Engr. Dr. Jonathan A.

Enokela

EEE382 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE, AVAILABILITY, and DEPENDABILITY

All recoverable systems which are used for continuous or intermittent service for some period of time
are subject, at one time or another, to maintenance.

Maintenance actions can be classified in two categories. First, there is off-schedule maintenance,
necessitated by system in-service failure or malfunction. Its purpose is to restore system operation as
soon as possible by replacing, repairing, or adjusting the component or components which cause
interruption of service. Second, there is scheduled maintenance at regular intervals; its purpose is to
keep the system in a condition consistent with its built-in levels of performance, reliability, and , where
applicable safety.

Scheduled maintenance fulfils this purpose by servicing, inspections and minor or major overhauls
during which

(i) regular care is provided to normally operating subsystems and components which require
such attention (lubrication, refuelling, cleaning, adjustment, alignment, etc).
(ii) failed or redundant components are checked, replaced, or repaired if the system contains
redundancy, and
(iii) components which are nearing a wear out condition are replaced or overhauled.

These actions are performed to prevent component and system failure rates from increasing over and
above the design levels. Therefore, scheduled maintenance is also called preventive maintenance.

The frequency at which maintenance actions of type (i) must be performed to prevent system reliability
degradation depends on the physical characteristics of the components involved; for type (iii) items it
depends on the wear out statistics of the components and their number in a system.

The frequency of type (ii) maintenance actions is of a different character because it is governed by
probabilities. It depends on the failure rate of the components in a redundant system and on the
reliability requirements at which such a system must operate. If failed components are detected, they
must be replaced or repaired to restore the system to its design reliability level. The time required for
such inspection and maintenance actions can be estimated in man hours and in clock hours and
allocated in advance as an additional time to be added to the fixed times provided for types (i) and (iii).

As to the frequency of the off-schedule maintenance, this is strictly a function of the failure rates of
those components or units which cause in-service failures of the system, and therefore it is a function of
the reciprocal of the system’s mean time between failures, (MTBF) m.

For every t operating hours there will be on the average t/m in-service system failures, and therefore on
the average t/m off-schedule maintenance actions will have to be performed. Off-schedule maintenance
is also called Corrective maintenance. The man hours required for these repairs will vary with the
components which cause the failure. The t/m off-schedule maintenance actions can be broken down

1
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

into t /m1 , t /m2 , t/m 3 etc, i.e. the number of maintenance actions to be performed on the individual
components and units which have MTBF m 1, m 2, m 3, etc. The total average number of off-schedule
maintenance actions for t system operating hours is thus given by:
n n
t t t t t
= + + + …=∑ =∑ λi t … … … … … … … … … … … .(1)
m m1 m2 m3 i=1 m i i=1

Now if the time in man-hours required for repairing a system failure caused by component 1 (which has
a MTBF of m 1) is known to be T 1 and for component 2 it is T 2, etc, then the total average man-hours H 0
involved in off-schedule maintenance for every t system operating hours become
n n
t t t T
H 0= T 1+ T 2+ T 3+ …=∑ i t=∑ λ i T i t … … … … … … … .(2)
m1 m2 m3 i =1 m i i=1

The individual times T i which represent the times needed to restore system operation in each particular
case depend on the physical location and design characteristics of the components in the system,
including their accessibility, their mountings, and the provisions made to detect the component which
has failed. The times T i may become longer if unskilled personnel is used, in which case T i has to be
multiplied by a factor larger than unity. This factor can be defined as the reciprocal of personnel
efficiency or skill.

Assuming that H 0 in eqn (2) is the total average time in manhours required for a system’s off-schedule
maintenance with personnel of a given skill, and that it includes fault location before repair and check
out after repair, it can be converted into a total clock time T 0 according to the available manpower.
When this time T 0 is added to the total time allocated to system preventive maintenance, we obtain the
total maintenance clock time T m, or time to repair, which has to be spent on the average for each t
system operating hours:

T m=T p +T 0 … … … … …. (3)

Where T p is the time for preventive maintenance

and T 0 is the time for corrective maintenance.

This also represents the system’s functional down time. Thus with a provision made for down time other
than functional designated T r, which may be the scheduled idle periods for t system operating hours or
other scheduled activities such as administrative time, etc, we obtain the system utilization factor:

total operating time t

U= ¿ … … … … … … … .( 4)
total operating time+total down time T p +T 0 +T r +t

The time t is the time the system will be expected to operate for the calendar time, T p+ T 0 +T r +t . It is
customary to choose one year or 8760 hours as calendar time.

2
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

If the total down time is made up of only the maintenance time T m=T p +T 0, then we obtain the
maximum possible utilization factor and this is given by

t
U m= … … … … … … ..(5)
T m +t

To increase this factor necessities a reduction in T m at the design stage. This can be done in several
ways-by increasing the system’s MTBF, which will reduce the number of in-service failures, and, in
addition, by reducing T i in equation (2). These measures will result in a reduction of man hours H 0 and
the time T 0 required for off-schedule maintenance. The most effective design procedure is to reduce the
times T i of those components which have the lowest m i, which means to locate these components in
the system so that they will be easily accessible and to see that their mounting arrangements will allow
fast replacement.

When several maintenance actions are being performed simultaneously on a system by a crew, the
maintenance clock time required for restoring system to operation is determined by the longest
maintenance action. In this case the shorter maintenance actions do not enter into the clock time, or
down time, computation at all. But the number of man hours required by each individual action is
important because it is a measure of the total maintenance effort which has to be expended and allows
us to plan for the optimum manpower and to establish optimum maintenance charts, so that the
maintenance clock time, or down time, can be minimized.

