CHAPTER -1

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Monitor

A monitor or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is a piece of electrical equipment
which displays images generated by devices such as computers, without producing a
permanent record. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The
display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-
LCD), while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT).

Keyboard

In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which
uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard
typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to
a single written symbol.

Mouse

In computing, a mouse (plural mouse’s, mice, or mouse devices.) is a pointing device that functions by
detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an
object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.
 Scanner

In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text,

handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common
examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner
where the document is placed on a glass
window for scanning.

Printers

In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy (permanent readable text and/or
graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or
transparencies.

Speakers

Speaker s enables you to take advantage of the sound in many of the sites on the internet and the
multimedia titles that you may use. However for some serious PC workers, speakers are optional choice.
System unit

The system unit is the most important part of a PC. It may be called the brain behind every action of a PC
since it controls and executes all the operations performed by the PC. The keyboard, Monitor, Mouse,
Printer, etc, are all linked to the system unit through cables which are plugged into the back to the
system unit.

System Unit divided into three ways.

 Front side of the system unit

 Back side of the system unit
 Inside of the system unit

Front side of the system unit

Power switch: The power on/off switch is used to turn on or off the power to the PC.

Reset Button: This button helps you restart your computer without disconnecting the power supply.

Lights: The front panel of the system unit may display a variety of colored indicator lights. These lights
are used to indicate whether the hard disk, the floppy disk or CDROM is being read or written.

Floppy Disk Drive: The floppy disk drive is used to read the information stored in floppy disks (also called
a diskette).

CDROM Drive: CD-ROM drive is a device that reads the information stored in CD. A CD-ROM is an
abbreviated term for “Compact Disk-Read Only Memory”.

CD-Writer: In 1990, the CD-ROM technique was advanced to include writing data on CD. To make your
own CD-ROMs, you use a CD-WRITER drive, which can write on CD-ROM disks.
Back side of the System Unit:

PORTS AND CONNECTORS

PS/2 PORTS (6PINS)

SERIALPORT (9PINS)

PARALLELPORT (25PINS)

VGAPORT (15PINS)

USBPORT (4PINS)

NIC CARD (8PINS)

PS/2 PORT: It is used to connect keyboard and mouse. It has 6 pins.

SerialPORT: It is used to connect communication devices, such as EXTERNAL MODEM. It has 9 pins.
Serial port also called as communication port (COMPORT). Data Transfer Rate is 1bit.

Parallel port: It is used to connect Printers and scanners. It has 25 pins. Parallel port also called as Line
printer Terminal (LPTPORT). Data transfer speed is 8 bit.

VGA port: It is used to connect Monitors, such as CRT & LCD monitors. It has 15pins.

USBPORT:
A USB connection is a personal computer connection that enables you to connect multiple peripherals
to a single port with high performance and minimal device configuration. USB connections support two-
way communications. Most computers today have one or more USB ports and can, with the use of USB
hubs, support up to 127 devices per port.
NIC CARD:
It is used to connect Computer Networking and Internet. It has 8 pins. The Ethernet connectors are used
when two or more than two computers need to be linked with each other over a computer network, like
local area network. The shape of male Ethernet connector is quite similar to male modem connector
except it is more flat. The female Ethernet connector appears at the back of the system unit.

CONNECTORS

IDE CONNECTOR:
It is used to connect Hard disk and CD Drive. It has 40 pins.

FLOPPY CONNECTOR:
It is used to connect Floppy drives and it has 34 pins.

Inside of the system Unit:

Mother Board: On a typical motherboard, circuitry is imprinted or affixed to firm planar surface and
usually manufactured in a single step. The motherboard contains the controllers for all standard devices
such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive as well as for additional devices.
Central Processing Unit: Central Processing unit the most important part of a computer where actual
processing, i.e. the mathematical and logical processing takes place. It is the brain behind all PC
operations. Within a CPU, Instructions are written in the form of computer program, which are carried
out by the CPU sequentially. The processing capability of a PC is measured in terms of the amount of
data processed by its CPU in one operation. The speed of the CPU is measured in Mega Hertz (MHZ).
There are two manufacturing companies are there: 1. Intel 2. AMD

Random Access Memory: A computer stores data in units called bits and bytes. Bits are grouped
together in sets of eight. Each set of eight bits is called byte. Setting different combinations of those
eight “on and off” combinations can be developed to stand for letter numbers, spaces, and symbols. The
term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for
memory that exists on tapes or disks.

RAM is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current
use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer’s processor. RAM is much faster to
read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer.

Read only Memory:

Unlike RAM, the Read Only Memory (ROM) retains its contents even when the computer is turned off.
ROM is referred to as being non-volatile, whereas ram is volatile.

Expansion Slots: An expansion slot is opening in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to
add new capabilities to the computer like upgrading the quality of the PC’s graphics and sound,
connection to a local network, etc.

A personal computer has expansion slots of different shapes and sizes to support various types of
expansion cards. Some popular various types of expansion slots are:
  Industry Standard Architecture (ISA)

 Accelerated Graphic Port (AGP)

 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

The names of expansion cards are after the bus technology used in computers.

