with research driven by the perceived energy
savings and reduced carbon dioxide emissions associated with cold-mix asphalt production.
Microasphalts and surface dressing maintenance techniques also make use of polymer-
modified emulsion Binders.

2.6.2 Polymer used as aggregate

It is widely acknowledged that using recycled aggregates in construction products will
contribute to more sustainable construction. However, there needs to be good technical
performance, an economic supply of sufficient quantity, methods of quality assurance and
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specification, and a market for products of a value appropriate to the costs of producing the
processed materials.
Recent work by an industry and research consortium led by Tarmac, with funding from
WRAP and the Department for Trade and Industry (DTI), has aimed to develop potential
asphalt products incorporating waste plastic and rubber and giving due consideration to the
aforementioned factors. Laboratory- and pilot-scale field trials have indicated the potential
for using manufactured plastic aggregates based on mixtures of waste plastic in asphalt.
Figure 2.5 shows mixed waste plastic after processing into aggregate particle sizes.
Approximately 0.2 million tonnes of plastic are recycled each year, and single-polymer
recycled plastic can cost up to several hundred pounds per tonne. Industrial waste plastic
arisings are difficult to separate and process, and these are potential sources of plastic
‘aggregates’, including mixed plastics and shredder wastes. There are significant volumes of
plastic waste being generated from household and agricultural waste, e.g., plastic bottles,
containers and packaging, and it is feasible for some of this material to be incorporated into
asphalt as an aggregate replacement. The type of plastics/polymers most suited for use in
asphalt are olefins such as low and high density polyethylenes (LDPE and HDPE). Although
the infrastructure does not currently exist to provide these materials in bulk, changes in waste
management regulation mean that these waste streams are likely to become more refined in
future to enable applications in downstream markets such as asphalt to avoid landfill disposal
costs.
Specification of such materials will be problematic, and another significant disincentive to
using aggregates generated from waste exists in the current interpretation of waste licensing
regulations. This requires that these alternative aggregates be subject to waste regulation until
they are incorporated into a product.

Figure 2.5: Mixed waste plastic after processing into aggregate particle sizes

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2.6.3 The use of fibre reinforced polymer composites in the construction of bridges
Through this pursuit and among many other emerging new materials, the fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) composite technology has been demonstrated with great success for bridge
applications. FHWA has been developing research in FRP composites materials over the past
25 years. The development of the advanced FRP composite technology from the aerospace
stealth aircraft and commercial industries is an engineer's dream for innovative structural
design and application. It has been found that the characteristics of a composites element or
system can be tailored and designed to meet any desired specifications. The highly corrosion
and fatigue resistance composites materials are making inroads into the civil infrastructure
industry. These outstanding composites are among the leading materials in structural
engineering applications today.
In the six-year period, the IBRC program funded 246 proposals of high performance
materials and concepts in bridge design and construction. Of these applications, 127 are
constructed with FRP composite materials. Some of the applications have been or are being
demonstrated consistently in several states to capture the performance of the FRP composites
under variable environments and to spread the wealth of knowledge gained.

Bridge applications using FRP composite materials can be categorized into four general
groups:
• New bridge construction with bridge deck systems
• New bridge construction with hybrid materials
• Bridge strengthening and/or repair
• Seismic column retrofit
• New Bridge Construction with FRP Deck Systems
In States where deicing salt is heavily used during winter operations, concrete bridge decks
that were reinforced with unprotected steel reinforcement are deteriorating rapidly. The FRP
composite deck systems have a potential to fill the need of bridge deck replacement and
extend the service life of existing structures.
In the new bridge construction category under the IBRC Program, 44 projects employed FRP
composite bridge deck systems that come in different shapes and forms. Most of these deck
systems are proprietary products that were made of glass fibers and polyester or vinyl ester
type resins. Some of these systems are into their third or fourth generation developments and
improvements. They were made into either full depth sections to conveniently match the
typical existing concrete bridge deck or partial depth sections.

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Full depth (minimum 203 mm) panels are formed with pultruded structural shapes and shop-
fabricated into modular panels for easy transport and rapid deployment. The cross section
geometry takes the form of a truss configuration (top and bottom chords with diagonals,
triangles, delta frames, "X-shaped" or other similar variations). The panels are spliced
together in the field and are normally fastened onto a floor-beam and/or stringer structural
support system. Another deck system is of built-up pre-cured sections consisting of
orthogonal, honeycomb cells that act as the core element and sandwiched between two face
sheets. A third system consists of a single stage large piece fabrication involving lay-up glass
fibers, wrapped hollow cores, and vacuum assisted resin transfer molding. A fourth system,
which is a shallower section, is constructed with side-by-side, parallel (127 mm X 127 mm)
pultruded tubes acting as the core element and sandwiched between two face sheets. A fifth
system is a FRP composite sheet panel stiffened with pultruded tubes placed transversely to
the traffic direction. The tubes serve as tension reinforcement in the positive moment region,
and the panel serves as a permanent bottom form for a cast-in-place full depth concrete deck.
This system requires additional FRP composite reinforcing bars in the top mat.