In equation (5) we defined the maximum possible system utilization factor, U m =t /(T m+ t). This factor is
a measure of the system’s availability because it gives the percentage of time the system will be
available for operation. We have seen that to operate for t hours out of a total time of T m +t hours, the
system requires T m hours for scheduled and off-schedule maintenance. If for the system operating time
we select its MTBF m, we can then derive the average maintenance time or mean time to repair MTTR,
T m ' which is required for every m system operating hours. Because it is customary to choose
T m +t=8760 hours so that T m is the clock time in hours, the average maintenance time or MTTR T m '
per m system operating hours will be

' m m Tm
MTTR=T m=T m . = … … … … … … … (6)
t 8760−T m

Where m is the system’s MTBF for a given maintenance policy, and T m the system’s down time per year.
Using m and T m ' instead of t and T m in the expression for utilization factor [equation (5)] we obtain

U m=
mT m /T m '
=
mT m
m
( T1 ' )
¿
1
T m'
=
m
m+T m '
( )
mT m 1 1 +1
T m+ mT m + m
Tm' m Tm '

3
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

The above equation is, by definition, called the system availability A:

m
A= … … … … … … … ..(7)
m+T m '

Or

MTBF
A= … … … … … … .(8)
MTBF + MTTR

This equation gives the percentage of time the system will be available for service. The highest value of
A is unity or 100% and occurs only if a system never requires maintenance and therefore if MTTR is zero.
When analyzing A we find that it is a ratio of system operating hours to the sum of system operating plus
maintenance hours. By its nature, therefore, this ratio called system availability A, is a probability.
Conversely, we can also define a complementary probability B so that A+B = 1, and B is the probability
that the system will not be available for operation. This probability, called system unavailability, is given
by

Tm' MTTR
B= = … … … … … … … … … ..(9)
m+T m ' MTBF + MTTR

By substituting for T m ' the system’s functional down time T m per year in equations (7) and (9) can be
obtained in a much simpler way and these are:

Tm Down time
A=1− =1− … … … … … … … … .(10)
8760 total ( calendar ) time

Tm Down time
B= = … … … … … … … … ….. (11)
8760 total time

Sometimes it is required to know the probability that a system will be available for operation between
any two scheduled maintenances, i.e. when assigned to continuous duty so that it must be available at a
moment’s notice or is required to operate without interruption. We call this probability system
Dependability D. For the value of D we must leave out T p (which stands for average scheduled
maintenance) from the term T m so that T m=T 0, the average off-scheduled maintenance time and take
this on a per year basis. Thus

m m
D= = [using equation ( 6 ) ]
m+T m ' m
m+T 0
t
1 1
¿ = 8760−T 0 8760−T 0 T
T0 T0 ¿ = ∴ D=1− 0 … … … … … … … .(12)
1+ 1+ 8760−T 0 +T 0 8760 8760
t 8760−T 0

4
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

OVERHAULS AND PART REPLACEMENTS

The repair time required for each component varies according to its physical characteristics and location
in the system but variations of the repair time also exist for identical components in identical locations.
There is a certain minimum time required to get to the faulty component and to remove it as well as to
put it back again or to replace it by another. This time varies with skill, as does the actual repair time,
but it is safe to assume that for a given component in a given location, the over-all repair time is
approximately normally distributed, with some mean and standard deviation. From the normal curve
the probability that the repair will be performed in a time equal to the mean time M is 0.5 or 50%, and
the probability that the repair will be completed in a time of, say, M −3 σ is only 0.0014 or 0.14
percent, etc. This probability of repairing a particular component in a given system in a given time is
sometimes referred to as the maintainability.

The functional down time between two regular or scheduled overhauls depends on system reliability
which determines the average number of system failures and on the time it takes to repair these
failures. When the MTBF of a system is m, conclusions can be drawn as to how often the system will fail
in a time T 0 between two regular overhauls, where T 0 is the system’s operating time and amounts to
the calendar time T less the total down time T D .

If between two regular overhauls the system is not affected by wear out failures so that it behaves
exponentially, its reliability of operating for T 0 hours between the two overhauls is

−T 0/ m
R ( T 0 )=e … … … … … … … … … ..(13)

where T 0 is the required operating time.

For instance, if the overhaul time of an equipment or system is fixed for every T 0=800 hours of
operation and MTBF of this equipment is m = 4000 hours, the probability that the equipment will
operate without failing for 800 hours is
−T 0 /m −800/ 4000 −0.2
R=e =e =e =0.81873

This means that we would expect about 82% of these equipments to reach the regular overhaul time
without failing, and about 18% would fail before the time T 0. Therefore about 18% of the equipment
would have to be overhauled before the regular 800 hours. Thus the expected average overhaul time for
all these equipments would be less than 800 hours.

The average time between overhaul T avg is computed as a mean time for the operating period, T 0,
similar to the way the MTBF is computed from R as the integral from zero to infinity. The time T avg is
actually a mean time between both scheduled and unscheduled overhauls.
T0

T avg=∫ Rdt … … … … … …(14)

0

5
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

In the exponential case this equals

T0
T0
T avg=∫ e−t / m dt=−m [ e−t /m ]
0 0

i .e .T avg=−m(e ¿ ¿−T 0 /m−1)=m ( 1−e−T /m ) =mQ ( T 0 ) … … … … … … … …..(15)¿

0

Thus in our case, with Q ( T 0 )=0.18 , m=4000

T avg=4000× 0.18=720 hours.

Thus, if we had 100 of these equipments with a scheduled time between regular overhauls of T 0=800
hrs, about 82 would operate without failure for the full 800 hours, and averaging over the 100
equipments, the average time between overhauls would be 720 hours. The knowledge of this average
time allows us to plan for a total number of overhauls over a long period of time.

The main function of overhaul is to prevent wear out. For single components the replacement or
overhaul time must be kept at M −3 σ ∨M −4 σ or in between to prevent wear out from appreciably
increasing the failure rate. If large numbers of components are in a system, this replacement or overhaul
time must be further reduced to M −5 σ to M −6 σ , according to reliability requirements.