Expansion slots:

ISA slot: Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) was the original PC bus. Initially it carried an 8-bit data bus
signal (synchronized to a 4MHz clock). When the AT was introduced this was widened to 16 bits at
8MHz.

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI): PCI expansion cards are configured by the motherboard's
PnP (plug 'n' play) system. Its expand the system functionality

AGP
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) modified the PCI bus design to handle the high data traffic associated
with three-dimensional graphics.

AMR & CNR

Audio Modem Risers (AMR) and Mobile Daughter Card (MDC) were sometimes used to connect sounds
cards and modems.

Communication and Networking Raiser (CNR): This includes support for modems, multi-channel audio,
telephone-based dial-up networking, USB devices, and 10/100 Ethernet-based LAN adapters.

PCI Express
PCI Express (PCIE) is a major redesign that uses high-speed serial signaling arranged in lanes. This allows
different sized cards to be used that may or may not require high-speed transfers.

System BUS: A bus is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another. This is a bus that connects all the internal co0mputer components to the CPU and
main memory.

HARD DISK: The hard disk is a device which stores all programs and data in the computer. The hard disk
is referred to as the memory bank of a computer. The hard disk memory is permanent so that the
program and data are not lost when the computer is turned off.

SMPS: (Switch Mode Power Supply) the personal computer, the power supply unit is a metal box usually
found in a corner of the system unit. This box is known as SMPS box. Visible from the back of the system
unit, the power supply box contains the power – cord receptacle and a cooling fan. It converts the AC
current to DC current.
Adaptor Cards: Adaptor cards are printed circuit boards that you can insert into an expansion slot of
your computer give it added capabilities. Expansion slots are long and narrow connectors. Adaptor cards
are also called expansion boards, adaptors, add-ins, and add-ons.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
SUPER COMPUTER

MAIN FRAME COMPUTER

MINI COMPUTER

WORK STATION: A powerful single user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has
a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.

PERSONAL COMPUTER: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the

microprocessor a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data a monitor for displaying
information and a storage device for saving data.

Laptop: Laptop is portable computers that can you can carry in your hand as you move from one place
to another. A laptop computer has in-built rechargeable battery, which provides enough power supply
for the computer.

BIOS (BASIC INPUT OUTPUT OPERATING SYSTEM)

BIOS are the most Basic control software for your computer. Historically BIOS programs were written
into a type of memory called ROM (read only memory). This type of memory would not lose its data
when the computer lost power thus ensuring these BIOS programs would always be available. There
were different variants of ROM memory some of which could be written multiple times but this memory
could not normally be changed or re-programmed once the computer system was sold to the customer.
Once ROM memory was written to, it could not be written to again and could only be read when in the
possession of the customer. In more recent years a more flexible form of memory was developed called
flash ROM which allows ROM memory to be written to after the computer system is in possession of the
customer.

CMOS (COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR)

CMOS is a type of semiconductor chip that holds data without requiring any external power source. In a
pc, CMOS holds the basic instructions the computer needs to initialize its hardware components and
boot up. These settings are known as the BIOS settings, also referred to as CMOS settings.
CHAPTER-2
ASSEMBLING & DESSEMBLING OF THE COMPUTER
COMPONENTS
1. Prepare your new case by opening the outer cover. Locate the mounting points for
motherboard, power supply and drives.
2. Mount the SMPS with four screws. Some cases include the power supply, so it is already
installed. Make sure that AC switch set to 220 volts.
3. Mount the CPU: For a socket-mounted CPU, insert it evenly and completely into socket, then
gently close the socket lever and lock it into place. Then mount the cooling point to the top of
the CPU. You can often purchase a motherboard with a CPU and cooling device already
integrated for you.
4. Mount the RAM: Today you will usually have one or more DDR SDRAM DIMMs (or an even
number of Ram bus modules). A notch in the DIMM and key in the socket means the memory
module can only be inserted in one way, just be sure to insert the module evenly and
completely so that the white retaining clips hold the module firmly.
5. Configure jumpers: A motherboard can typically support a variety of processors and other
options. The motherboard manual in order to set the bus speed, and other options for your
particular motherboard. If the CPU has already been installed for you, these jumpers should be
preset.

Installing MOBO:

6. Before installing the motherboard, make sure that your case has proper openings for all of the
ports (for example, serial, USB, and so on) on your particular motherboard.
7. Mount the motherboard: Gently seat the motherboard into the chassis and secure it into place
with screws. Be sure that the motherboard rests flat.
8. Connect motherboard power: Once the motherboard is secure, locate the large 20-pin power
connector from the power supply and gently connect it to the motherboard.

9. Connect chassis: Your chassis will have several small cables for things like the speaker, power
switch and led, reset switch, Hard disk activity, and so on to connect mother board front panel
settings.
10. Install video card: Inbox your video adapter and insert into the motherboard’s AGP slot.
11. Connect the monitor: Attach the monitor’s 15 - pin video card. If you are using a video card with
a secondary video part, check the card’s documentation to locate the first video port.
12. Connect speaker cable to the Line out audio connector.
13. Connect your mouse and keyboard cables to their respective ports.
14. Mount the floppy drive: Inbox your floppy drive and secure it to the chassis with four screws.
 15. Cable the floppy drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the
floppy drive. Locate a 34-pin floppy drive cable on the Motherboard.
16. Attach the AC power cable between the SMPS and a nearby AC wall outlet.