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An excellent example of an effective application with the FRP composite deck system is the
replacement of an existing conventional concrete deck on a 60-year old, Warren steel truss.
The 34.7-meter simple span truss was posted with a 12.7-metric ton weight restriction. Over
the years of resurfacing the roadway and deck, the structure had accumulated numerous
layers of asphalt cement, thus reducing its live load capacity. By replacing the deck with FRP
2
composite deck panels, the existing 830-kg/meter -superstructure dead load was reduced to
2
171 kg/meter . The bridge was immediately upgraded to carry more than the current legal
load. The removal and replacement of the deck system took less than a month to complete.
The cost of the rehabilitation ($876,000) was about one-third the cost of total replacement
($2.34 million) and was fully funded by the New York DOT.
The advantages of an FRP composites deck are lightweight, high strength and high
performance, chemical and corrosion resistant, easy construction and handling, rapid project
2
delivery, and in most cases, high quality shop fabrication. Its lightweight (88-171 kg/meter
without a wearing surface overlay) reduces the overall superstructure weight and foundation
requirement. In areas of high seismic zones, a reduced mass may be highly desirable.
Although the composite materials are of high tensile strength, the current deck design is
governed by stiffness requirements. The stiffness modulus of glass FRP composites is about
one-fifth that of steel. Except for high or ultra high modulus carbon materials, the stiffness
modulus of typical carbon fibers is slightly higher than structural steel.
Another important feature of the FRP deck panel systems is its ability to be rapidly deployed
and installed at the job site. In reducing congestion in the work zone and improving safety,
FRP bridges that had been built from a relatively few short hours to over a weekend are
highly desirable and sought after. Bridge owners are willing to pay some premium upfront
cost over conventional method of construction that requires prolonged duration. The author
predicts that in 10 years from now, long delays through routine construction work zones will
no longer be tolerated.
There remain some challenges in the use of FRP composites for deck replacement. The
design of an FRP deck system requires finite element analysis. Its lightweight in the
superstructure can become aerodynamically unstable, especially for long span structures. As
in any new innovation and being an anisotropic material, the composite components and
system would require validation testing while building up a good database for each specific
system. Depending on how a deck panel is fabricated, consistency and quality may vary. For
field installation, connections and some other construction details would need to be

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developed, improved and tested. A well-designed and properly installed thin bonded overlay
can improve traffic traction and extend the service life of the deck panels. Traffic railing
connections would need to be designed and tested for crash worthiness. Nondestructive
testing/evaluation devices should be incorporated into inaccessible parts of the deck panels to
monitor short and long-term performance and to facilitate maintenance inspection. These
disadvantages should not be viewed as hindrances. Rather, they should be welcomed as
development opportunity for the engineering community and industry. As structural
engineers learn more about the behavior of the composites, these problems will be resolved
through proper applications, detailing and further research.

2.6.4 The production of pipes, electric cables and ceiling

Polyvinyl chloride, more correctly but unusually poly(vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated
PVC, is the third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer, after polyethylene and
polypropylene. PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and
flexible. The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications
such as doors and windows. It is also used for bottles, other non-food packaging, and cards
(such as bank or membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition
of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in
plumbing, electrical cable insulation, imitation leather, signage, inflatable products, and many
applications where it replaces rubber. Pure poly (vinyl chloride) is a white, brittle solid. It is
insoluble in alcohol but slightly soluble in tetrahydrofuran.