BASICS OF FAULT DIAGNOSIS

An electronic circuit is a collection of components connected together to perform a particular electronic

function. Each component has its part to play in the operation of the circuit. If any component should
fail, then the operation will be drastically changed. A faulty component produces a certain set of
symptoms, which can be used to indicate the component and its type of fault. Such symptoms are, for
example, the voltage levels at various points in the circuit.

Skilful fault diagnosis requires both theoretical knowledge and practical experience. Before attempting
the diagnosis of faulty components the engineer or technician will need to understand the purpose of
the circuit and its operation. This clearly presupposes that he understands the principle of operation of
the various electronic components used.

COMPONENTS AND COMMON FAULTS

A component can be said to have failed if any one of its constants is out of its specified limit. For
example, if a 5.6 k Ω± 5 % resistor actually has a resistance of 6 k Ω, or if the leakage current of a
64 μF ,12 V electrolytic capacitor is 150 μA when it is specified as a maximum of 10 μA , then both
components have failed.

6
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Both these examples can be described as partial failures, since they do not necessarily lead to a
complete loss of performance, rather to a small change. Partial failures are especially important when
the component is used in a critical circuit position.

The faults we are more concerned with are called catastrophic failures, when the failure of the
component is both sudden and complete. For example, a resistor goes very high in value, or becomes
open circuited, or a diode develops a short circuit between anode and cathode. Such failures lead to a
complete loss of performance and are usually accompanied by a drastic change in dc bias levels.

As a general rule certain types of component fail in a particular way. When resistors, especially the film
type, fail they often go open circuit, since a small break in the resistance spiral is a much more likely
event than a short circuit across the whole resistor. Electrolytic capacitors on the other hand are more
prone to fail short circuit. Table 1 indicates the more probable types of failure for various types of
electronic component.

It is perhaps easy to understand failures caused by defects and overloads, but why should a component
fail in normal use? Basically the component is ageing because of the stresses that are acting
continuously upon it. These stresses are of two kinds, operating and environmental. The operating
stress is due to the design conditions and the life of a component can be prolonged by operating it well
within its rated maximum value of current, voltage and power. This is called derating. Environmental
stresses are those caused by the surrounding conditions. High temperature, high humidity, mechanical
shock and vibration, high or low pressure, and corrosive chemicals or dust in the air, are the major
adverse conditions. All of these stresses affect the component and cause some deviation from the
specification, and finally the component will fail.

Table 1

Components Common Type of Fault

Resistors High in Value or Open Circuit
Variable Resistors Open Circuit or Intermittent Contact resulting
From mechanical wear
Capacitors Open or Short Circuit
Inductors Open Circuit; Short-Circuited turns; Short-Circuit
(Including Transformers) Coil to Frame (Iron-Cored Type)
Semiconductor Devices: Open or Short-Circuit at any junction
Diodes, Transistors, FETs, SCR, etc.

For example, consider a component subjected to continual cycles of heating and cooling; this may cause
the material from which the component is made to become brittle, and any mechanical shock may then
cause the component to fail open circuit.

The effects of adverse environmental conditions can usually be minimized by careful design, and this is
increasingly important when an electronic instrument forms an integral part of some industrial
manufacturing process where high temperatures, vibration and other hazards are present.

7
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Another cause of component failure is high voltage pulses or spikes, generated from switched inductive
loads, being transmitted along the mains and appearing on internal supply wires. These spikes can easily
lead to the breakdown of junctions in semiconductor devices.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF COMMON ACTIVE COMPONENTS

Semiconductor Diodes

These devices have a low slope resistance when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, a
typical value being 25 Ω at a forward current of 1 mA . When the anode is negative with respect to the
cathode, the resistance is very high, greater than 100 M Ω for a silicon diode. In order to pass current in
the forward direction, a small forward bias is necessary, about 200 mV for a germanium device and
600 mV for a silicon diode.

Anode Cathode

Diode Symbol
P N
Fig. 1

Bipolar Transistors

The bipolar transistor is a three-layer device. Depending on the arrangement of the layers, the BJT is
either NPN or PNP.

C C

B B Fig. 2

E E

E
N P N C E P N P C

B B

The transistor is best considered as a device in which a current flowing between the collector and
emitter is controlled by a much smaller current flowing between the base and emitter. For correct
operation the silicon transistor requires a small forward bias voltage of approximately 600 mV between
base and emitter to overcome the junction potential set up by the fixed charges in the depletion region.

8
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

The transistor can be operated in three possible configurations, called common base, common emitter,
and common collector. The base, the emitter or the collector is made the common terminal for the
input and output signals. The relationship between the three currents flowing in a bipolar transistor,
neglecting any leakage current, can be written as

I E =I C + I B . . .(16)

The base current I B is much smaller than both I E and I C.

The Field Effect Transistor

The operation of FETs differs from the bipolar transistor in that the current flowing through the
FET is controlled by a voltage input. The terminals are called drain, source, and gate and the
simplified construction of an n-channel junction FET is shown in figure 3:

P+

S D G Fig. 3
n-channel

P+
S

Figure 3 shows that the FET is made from a bar of n-type material to which contacts called drain
and source are made at each end. Two P-regions formed into the bar directly opposite each
other are connected together and are called the gate.

A current will flow between source and drain when the voltage between drain and source is positive.
However, this current will fall if the gate voltage is made negative with respect to the source. When the
gate is negative, depletion regions are formed, and this reduces the channel width between source and
drain, thus the current falls. When the gate is made sufficiently negative, say -3V, these depletion
regions meet and the drain current is cut-off.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND TESTING METHODS

To get information about the symptoms of a particular fault, a set of voltage readings at critical points in
the circuits must be taken. This information, together with additional information on waveforms, is
usually all that is necessary for correct fault diagnosis. So the most essential pieces of test equipments

9
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

for fault finding are: a good, general purpose multi range meter, and an oscilloscope. The meter should
have sensitivity on dc range of at least 20 k Ω/V in order to prevent the loading of circuit from which
measurement is being made.