Installing Hard disk

17. Configure the hard drive: Inbox the hard drive and locate the jumper next to the 40-pin signal
connector. You may configure the drive as a master or slave device depending on other devices
drives.
18. Mount the Hard drive: If the hard drive is too narrow to fill a full-sized drive bay, attach the
mounting rails to widen the drive.
19. Cable the hard drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the
hard drive. Locate the 40-pin IDE drive cable.

Installing CD drive

20. Configure the CD-RW drive: Inbox the CD-ROM/RW drive and locate the jumper next to the 40-
pin signal connector. Like a hard drive, you may configure the drive as master or slave device
depending on other devices.
21. Mount the CD-RW drive: The drive will usually be wide enough to fill a full-sized drive, so you
won’t need rails to widen the drive.
22. Cable the CD-RW drive: Attach a 4-pin power cable from the power supply and connect it to the
CD-RW drive. Locate another 40-pin IDE drive cable.

23. Check the CMOS setup: Reboot the system and check the CMOS and set the date and time,
verify that your hard drive and CD-Drive detection.
24. Install your operating system: Put the full installation CD in the CD drive. Reboot the system to
launch the OS installation and follow the Instructions of the OS installation.
25. Install other devices and connect the cables: Power off the PC power supply and install the
adapter cards (NIC card & Sound card) into the PCI slots. After installing other devices attach any
other external cables that may be required (NIC cable etc).
26. Now you can reattach power and reboot the system. That should complete your basic PC
assembly and check the operating system installed properly. After that you can go ahead and
install applications start using your new PC.
HARDDISK

Hard disk is made of with plotters. Plotters are made of with Aluminum and glass material and coated
with Ferro manage tic material.

What is Hard disk Partitions?

Most operating systems allow users to divide a hard disk into multiple partitions, in effect making one
physical hard disk into several smaller logical hard disks.

Mange disks

Hard disks are the primary data storage devices used in computers.HDD are treated as fixed Storage
devices and are connected to IDE or SCSI interfaces. Windows supports two types of harddisks for data
storage.

1. Basic Disk
2. Dynamic Disk

Basic Disk: Basic disks are the traditional type of disks used in computer systems. The disks are dived
into one or more partitions each of which can be a logical storage unit accessible by a drive letter.
Primary partition: - Primary partitions is marked as the active partition and used to boot the system.
There can be only one active partition on a computer. The primary partition is formatted using one of
the file systems.

Extended partition: - The extended partition does not have an actual drive letter assigned to it. It’s
simply a container that holds all the logical drives that you build. Extended dos cannot be formatted with
any file system.

Logical Partition: Logical partitions are created in the extended partitions. Logical drives cannot be
marked as active and cannot be used to boot the system. These partitions are used to organize files and
folders on the mobo.

Dynamic Disk: Dynamic disks are the disks that are specifically converted from basic disks using the disk
management Utility. This type of Partitioning is used in servers. There are

1. Simple volume
2. Spanned volume
3. Stripped volume
4. Mirrored Volume
5. RAID-5
FILE SYSTEMS

FAT file system

The File Allocation Table (FAT) file system used by MS-DOS and Windows is based around two
structures. The File Allocation Table (FAT) which stores the location of the data blocks of the files and
the Directory Table which maintains the directory structure of the file system.

FAT 32

The defaults file system for win98. Has the same general attributes as its predecessor. FAT, but allows
for larger partitions with smaller cluster size for space conservation.

FAT32 is an improved version of FAT and is supported in win95 (OR2) and later OS (Win XP, Win me, Win
2000, Win 2003)

Features:

1. More reliable storage than FAT.

2. Not compatible with FAT.
3. Users smaller disk cluster sized to prevent wasting disk space.
4. Support for long file names of up to 255 characters.
5. Extended disk partition size of up to 2TB or (2048GB)

Disadvantages

1. This file system is slightly slower than FAT 16.

2. There is no file security, Encryption, Compression, Disk quota.
Difference between FAT16 and FAT32

 FAT16 supports hard drives up to a maximum between 2GB and 4GB

 FAT32 supports hard drives sizes between 260MB and 2TB.
 FAT16 does not support for to install latest OS.
 FAT32 supports for all OS.
 FAT16 supports only 8.3 characters file name.
 FAT32 supports up to 255 characters file name.

NT File System (NTFS)

NTFS arguably stands for "New Technology File System". However considering there is a debate about
what the NT in Windows NT stands for, who knows.

1. It supports long file names of up to 255 characters and its supports for NT.
2. It supports disk sizes of up to 16EB.
3. It supports file and folder level security.
4. An NTFS Encryption files system secures files and folders from unauthorized access.
5. Its supports Disk Quotas to limit the use of disk space on a per-user basics.
6. It supports file larger than 4GB in size.
7. It provides file compression to save disk space.
8. It supports Dynamic Disks to effectively use and Manage Disk s and partitions.
CHAPTER -3
HARDWARE TROUBLESHOOTING
UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM BEEP CODES

Common Beep Codes

Beeps Probable Causes

One short beep Normal startup

One long beep Keyboard error
One short, one long beep Monitor problem
Two short beeps The POST numeric code appears on the monitor
Repeating short beeps or a continuous beep Power problem
One long, one short beep System board problem
One long, two or three short beeps Monitor/Display error
One beep, followed by three, System board problems, possibly with DMA,
Four or five beeps CMOS setup chip, timer, or system bus
Two beeps, followed by three, Four or five beeps First 64K of RAM has errors

Three beeps, followed by three, Four or five beeps Keyboard controller or video controller failed
Four beeps, followed by two, Three or four beeps Serial or parallel port, system timer, or time of day
problem

WINDOWS DEVICE MANAGER

What is Device Manger?