PVC's relatively low cost, biological and chemical resistance and workability have resulted in
it being used for a wide variety of applications. It is used for sewerage pipes and other pipe
applications where cost or vulnerability to corrosion limit the use of metal. With the addition
of impact modifiers and stabilizers, PVC scrap has become a popular material for window
and door which is 50% less than the cost of wooden window and door. By adding
plasticizers, it can become flexible enough to be used in cabling applications as a wire
insulator. It has been used in many other applications. In 2013, about 39.3 million tonnes of
PVC were consumed worldwide. PVC demand is forecast to increase at an average annual
rate of 3.2% until 2021.[19]

Pipes: Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for
producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications. In the water distribution market it
accounts for 66% of the market in the US, and in sanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts

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for 75%. Its light weight, low cost, and low maintenance make it attractive. However, it must
be carefully installed and bedded to ensure longitudinal cracking and overbelling does not
occur. Additionally, PVC pipes can be fused together using various solvent cements, or heat-
fused (butt-fusion process, similar to joining HDPE pipe), creating permanent joints that are
virtually impervious to leakage. In the United States and Canada, PVC pipes account for the
largest majority of pipe materials used in buried municipal applications for drinking water
distribution and wastewater mains. Buried PVC pipes in both water and sanitary sewer
applications that are 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter and larger are typically joined by means
of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket utilized in North America is a
metal reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Rieber sealing system.[23]

Electric cables: PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables; PVC used for
this purpose needs to be plasticized. In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form hydrogen chloride
fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source of the material's fire
retardance. While HCl fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right, HCl dissolves
in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly in areas where the air is cool enough
to breathe, and is not available for inhalation. Frequently in applications where smoke is a
major hazard (notably in tunnels and communal areas) PVC-free cable insulation is preferred,
such as low smoke zero halogen (LSZH) insulation.

Unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (uPVC) for construction: "A modern Tudorbethan"

house with uPVC gutters and downspouts, fascia, decorative imitation "half-timbering",
windows, and doors. uPVC, also known as rigid PVC, is extensively used in the building
industry as a low-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom, in the
United States and Canada. In the USA and Canada it is known as vinyl, or vinyl siding. The
material comes in a range of colors and finishes, including a photo-effect wood finish, and is
used as a substitute for painted wood, mostly for window frames and sills when installing
double glazing in new buildings, or to replace older single-glazed windows. Other uses
include fascia, and siding or weatherboarding. This material has almost entirely replaced the
use of cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being used for waste pipes, drainpipes, gutters
and downspouts. uPVC does not contain phthalates, since those are only added to flexible
PVC, nor does it contain BPA. uPVC is known as having strong resistance against chemicals,
sunlight, and oxidation from water.

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Flooring: Flexible PVC flooring is inexpensive and used in a variety of buildings covering
the home, hospitals, offices, schools, etc. Complex and 3D designs are possible due to the
prints that can be created which are then protected by a clear wear layer. A middle vinyl foam
layer also gives a comfortable and safe feel. The smooth, tough surface of the upper wear
layer prevents the buildup of dirt, which prevents microbes from breeding in areas that need
to be kept sterile, such as hospitals and clinics.

Signs: Poly (vinyl chloride) is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknesses and colors. As
flat sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in the interior of the material, providing
additional thickness without additional weight and minimal extra cost (see Closed-cell PVC
foamboard). Sheets are cut using saw and rotary cutting equipment. Plasticized PVC is also
used to produce thin, colored, or clear, adhesive-backed films referred to simply as vinyl.
These films are typically cut on a computer-controlled plotter or printed in a wide-format
printer. These sheets and films are used to produce a wide variety of commercial signage
products and markings on vehicles, e.g. car body stripes.

2.6.5 The use of geogrid against reflective cracking

Reflective cracking can simply be defined as the propagation of existing cracks in an old
pavement through the underside of the overlay to the surface. All these definitions imply that
two processes are involved in the appearance of reflective cracks on the surface of the
overlays, which are the crack initiation and crack propagation processes and they also
highlighted the two major causes of reflective cracking. Several approaches have been
adopted to mitigate the problem of reflective cracking. One of such method being the use of
geogrid - a polymeric material. Several research works have proved the use og geogrid to be
effective against reflective cracking. Sanders et al (1999) carried out laboratory tests to
evaluate the effect of grids on crack and rut control. He made use of beams placed on a 13
mm rubber foundation. The laboratory work included beam testing (on elastic foundation),
large scale cyclic shear box testing and wheel loading in a pavement test facility. The beams,
of dimension 400 mm in length, 200 mm width and 120 mm height, were reinforced at 30
mm from the bottom of the beam. They reported that the beam test results showed changes of
behaviour which depend on reinforcement type. The beams reinforced with glass grids and
control samples had similar shapes, as did the plots of composite-reinforced and steel and
polypropylene grid-reinforced beams. It was stated that the difference in performance of the
grids was due largely to the level of stress generated in the asphalt-reinforcement bond. They

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pointed out that the pavement test results showed clear differences in the performance of
reinforced and unreinforced sections, both in cracking and rutting. They concluded that the
reinforced pavements withstood approximately twice the number of wheel loads before the
development of active surface cracking.

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