The meter could be a portable moving-coil meter or a digital multimeter. The latter displays the
measured voltage, current or resistance on a three or more in-line digital display. The input resistance of
these instruments is typically10 M Ω, which means that the unit takes only a small current from the
circuit being measured.

THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

This is perhaps the most versatile measuring instrument available. With it, it is possible to measure dc
and ac voltage, current, phase angle, and many other quantities. The accuracy depends to a great extent
on the care paid to the instrument’s calibration. The typical input impedance of a CRO is 1 M Ω which
has a capacitance of about 20 ρF in parallel with it.

FAULT FINDING ON ELECTRONIC INSRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS

When a complete instrument is returned for repair, the service engineer must first locate which block of
the instrument is faulty before he can locate the actual component that has failed. There are various
methods used to narrow down the fault to one block, but before these are discussed, it is useful to
consider some fairly obvious but often over looked points:

1. The service engineer must have a maintenance manual with up-to-date circuit diagrams. This
manual should also give the figures of the performance specification.
2. The engineer must have all the necessary TEST equipments
3. The engineer then has to define the fault accurately. This point is very important. The symptoms
must be accurately noted and this means that a functional test must be made on the
instrument.

For example consider that a signal generator has been returned for repair with a suspect power supply
failure. Before taking off the cover and checking power supply line, the service engineer would

(a) Check the mains fuses and if not blown

(b) Check for sine wave output on all ranges
(c) Then make notes of the fault symptoms.

The complete circuits of most electronic instruments can be broken down into a series of functional
blocks; for example in a general purpose sine wave generator these would be power supply, variable
sine wave oscillator, buffer amplifier, and output attenuator. By treating the instrument in blocks, rather
than as a whole, it is possible to narrow down the search for a faulty component first of all to one block,
then by measurements within that block to locate the actual faulty component. The methods used to
decide which block is faulty are

(a) Input to output (or beginning to end)

10
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

(b) Output to input

(c) Random
(d) Half-split

All of these have their particular advantages and uses. The random method, which implies a totally non-
systematic approach, is rarely used. A method based on the reliability of components can also be used
when there is a wealth of service knowledge and experience concerning a particular instrument. For
example, a service engineer might make the reasonable assumption that, because a particular
electrolytic capacitor has been at fault in 60% of the instruments recently returned, it is a strong
possibility that the next faulty instrument also has a faulty electrolytic capacitor. He would naturally
check this first, and in most cases save valuable service time. It must be stressed, however, that this
method depends upon the availability of a large amount of data on the reliability of the various
components within an instrument. Most service engineers would use a logical systematic approach to
system fault location.

The input to output and output to input methods are examples of this systematic approach. The
method is fairly obvious. A suitable input signal (if required) is injected into the input block and then
measurements are made sequentially at the output of each block in turn, working either from the input
towards the output or from the output back to the input, until the faulty block is located. This logical
method is the one most service engineers use on equipment containing a limited number of blocks.

The half-split method is very powerful in locating faults in instruments made up of large number of
blocks in series. Take for example a superheat radio receiver shown in block diagram in figure 4. Since
there are eight blocks it is possible to divide the circuit in half, test that half, decide which half is working
correctly, then split the non functioning section into half again to locate the fault. Assume that a fault
exists in the demodulator of the receiver. The sequence of tests would be as follows:

1
Aerial

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

RF Amp Freq. Changer IF1 IF2 Demodulator AF Amp Loud Speaker

Fig. 4

(a) Split in half, inject signal into the input of (1) (aerial circuit) and check output at (4)(IF). Output
is correct. Therefore the fault is somewhere in block (5) to (8).
(b) Split blocks (5) to (8) in half by checking output of (6). Input signal can be left at (1). No output.
(c) Leaving signal at (1), check output from (5). Output should be correct, indicating that the faulty
block is (6), the demodulator.

11
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

The half-split method is most useful when the number of components or blocks in series is very large,
for example where several series plug and socket connections are used. There are, however, several
assumptions made for the half-split:

(a) That all components are equally reliable

(b) That it is possible and practical to make measurements at the desired point and
(c) That all checks are similar and take the same amount of time. These assumptions will not always
be valid and it is up to the service engineer to then decide the best method of approach.

The half-split method can also be easily complicated by

(a) An odd number of series units

(b) Divergence: an output from one block feeding two or more units
(c) Convergence: two or more inputs being necessary for the correct operation of one unit.
(d) Feedback: which may be used to modify the characteristics of the unit or in fact be a sustaining
network for an oscillator.

When using any of the methods as described, try and use the method, or a combination of them, that
will locate the faulty block in a system in the shortest possible time.

SINGLE STAGE TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

Before considering any fault conditions, the operation of the circuit must be understood. Consider the
single stage amplifier circuit of figure 5. The bias circuit achieves stabilization by fixing the value of the
base voltage V B and by keeping it constant irrespective of changes in the base current. To do this
the values of R1 and R2 must be chosen so that the current flowing through them is much
greater than the transistor base current. These resistors form a potential divider and if we
neglect base current, the dc base voltage can be calculated from

R2
V B ≈ V CC
R1 + R2

And the emitter voltage

V E=V B−V BE

And

VE
I E=
R4

Since
I E ≈ I C, the dc voltage at the collector V C is given by

V C =V CC−I C R 3

12
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Now, since V B is fixed, the dc current through the transistor will be fixed, and this gives the
operating point V C .