Device Manager provides you with a graphical view of the hardware that is installed on your computer.
You can use Device Manager to update the drivers (or software) for hardware devices, modify hardware
settings, and troubleshoot problems.

1. Right click on My Computers

2. Select Properties
3. Click the General tab.
4. Click the Device manager button.

Here are some of the tasks you can perform using the Device manager.

 Check the current status of hardware. Look for symbols next to a particular device to see if there
are problems with it.
 Configure device properties and settings
 Uninstall and reinstall hardware
 Update, views and roll back device drivers.

COMMON PROBLEMS IN HARDWARE

1. Power Cords - Make sure that all of the power cords are firmly in place on all of the devices that
could possibly be causing or attributing to the symptoms you are experiencing (i.e. If nothing
shows up on the monitor make sure that the cords are attached to both the monitor and the
computer itself). Then trace the cords back to the wall and make sure that the other end of the
cord is attached to a power outlet or surge protector.
2. Power Button - This step goes hand-in-hand with the last step. Many people don't think to
check for this because many computer devices stay on all of the time (i.e. monitors, printers,
power supplies), and as such do not check the power button. Also, some devices have two
power switches on them, and both must be in the "on" position in order for the device to work
(i.e. there is a power button both on the front, and on the back of most computers).
3. Communication Connections - Once you've settled that the power to your devices is fine, the
next step is to make sure that the device has all of the connections needed for it to
communicate. This step consists of making sure that these cables are firmly connected at each
end, and that they are connected at the correct port/interface. Do not forget to check internal
connections; if your computer has been bumped it is possible for some connections inside to
pop loose.
4. Device Configuration - This steps provides both hardware and software configuration. There
may be jumpers or switches on the hardware that need to be configured. If these accidentally
got moved or switched the device would fail to work properly. Also, most hardware ships with
configuration software (i.e. Wireless cards); make sure that the software configurations are
compatible with what you are trying to accomplish.
5. Follow Instructions - Computers are not evasive when they report errors; all too often we just
do not understand them, or are confused by the amount of information that is given. Many
times there are suggestions on how to fix a problem accompanied with an error message. Simply
follow the steps the message suggests; even if the suggestion seems to be ridiculous follow it so
that you can discard it as a possibility.
6. Windows Recognition - If you go into the Control Panel, open the System dialog, click on the
Hardware tab, and then open the Device Manager, you will see a tree-like structure of all of the
hardware that is attached to your computer. Look under the appropriate category (Monitors,
Graphic Adapters, etc.) and click on the item/items that you are having problems with then click
on properties. The dialog that opens will inform you if the operating system is having any know
troubles with the device.
7. Update Drivers - If possible, try connecting to the internet and going to the manufacture's web
site to download the latest drivers for your hardware (this requires that you now the model
specifications of your hardware). Often conflicts can arise when you install new hardware and
software; although these are unanticipated, once found the developer will fix the problem and
post updated drivers.
What are the common causes of hardware Failure?

AGE
Faulty Development
Incompatible devices
Damage
You're having a problem with your PC. No matter what the problem, the first step is always to reboot
your computer.
There are a number of ways to reboot (restart) your computer.

 If in Windows and the system is not frozen, click start, click shut down, click restart.
 If in Windows and the system is frozen, on your keyboard, hold down ctrl, alt, and delete all at
the same time. In Windows operating systems prior to Windows XP, press ctrl, alt, and delete a
second time. In Windows XP, if possible, click Shut down.
 If these methods are unsuccessful or not viable, you may reboot manually. On some systems,
there is a reboot button located on the front of the PC. This is a very small button, usually
located beneath the power button. If there is no reboot button or if the reboot button does not
respond, press the main power button and keep it held in for about five seconds. The PC should
shut off automatically.
 Once it does, boot the machine.
 The last resort is to unplug the power on the back of the PC. Wait a moment, then plug it back in
and try to reboot.
Once a computer has been restarted, if it does not work normally you should follow the basic
troubleshooting procedures listed below

MONITOR

Screen is dark or tinted

If the monitor screen is too dark or if the entirety of the screen is tinted, first try changing the display.
1. Right click anywhere on the blank desktop.
2. Click Properties.
3. Click Settings.
4. Under Color Quality, try changing the settings.
If this does not work, try changing the settings on your monitor. The brightness menu buttons are
located below the screen on most monitors. Try making the screen lighter or darker. If this still does not
work, the problem may be with either your monitor or the video card located inside the PC. If another
monitor is available, try hooking it up to your PC. If there are still problems, the video card is to blame
and must be replaced. If the problems are resolved, the monitor will need to be replaced.