VCC = 12V

R1 R3
C2
2 + -
Output

- + 1
Fig. 5 R1 = 47k, R2 = 12k, R3 = 2.2k, R4 =
C1
3 0.560k, C1 = 10µF, C2 = 10µF, C3
Input = 100µF
+
R2 R4 C3
-

For the circuit shown in figure 5 the calculations of the dc bias voltages would be as follows:

R2 12 ×12
V B=V CC = =2.4 V V E=V B−V BE=2.4−0.7=1.7 V
R 1+ R 2 47+12
1.7
I C =I E =V E /R 4= =3.05 mA
0.56

V C =12−3.05 ×2.2=5.3 V

These values are tabulated as:

TP 1 2 3
V 2. 5.3 1.7
4

When the circuit is built, the actual voltages measured with a 20 k Ω/V meter will be slightly different
due to resistor tolerances and meter loading. The actual readings are:

TP 1 2 3
V 2. 5.5 1.7
3

13
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Now let us consider the effect of component failures, taking each in turn.

Resistor Faults

R1 open circuit

TP 1 2 3 No Output
Meter Reading (MR) 0 12 0 Signal

When R1 goes open circuit, the current flowing in R2 and the base is zero. The transistor is cut off so
both the emitter and base voltages are zero. Since no collector current is flowing the voltage dropped
across the collector load R3 is zero and the collector voltage itself is the same as the supply voltage V CC .

R2 open circuit

TP 1 2 3 Grossly distorted output; negative-going

MR 3. 2.6 2.5 Signals clipped
2

Without R2 in the circuit the current that was flowing through R2 now tries to flow into the base of the
transistor. This increased base current causes the transistor to be saturated so that V CE becomes very
small.

R3 Open Circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
MR 0.75 0. 0.1 signal
1

Without R3 in circuit the collector current is zero, so any current flowing in the emitter must now be
supplied from the base. The base-emitter junction acts like a forward biased diode placing R4 in parallel
with R2. Since R4 is a low value resistor the emitter voltage falls to a very low value. The base voltage is
about 650 mV greater than the emitter voltage.

It might be reasonable to assume that the voltage reading at the collector would be zero since the
resistance is open circuit. However, when the meter is connected it presents a high resistance path from
the collector to ground and the base-collector junction acts like a forward biased diode passing a small
current through the meter.

R4 Open Circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
MR 2.3 12 2 signal

14
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

With an open circuit between emitter and ground, no current flows through the transistor. The collector
voltage therefore rises to V CC . The voltage at the base is fixed by the potential divider R1 and R2 and
since the base current is small in comparison to the current through R2 this voltage hardly changes at
all.

As with the previous example when the meter is connected between emitter and ground, a small
emitter current flows so the voltage indicated at the emitter is slightly higher than normal.

CAPACITOR FAULTS

C 1∨C2 Open Circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
M 2.3 5.5 1.7 signal
R

With this type of fault the bias conditions of the circuits are unchanged. The fault can only be an open
circuit coupling capacitor. A check with an oscilloscope is necessary to determine which one is actually
faulty.

C 3 Open Circuit

TP 1 2 3 Low Gain
M 2.3 5. 1.7
R 5

Again the bias conditions are unchanged. The symptom that identifies this fault is the fact that the
amplifier voltage gain has fallen. With C 3 open circuit, R4 introduces negative feedback thus causing a
reduction in gain.

C 3 short circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
MR 0.7 0.15 0 signal

The emitter resistor R4 is shorted out, so the emitter voltage reads 0 V . The transistor, heavily forward
biased, saturates and therefore attempts to pass a large current. However, the transistor current is

15
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

limited to a value given by V CC /R 3 which prevents the transistor from being damaged. The base voltage
must be 0.7 V higher than the emitter.

TRANSISTOR FAULTS

Collector-Base junction open circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
MR 0.75 12 0.1 signal

Since the collector is open there can be no collector current flowing, so the voltage at TP2 rises to
+12 V . The base-emitter junction now acts as a forward biased diode in a similar way as for the fault of
R3 open circuit.

Collector-Base junction short circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
M 3 3 2.3 signal
R

As with any short circuit a clue to the fault is given by the fact that the voltages on the base and
collector are equal. With this fault the circuit effectively reduces to R3 in series with the base-emitter
diode and R4 . The resistance of this path is much lower than R1∧R 2, so the effect of the latter resistors
can be neglected. The current flowing in R4 is given by

V CC−V BE 12−0.7
I= = =4 mA
R 3+ R 4 2.76

The voltage at the emitter will then be I × R 4 =2.3V . The voltages at TP1 and TP2 will be 0.7 V higher
than this, sufficient to forward bias the base-emitter diode.

Emitter-Base junction open circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
MR 2.3 12 0 signal

With this fault there can be no current flowing in the transistors. The voltage drops across R3∧R 4 are
zero, so the collector voltage rises to V CC and the emitter voltage is 0 V . The voltage on the base is

16
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

determined by the potential divider R1∧R 2 and, therefore, remains at 2.3 V . There is no difference in
the symptoms if the base or the emitter connection to the junction is open circuit.

Emitter-Base junction short circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
M 0.13 12 0.13 signal
R

The voltage at TP1 and TP3 will be equal and at a low value since R4 , a low resistance, is placed directly
in parallel with R2. With a shorted base-emitter junction all transistor action ceases, so the collector
voltage rises to V CC .

Collector-Emitter short circuit

TP 1 2 3 No output
M 2.3 2.5 2.5 signal
R

The voltage at the emitter is equal to that on the collector, indicating a short. The value of the voltage
will be determined by R3∧R 4 which now form a potential divider. The base voltage remains unchanged
at 2.3 V since the emitter voltage has risen, thus cutting off the base-emitter diode.

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS

Practically all electronic instruments require a source of dc power before they will operate. Sometimes
the source is a battery, but more usually the power is obtained from a unit that converts the normal
single phase ac mains supply (220 V , 50 Hz) to some different value of dc voltage. The function of the
power supply is to provide the necessary dc voltage and current, with low levels of ac ripple (mains
hums) and with good stability and regulation. In other words it must provide a stable dc output voltage
irrespective of changes in the mains input voltage and of changes in the load current. A further
important requirement of a modern unit is that it should be able to limit the available output current in
the event of an overload (current limiting) and also limit the maximum output voltage. Damage to
sensitive components, such as integrated circuits, in the instrument can easily occur if excessive voltages
appear on the power supply lines.

There are various methods of achieving a stable dc voltage from the ac mains, but only two methods are
commonly used. These are

(i) Using a linear stabilizer

(ii) Using a switching mode stabilizer.

17
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Both have their advantages and disadvantages. The switching mode power supply unit (SMPU) finds its
main use in high-power applications (100W upwards).

THE LINEAR STABILIZED POWER SUPPLY

The block diagram of a conventional power unit is shown in figure 6.

Stable dc Output
Transformer Filter +
Rectifier
Mains Input
Regulator Load
220V, 50Hz

Fig. 6

The transformer servers two main purposes; it isolates the equipment dc power lines from the mains
supply, and it changes the level of the ac mains voltage to some lower or higher value. The ratio of the
secondary voltage to primary voltage is determined by the number of turns on each winding. The
rectifier unit converts the ac voltage from the transformer secondary winding into pulses of
unidirectional current. Three types of rectifier circuit are used for single phase: the half-wave, the full-
wave and the bridge. These, together with their output waveforms, are shown in figure 7.

The half-wave rectifier, although being a simple circuit, has the main disadvantage of low efficiency. The
diode conducts only on one half of the cycle, so the efficiency cannot be greater than 50%. The full-wave
rectifier uses two diodes each conducting on alternate half cycles to give much higher efficiency.
However, to achieve this, a transformer with a centre tapped secondary winding is necessary. This
means that twice the number of turns is required on the secondary winding. The bridge rectifier, which
is the most common circuit, uses four diodes to achieve rectification over the whole cycle, and no centre
tap is required. The four diodes can now be supplied in one encapsulated unit, which is more convenient
and somewhat cheaper than wiring in four separate diodes.
Vd Vo
+ -
+
+
Input Vs RL Vo
- - t

Fig. 7a Half-wave Rectifier

D1
Vo
Vs
RL
Input
Vo
Vs t
18
D2 Fig. 7b Full-wave Rectifier
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

+ - +
-

Following the rectifier is the filter which serves to smoothen out the pulses received from the rectifier.
The circuit can have either a capacitive or an inductive input as shown in figure 8, or it can simply be a
single capacitor.

The inductive filter, or choke input filter, is more commonly used when the power unit has to supply a
large load current. On low power equipment a capacitive input filter is more typical. The input capacitor,
called the “reservoir”, is used as a storage device for electric charge. Let us suppose that a reservoir

+ + +
- - -

(a) Capacitor Input Fig. 8 (b) Choke Input

capacitor is connected to the output of a half-wave rectifier as shown in figure 9. When the diode
conducts on the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged and a large pulse of current is taken. The
voltage across the capacitor then rises to nearly the peak value of the ac secondary voltage. When the
secondary voltage begins to fall, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the capacitor now discharges
through the load resistor. The voltage across the load now more represents a dc level, but superimposed
upon it is an alternating waveform, called the ripple. The value of the ripple amplitude depends upon

19
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

the size of the capacitor and the load resistance. To achieve low values of ripple a high-value electrolytic
capacitor has to be used. A number of points should be noted concerning the reservoir capacitor.

(a) Since it is an electrolytic, it is polarized and must be connected correctly in the circuit.
(b) Its dc working voltage must be greater than the peak of the transformer secondary voltage.
(c) It must be physically large since it has to absorb large pulses of current when it is charging, the
peak values of which may be several amperes. If too small a capacitor is fitted it may overheat
and possibly explode.

The other components of the circuit form a low pass filter, which reduce still further the output ripple
voltage. Typical values for the iron-cored inductor are 1-5 Henries and for C 2, 500 μF . The inductor is
often replaced by a wire-wound resistor of low value.

D
+ Vo
+ Vo
C RL
-
- t

I
Current through
Capacitor

Fig. 9
t

The last block is the regulator, which is used to keep the output voltage constant irrespective of changes
in the mains input voltage and of changes in the load current. These two functions are called line
stabilization and load regulation, respectively. As shown in figure 10, all linear regulators comprise

(a) Control unit

(b) A reference element (usually a Zener diode)
(c) An error amplifier

20
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Control
+ +
Element

Potential divider
R1

Unstabilzed
Input
Stabilized
From Error R2 DC Output
Filter Amp

Reference
Element

- -
Fig. 10

In operation, the circuit compares a portion of the dc output voltage with the reference voltage. Any
difference between the two levels is amplified by the error amplifier whose output is fed to the control
unit. The stability and regulation of the output voltage depends on the stability of the reference element
and the gain of the error amplifier. High gain operational amplifiers in IC form are now commonly used
as the error amplifier to give power supplies of excellent performance. The main advantage of the linear
regulator is that the output is continuously controlled to give good stabilization against mains input
changes. A typical specification for an output voltage of +15 V @100 mA load current is:

Line Stability 10,000:1

(a 10V change in mains supply giving a
1 mV in DC Output)
Output Ripple 0.1 mV peak-to-peak at full load
DC Output Impedance 0.05 Ohms
Temperature Coefficient 200 µV per degree Centigrade
Load Regulation 0.033% from zero to full load
(i.e. an output change of 5 mV)

The limitation in the linear regulator circuit is that good performance is achieved at the expense of
inefficiency. Power is dissipated and lost in the series control transistor and this power loss increases
with load current. A large heat sink is required to ensure that the junction temperature of the series
transistor is kept within its rated value. For power units supplying above about 100W, the switching
mode regulator becomes a preferred alternative.