DISPLAY
If only a portion of your screen is tinted or warped in any way, the problem needs no troubleshooting as
your monitor's tube is going out. The monitor will need to be replaced.

Screen is Fuzzy
 1. Remove any electronic devices such as fans or electric pencil sharpeners from the proximity of
the monitor.
2. Ensure the monitor is plugged tightly to the computer.
Monitor Not Responding (No Power)
1. Ensure all power sources are plugged in and turned on. Check the power cord going from the
back of the monitor to the power strip and the power cord going from the power strip to the
wall.
2. Make sure the power strip is turned on.
3. Try plugging the monitor directly into the wall. If the monitor then works, the power strip has
gone bad and will need to be replaced. If not, the monitor must be replaced.

Error on Monitor Reading "No Signal"

This error means that the monitor is not plugged in to the PC. Double check the cable and make sure the
Cable going from the monitor to the PC is plugged in and is in the appropriate place.

KEYBOARD

Computer Does Not Recognize Keystrokes

If the keyboard does not work at all:
1. Check the back of the PC to make sure the keyboard is correctly connected. Remove the cable and
reconnect it, then reboot your PC.
2. If the problem persists, you will need a new keyboard.
If only some of the keys work:
1. Run your hand firmly over the keys to ensure none of the keys are stuck.
2. Follow the steps listed above.
The keyboard beeps when any of the keys are pressed:
1. Check to see if anything is resting on the keys and remove that object.
2. Follow the steps listed at the top of this page.
Keys on Keyboard Move Stiffly/Not At All
The keyboard is probably dirty. Lift the keyboard up, turn it over, and firmly tap to remove any excess
Material that may resting beneath the keys.Then, using a can of compressed air, clean out the keyboard
as best you can. If the problem persists, the keyboard may need to be replaced. This is a common
problem that can be easily avoided. Please do not consume any food or beverages over the keyboard
and keep these things out of "spilling distance." Loose make-up should not be applied over the
keyboard.

MOUSE

Cannot Move Mouse Cursor

Check the cable going from the mouse to the back of the PC to make sure it is connected appropriately.
Remove then reconnect the mouse and reboot the computer. If the mouse is still not recognized, try
another mouse in its place.
Mouse Cursor Difficult to Move
If the mouse is physically difficult to move, either the mouse pad has worn and needs to be replaced or
the mouse itself needs to be cleaned.
To clean the mouse:
1. Turn the mouse over so that you can see the bottom
2. Remove the plastic holder covering the ball by twisting it clockwise until it comes off.
3. Remove the ball.
4. Cleanse the inner rollers with a cotton swab dipped in alcohol. You may also scrape off any
accumulated lint if no alcohol or swabs are available.

FLOPPY DRIVES

Error Reading Floppy Disks

More and more often, floppy disks and floppy drives are being phased out of the computing world. The
reasons are 1) floppy disks do not have the necessary room to store large documents, and 2) floppy
disks are unreliable.
There are many errors associated with floppy disks. An error message may accuse the floppy disk of
having no content, of needing to be formatted, or of having a corrupt or partial file. In most of these
cases, there is little that can be done to save or restore the data on the disk. One option:
1. Go to My Computer and double click.
2. Right click Floppy A
3. Click scan for viruses.

What should I do if my computer won’t boot?

 Make sure your power is working: Check your power cord is plugged in properly. Check your
wall sockets and check the PC power supply. Check your power on light of your system.
 Try turning the power switch on and off on your computer a few minutes.
 Make sure your monitor is power on.
 Make sure your computer runs the POST. Look for any sort of output on your screen and a single
beep.
 Unplug everything that plugs into your computer on the outside with the exception of the
power cord. Try booting it up while listening for any beeps, still it’s not responding then remove
the computer side cover and remove the ram, processor, video card all PCI cards and driver
cables.
 Make sure that your hard drive is working correctly. Check the hard disk.

What should I do if my hard drive is having problems?

 Check the hard disk connectivity in bios. Check the hard disk power supply and bus cable.
 The results of these tests will give you a good indication of whether your hard drive is any good.
 Run the CHECKDISK utility to scan and repair any errors. You can run this utility from windows.
How can I help prevent hard drive failure?

 Proper Ventilation: Keep your devices vents open and clear from debris. Properly cooling your
devices internal components is paramount.
 Physical impact: Don’t drop your device or subject it to severe shock. This can cause damage to
the driver’s platters and reading heads.
 Voltage: Use a protector or UPS. This will prevent any voltage spikes or drops from damaging
your computer.
 RAID: Purchase and install drive mirroring hardware. Basically this is a card you install in your pc.

Why won’t my monitor turn on?

 Make sure the monitor is actually turned on. Is the power light on?
 Check the power cord of monitor. Some computers have an on-board video card and a third
party video card. Make sure your monitor is connected right connector on the desktop or
laptop.
 Check to make sure that the connector pins aren’t bent or broken.
 Make sure you have power. Verify the monitor is plugged into a power source. If it is plugged
into a power strip or UPS, make sure that power strip or UPS is power on.
 Check the monitor power switch on.
 Make sure the power button is working perfectly.
 Try to replace the card.
 Get help of monitor manufactures or computer tech supporters.