SWITCHING MODE POWER SUPPLIES (SMPU)

21
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

There are two main variations of this type. In one, a fast switching transistor is used as the control
element in the regulator (figure 11). This transistor is switched on and off at a frequency above audio
(usually 20 kHz ). The dc output voltage, after being smoothened by a low pass filter, is controlled by
varying the mark-to-space ratio of the switching signal. Such techniques are known as secondary
switching. The error signal generated by comparing the dc output with a reference level, is used to
control the duty cycle of a free-running oscillator. The advantage of this type of circuit is that the series
transistor heat dissipation is greatly reduced, hence greater regulator efficiency.

L Switch +
Unstabilized +
Filter Load
N Supply - -

Square Wave Duty Cycle

Comparator
Oscillator Control

Reference
Supply
Fig. 11

Another form of the SMPU is shown in figure 12 and uses a principle called primary switching. The mains
supply itself, after rectification and smoothening, is switched at high frequency by high voltage switching
transistors. With this method the transformer following the switching transistors can be much smaller
than the bulky 50 Hz transformer required in conventional supplies.

Regulation is achieved by again varying the switching duty cycle of the transistors. Naturally RF
suppression circuits must be included to reduce the switching spikes that would otherwise be fed back
into the mains supply. This SMPU offers considerable advantages in terms of efficiency, reduction in
heat loss, and reduction in overall volume. However it does not possess the regulation performance that
can be achieved in the linear circuit. Switching mode supplies are now commonly used where large
currents at low voltage are required, as in equipment using many digital IC s .

22
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

L
+
Bridge
Rectifier Stabilized
C
DC Output
N

Push-Pull
Drive

20 kHz Square Pulse Width Comparator

Wave Oscillator Modulator Reference Voltage

Fig. 12

POWER SUPPLY PROTECTION CIRCUITS

Some form of protection must be incorporated in even the simplest power supply. A common form is
the standard fuse which serves to disconnect the unit from the main’s supply when an overload or short
circuit occurs. A power unit may have fuses in the line and neutral mains wires, and also a fuse in the dc
unstabilized line. Fuses usually do not blow soon enough to protect the series transistor in the regulator
if the output is short-circuited, and so some form of current limiting is used. A simple circuit for
achieving this is shown in figure 13 where the load current flows through a low value current monitoring
resistor. If the load current increases beyond a pre-determined value, the voltage developed across this
resistor turns on Q 2 which in turn tends to turn off Q 1.

Over voltage protections can be provided by a circuit which senses the dc output voltage, and compares
it with a reference level as in figure 14. If the dc output voltage rises above V Z a signal is generated
which triggers the thyristor and this short circuits the output, either blowing a dc line fuse or operating
the current limit. Such circuits are called “crow bars”. Naturally the fault must be cleared before the
circuit can be reset.

TESTING POWER SUPPLY CIRCUITS

The main parameters which ought to be measured either in a test department or by the service
technician after he has repaired a power unit are the following:

(a) Dc output voltage

(b) Available dc output current
(c) Output ripple voltage at full load

23
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

(d) stabilization against mains supply changes

(e) regulation from zero to full load.

Current
Series Limit
Transistor
+ Q1 +
rm
R2
Q2
R3

R1 Stabilized
Q3 DC Output
Error
Amplifier
R4

Reference
Z
Zener

- -

Fig. 13

L +
Power Supply
with current SCR
limit or fuse Z
R
N in dc line
-
Fig. 14

24
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

These can be measured using a standard test set-up as shown in figure 15.

L
Io
Power +
Fuse
Supply Load
Vdc Under Vo
Test
-
N
Variable Auto
Transformer
Fig. 15
CRO

The dc output voltage should be measured, and if necessary adjusted, when the unit is fully loaded.
However, it is sometimes advisable to measure the output on a low load and then gradually increase the
load current to maximum. There should, of course, be little change in the output voltage.

The peak-to-peak ripple amplitude can be checked best my measuring at the output with an
oscilloscope. A sensitive ac range must be selected because the ripple should be quite low, typically less
than 20 mV .

Measurement of stabilization and regulation requires that any small change in dc output be carefully
noted, and therefore a digital voltmeter is often necessary. For stabilization measurement, the unit
should be fully loaded and the change in dc output voltage noted for say a ± 10 % change in the a.c
input. The mains input can be varied using an adjustable auto-transformer as shown. Then, if for
example, the dc output changed by 50 mV from 10 V , i.e. an output change of 0.5 % , then the line
stabilization would be 40:1.

Load regulation is measured, keeping the ac input constant, by noting the change in output when the
load is varied from zero to full load.

change ∈dc output

load regulation= ×100 %
Dc output on no load

For example suppose the output changed by 20 mV from 10 V . The load regulation is
−3
20× 10
× 100 %=0.2 %
10

25
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

To obtain fuller information on a power supply’s performance it is often necessary to plot the load
regulation curve. This is a plot of output voltage against load current. A typical result for a unit with
current limiting is shown in figure 16.
Vo

Fig. 16

No load Full load Io

Current limit

FAULT FINDING TECHNIQUES AND TYPICAL FAULT CONDITIONS

When a faulty power unit is returned for repair, the fault has to be isolated to some particular portion of
the unit. The fault may lie in the transformer, the rectifier, the filter section, or the regulator, and
measurement with a voltmeter will be necessary to locate the fault.

However it’s probably best to start diagnosis with a few rather obvious but often overlooked checks.
First measure the dc output voltage. If this is zero, the next check should be on the mains input. Is the
mains supply reaching the transformer primary? If it is not, there is the possibility of a faulty plug, open
circuit mains, wires, or a blown fuse. If the fuse is suspected, always test its continuity with an Ohm
meter, never rely on just a visual inspection.

If the fuse is blown it has done so because of some fault condition and the fault must be cleared before
a new fuse is fitted. Resistance checks must be used to locate such a fault. Use an Ohm meter to
measure the resistance of the transformer primary, the secondary, the rectifiers, and so on. The winding
resistance depends on the size of the transformer, should be low, typically about 50 Ω . The secondary,
usually supplying a lower voltage, may have a resistance of only a few ohms. Detecting shorted turns on
a winding can therefore be quite difficult. Another useful check is to run the transformer off load and
test for overheating.

Suppose, however, that the fuse is intact, and that the mains is reaching the primary. The next step is to
measure the secondary ac voltage, the unstabilized dc voltage, then the dc voltage in the regulator and
so on, until the fault is located.

Table II lists some typical faults together with the associated symptoms. The faults are only a sample of
those which may occur. Locating a faulty component from a given set of symptoms will come with
practice.

26
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Table II

S/N Fault Symptoms

1. Mains transformer, Dc output zero, secondary ac zero, high resistance primary or
open circuit primary or secondary
secondary
2. Mains transformer, Two possibilities: (a) mains fuses blown or (b) low dc output and
shorted turns on transformer overheating because of excessive current being drawn.
primary or secondary
3. Mains transformer, Fuses blown. Low resistance between windings and earth.
windings shorting to
frame or screen
4. One diode in bridge Circuit behaves as a half wave rectifier. Lower dc output with poor
open-circuit regulation. Increased ripple at 50 Hz not 100 Hz as should be the
case.
5. One diode in bridge Mains fuse blown, since secondary winding will be practically
short circuit shorted every other half cycle. A resistance check across each arm of
bridge is required, measuring the resistance of each diode in the
forward and reverse direction.
6. Reservoir capacitor Low dc output with very high values of ac ripple on output.
open circuit
7. Reservoir capacitor Fuses blown. DC resistance of unstabilized line low in both directions
short circuit
8. Error amplifier in High dc output that is unregulated. No control signal for the series
regulator open circuit element.
9. Series transistor open Zero dc output. The unstabilized dc will be slightly higher than
circuit base- emitter normal since no current is being drawn.
10. Reference Zener short Low dc output. Possibility of series transistor overheating.
circuit

EXERCISE: POWER UNIT WITH A SIMPLE LINEAR REGULATOR

In figure 17,
R1=470 Ω , R 2=1.2 k , R 3=820 Ω , R 4=1k , C 1=3300 μF , C2=0.22 μF ,Q1 =BC 108 , Q2=BFY 51.

The unit incorporates most of the features discussed earlier and is designed to give an output of 12 V at
100 mA . The output resistance is less than 0.5 Ω , the load regulation better than 0.5 % , and the ripple
less than 5 mV pp on full load. The unstabilized dc is obtained from a bridge rectifier circuit and a
reservoir capacitor of 3300 μF . The transformer has a secondary voltage of 12 V rms so the unstabilized
voltage across C 1 will be approximately 12 √ 2 i.e. about16 V .

The reference voltage is provided by a 5.6 V Zener diode; Q 1 is the dc error amplifier which compares a
portion of the dc output voltage, the voltage across R4 , with the reference. Any difference between the
two voltages is amplified by Q 1 and the amplified signal is fed to the base of Q 2. Consider the case when
the dc output falls when more load current is taken; the base voltage of Q 1 decreases and it conducts

27
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

less current. Therefore Q1 collector voltage rises, and this rise in voltage is coupled through Q 2, which
acts as an emitter follower to counteract the original fall in output. Thus, the circuit operates to maintain
the output as nearly constant as possible.

Fuse
L
Q2 4
2
+
T1
R1 R2
220V rms 4 1
1
2
50 Hz R3
3

Q1
+ +
N C1 - - C2
SW1 3
R4
Fig. 17
Z1
-

The normal dc voltages measured with a standard multi range meter are as follows:

Test 1 2 3 4
Point
Voltage 16 13 5.8 12.2

First let us consider the following fault condition:

T 1 2 3 4
P
V 17.5 17.5 0 0

The dc output is zero, but the unstabilized input to the regulator has risen, indicating that little current is
being drawn. Also TP2 is at the same voltage as TP1. This, further, shows that no current at all is flowing
through R1 into the base of Q2. The only possible fault is that Q 2 has an open circuit base-emitter
junction. Note that if R1 were open circuit TP2 would be at zero Volts.

28
 Engr. Dr. Jonathan A. Enokela

Consider a fault condition when all test points are at zero Volts. Further inspection shows that the fuse
has blown. Resistance checks give the primary resistance as 43 Ω, the secondary resistance as 4 Ω , but
TP1 to ground is zero Ohm. The fault in this case can only be C 1 short circuit.

PROBLEMS

The following table lists a series of fault conditions; in each case state which component or components
could cause the fault and give a supporting reason. The solutions to the problems have been provided.
The reader is required to compare his own independent reasoning with the suggested solutions.

Voltages at indicated Test Points

Fault 1 2 3 4 Other Solution
symptoms.
A 16 15 14.5 14.5 Z1 open
B 11 6 4.8 5 Increased ripple. C 1 open
C 16 15 5.8 14.5 Poor regulation. R3 open or BE of Q1
open
D 17.5 0 0 0 R1 open
E 16.5 2.1 0 1.5 Z1 short
F 17.5 17.5 0 0 BE of Q 2 open
G 16 7.5 5.8 7 R4 open
H 16 5.9 5.9 5.2 Poor regulation. CE of Q1 short

29