Why does My Monitor Make Noise?

CRT monitors traditionally make noise when turned on or when the resolution / refresh rate is changed.
This noise is usually a buzzing or clicking sound. The noise is caused by the voltage changes that occur.
They are perfectly normal. If your monitor is making noise even when you do not change resolution
/refresh rates, this may indicate a hardware problem and you should have your monitor serviced.

What should I do if My Device Can’t Read or Write to a CD/DVD?

 First check your Drive, Is it CD drive or DVD drive.

 Check your inserted disk CD/DVD.
 Older CD & DVD players may not be able to read recordable media. Even newer players may not
be able to. Consult your owner’s manual for more information.
 Insert a disc into the drive and see if any LEDs light up on the drive. In addition check to see if
the ejects mechanism works properly. If no lights are visible on the front of the drive, check the
power connection on the drive.
 A dirty laser lens can cause the drive to have difficulty reading the disc.
 Is your computer mounted sideways? Most drives have “catches” to allow sideways mounting,
but they do not always work.

What can I do if my Floppy drive won’t work?

  Your floppy drive LED should blink when you are booting your machine. If it doesn’t, you should
check to make sure it is plugged into the power supply.
 Make sure the drive is being detected by the BIOS.
 Check your floppy disk, and change it.

What should I do if My computer Keeps shutting Off?

 Make sure that you have a good constant flow of power to your PC.
 Make sure your power supply is providing enough current to feed the computer and all of its
accessories.
 Check any recent hardware’s installed.
 Install all windows critical updates.
 Check your bios configurations.
 Install or Repair the Operating System.

What should I do if My Desktop computer has NO Sound?

 Make sure your speakers are on.

 Verify the Speaker are connected to power and switched on.
 Pump up the volume.
 Verify the volume is turned up and not muted.
 Make sure the speakers are connected to the proper outlet jack.

PINK OR RED MICROPHONE INPUT

GREEN LINE OUTPUT
LIGHT BLUE LINE INPUT

 If you hear crackling from the computer speaker, the cables and connectors are loose or need
replacement.
 Open device manager check the status of the sound card.

CHECK LIST TO IDENTIFY THE DEFECT IN COMPUTER

DEFRAGMENTING HARD DISKS.

The Disk Defragmenter utility can analyze hard disks and defragment them to free up contiguous space.
Disk Defragmenter works on FAT, FAT32, and NTFS volumes.
There are several ways to access the Disk Defragmenter:
 Click Start ➝ All Programs ➝ Accessories ➝ System Tools ➝ Disk Defragmenter.
 Open Windows Explorer; open the properties of disk or volume. Select the Tools tab. Click
Defragment

Temporary files:
 Program files downloaded from the Internet, including ActiveX controls and Java Applets.
 Temporary Internet files to clear the computer cache. These files are stored in the Temporary
Internet Files Folder.
 Temporary Files located in the Temp folder.
 Files stored in the Recycle Bin.
CHAPTER-4
TYPES OF SOFTWARE

Software consists of the instructions that you give to the computer. It is the intangible part of the
computer system. The hardware of the computer cannot work by itself. It requires instructions from the
user. These instructions are given in the form of programs.

Software may be categorized as: 1.Application software 2.System software

System software may be further categorized into:

Operating systems

Compiler software

What is an Operating System

An operating system is a software program that acts as an interface between a user and a computer. The
operating system manages the computer hardware, system resources, memory, and interaction
between the system and its users. The operating system also forms the base on which application
software is developed.

Operating Systems
Linux
Unix-Solaris, SCO and Irix
Microsoft DOS
Microsoft Windows 95
Microsoft Windows 98
Microsoft Windows NT Server 4.0
Microsoft Windows 2000 Server
Microsoft Windows Server 2003

The functions of operating system are:

Command interpretation: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to understand a command keyed in
by a user. It can interpret only binary code, which is the code containing 0’s and 1’s. A command keyed
in by a user has to be translated to binary code for the CPU to understand the command. An Operating
system performs this task.

Memory management: Memory management is the mechanism by which an operating system handles
requests for memory. With the development of highly sophisticated software, memory requirements
have increased drastically. An operating system has to take care of allocating memory to the various
applications running on the system. It has to allocate optimum memory to the applications and clean up
unnecessary data from the memory.
Peripheral management: An operating system has to take care of the devices (peripherals) attached to
the computer. It handles communication between the devices and the CPU. For example, it handles
communication between the CPU and the printer or the modem.

Process management: To enable several programs to run concurrently, an operating system has to
ration out the CPU time. It needs to ensure that all the programs get a fair share of the CPU time and no
one program monopolizes the CPU time.

The functioning of an operating system depends largely on the computer system on which it is installed.
Because there are two basic types of computer systems singleuser and multi-user there are two types of
operating systems. Before you learn about the details of operating systems, let us first have a brief look
at the two types of computer systems available.

Compiler Software
Compiler software consists of the instructions that convert the instructions written in a high-level
language into machine language to execute specific tasks.

Single-User System
• A single user system is a small, general-purpose system, used by one person at a time such as a
personal computer (PC).
• The example of a single-user operating system is MS DOS.

Multi-User System
• A multi-user system can run multiple programs concurrently, share multiple resources such as printers
and disks, and support multiple users working simultaneously on a system.
• The examples of multi-user operating systems are:
• Linux
• Unix
• Windows NT Terminal Server
• Windows 2000 Terminal Server
• Windows 2003 Terminal Server

Types of Operating Systems

Within the broad family of operating systems, there are generally four types, categorized based on the
types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories are:

GUI – It consists of graphics and icons that are manipulated using a mouse or other input device.

Multiprocessing – These operating systems are designed to use more than one processor. Once only a
privilege of supercomputers, you can now find these powerful operating systems running servers in a
doctor’s office.

Multithreading - The multithreading operating system allows different parts of software to be run
concurrently.
Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld
computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.

Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and
laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both examples of
operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. For
example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while
downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.

Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the
computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of
the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate
resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. UNIX, VMS and
mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems.

Applications

What is an application

Applications are programs that are installed. on computers to give users the ability to do specific tasks.
For example, Microsoft Word® is a program that gives the user the ability to write documents. Some
program packages come in a set with multiple programs included to provide multiple capabilities such as
the Microsoft Office® suite of programs. This suite of programs also includes Microsoft Outlook® which is
used to send and receive e-mail. It also includes other programs with more capabilities.

Booting

What is Booting?
In computing booting is a boot strapping process that starts OS when the user turns on a computer
system.

Cold Booting (Hard Booting)

Warm Booting (Soft Booting)
Multi Booting

Booting files:

IO.SYS
MSDOS.SYS
Command.com
NTLDR
BOOT.INI
NTDETECT.com
 WINDOWS 7 INSTALLATION PROCESS

Start Windows Setup. Click Start →Computer, double click the USB
drive that Windows 7 Setup was extracted to, and double-
click setup.exe on the disc. Allow Setup to start.
Click Install Now.

Decide whether to install updates for Windows Setup. The

updates are intended to fix known problems with Windows
Setup and installing updates makes your installation smoother
and more stable. To get updates, click Go Online to get the
latest updates for installation (recommended). To skip
updates, click Do not get the latest updates for installation.

Accept the License Terms. Read over the Microsoft Software

License Terms, check I accept the license terms, and
click Next.
Select the Upgrade installation.

1.Type your username and computer's name and click Next.

2.Type your password and click Next. If you don't want a
password, leave the text boxes blank and then click Next.
3.Enter your product key then click Next. Your product key is
located on the case of your Windows 7 disc if you purchased
the disc. To skip entering your product key, just click Next,
but Windows will run on a 30-day trial, and you'll have to enter
a key once the 30 day trial time is up.
 4.Choose your Windows Update settings.

 Use recommended settings automatically sets update and

security settings recommended by Microsoft.
 Install important updates only configures your computer only
to install necessary updates.
 Ask me later disables your security until you have made a
decision.
5.Set your time and time zone.
 6.Set your network type.

 If the computer is connected to your own personal network,

choose Home network.
 If you are connected to the network at your workplace,
choose Work network.
 If you're connected to a public network from places such as
restaurants and shops, choose Public network.

7.Your computer is now set up!

CHAPTER -5
What is Linux?

Linux is an Operating system that can perform all the tasks that any currently popular Operating system
can. Not only that, it also allows the user to modify and enhance it according to his/her own
requirements. An Operating system, as we know it, is a software that controls all the hardware devices
and software of a computer. Linux is based on UNIX, but it is far more potent than UNIX. It can be used
for different purpose such as for playing games, software developments, at work, on desktop
workstations or on desktop workstation or on network servers and for multimedia applications.

Advantages of Using Linux:-

The Linux operating system has the following advantages:

Reliability
Backward compatibility
Simple upgrade and installation process
Low total cost of ownership
Support for legacy devices
GUI interface
Multiple distributors
No known viruses
Excellent security features
Support for high user load
Disk Partitioning

In simple terms, disk partitioning means dividing a hard disk into different sections where each section
behaves as a separate hard drive. Partitioning allows us to run more than one operating on a computer.

When we start installing Fedora Core on our system, the installation wizard provides us with three
options for disk partitioning.

Automatic Partitioning: If you choose this option, the installer automatically partitions the hard disk
without your having to make any specifications. This option lets you remove or retain any existing
partitions on your hard disk and then creates the new partitions.
Manual Partitioning using Disk Druid: Choosing this option lets you partition your hard disk using a
program called disk druid.

Manual Partitioning using fdisk: Choosing this option lets you partition your hard disk manually using
the fdisk command.

LINUX FILES AND DIRECTORY STRUCTURE:

Every Operating system organizes information into files. These files are stored in different directories. A
set of such directories may be contained in one directory known as the parent directory and the
directories and the directories contained in it are known as sub – directories. There is a main directory in
every operating system that contains all directories and files of the system. In every file system there is a
main directory may contain a number of sub-directories and files. The main files in a Linux system are
known as root. The root directory is represented by a slash (/). When we open a file, we always start
from the root directory and move to the sub-directories or sub-sub-directories containing the file.

According to
the FHS, the / directory must contain, or have links to, the following directories:

 / bin— This directory contains command files for use by the system administrator.
 /boot— On Red Hat systems, this is the directory containing the kernel, the core of the
operating system. Also in this directory are files related to booting the system, such as the boot
loader.
 /dev— This directory contains files with information about devices, either hardware or software
devices, on the system.
 /etc— This directory and its subdirectories contain most of the system configuration files. If you
have the X Window System installed on your system, the X11 subdirectory is located here.
Networking related files are in the subdirectory sysconfig. Another subdirectory of etcis the
skeldirectory, which is used to create files in users’ home directories when the users are
created.
 /home— This directory contains the directories of users on the system. Subdirectories of home
will be named for the user to whom they belong.
 /lib— The shared system files and kernel modules are contained in this directory and its
subdirectories.
 /mnt— This directory is the location of the mount point for temporary file systems, such as a
floppy or CD.
 /opt— This directory and its subdirectories are often used to hold applications installed on the
system.
 /proc— Information about system processes is included in this directory.
 /root— This is the home directory of the root user. Don’t confuse this with the / directory,
which has the same name.
  /sbin— Contained in this directory are system binaries used by the system administrator or the
root user. The binary files that is essential to the working of the system.
 /tmp— This directory contains temporary files used by the system.
 /usr— This directory is often mounted on its own partition. It contains shareable, read-only
data. Subdirectories can be used for applications, typically under /usr/local.
 /var— Subdirectories and files under varcontain variable information, such as system logs and
print queues.

Install Red Hat Linux

Step 1 – Insert the Red Hat Linux DVD into the DVD-drive of your computer. As soon as the following screen pops
up, press ‘Enter’ to install Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) through GUI mode.

Step 2– RHEL installer would then prompt you conduct a check as to whether the CD media from which you’re
installing is functioning correctly or not. Choose ‘Skip’, press enter and the installation would begin.
Step 3– Next, we need to select the language- English or any other language as per your preference, and then press
‘Next’ .
Step 4– In this step, the RHEL installer would ask you about the appropriate type of keyboard for the system. We
take the ‘US English’ keyboard, you can pick any other option depending on the type of your keyboard. Then press
‘Next’ to move to the next step.

Step 5– Next, the installer would ask for an ‘installation number’ if you wish to install full set of Red Hat functionalities.
Enter the installation number and press ‘OK’ if you have an officially licensed installation number(for corporate clients
that buy Red Hat’s backup support and full features).

Others can select ‘Skip entering installation number’ and press ‘OK’ to proceed. RHEL would show a warning
message, press ‘Skip’ in it to continue.
Step 6– The Red Hat installer would then require you to create partitions in your computer’s hard disk for the
installation. You can do it in four ways but the simplest way is to select ‘Use free space on selected drives and create
default layout’ as this option will not affect any other OS residing in your system.

Check the ‘review and modify portioning layout’ to create partitions and click next.

Step 7– In this step you must create the required system partitions and mount points such as ‘/boot’, ‘/home’, ‘swap’
etc which are required for the Linux’s proper functioning.

To create different partitions such as /home, /var etc, click on ‘New’ to create the partitions.
Then, select /home in the mount point and choose ‘ext3’ as the file system and give the desired size for it and then
click ‘OK’. Similarly also create /boot and /var.

Also, create a swap partition by clicking on ‘New’ and then choosing the filesystem as ‘swap’ and also give the size of
Swap partition.(Usually size of swap partition SHOULD BE twice the size of RAM available to the system but you can
keep its size less than that too)
Once you have made all the desired partitions and given their mount points, click ‘Next’ to continue installation.

Step 8– This step pertains to the default OS that will be loaded by the GRUB loader
(Note- If you have multiple Operating Systems installed, you would see multiple options here and you have to check
in front of the OS name that you want to be loaded by default when the system is started.)

Click ‘Next’ to continue.

Step 9– This step pertains to the network settings of the Linux system that you are going to install. You can select the
Ethernet devices through which the system would communicate with other devices in the network.

You can also provide the hostname, Gateway address and DNS address to the system during this step. (However it’s
better to adjust these settings once the system has been fully installed).

Step 10– The next step is to adjust the system clock to your particular time zone. Select your time zone and then
click ‘Next’.
Step 11 – This is a very important step that deals with the root(super-user) password for the system . Type the
password and confirm it and then click next.

Step 12 – The RHEL installer would then prompt you about if you wish to install some extra ‘Software Development’
or ‘Web Server’ features. By default, keep it at ‘Customize later’ and press ‘Next’.
Step 13– This next step will initiate the installation of Red Hat Linux, press ‘Next’ to begin the process.

Step 14– Upon the completion of installation you should the following screen. Press Reboot and you’d be ready to
use your newly installed Red Hat Linux OS.
POST INSTALLATION CONFIGURATIONS

1. Accept the Red Hat License agreement and click ‘Forward.

2. The next step is regarding the configuration of the Firewall. You can Enable or Disable the firewall according to
your preferences and then click ‘Forward’.
3. Next step is about the configuration of another security tool- SE Linux. By default you should keep it ‘Disabled’
unless you’re working with very secure information.
4. You can also choose to configure the Kdump, that stores information about system crashes if your system fails but
uses valuable disk space. By default don’t enable it.

5. Next, adjust the time and date settings, and then click ‘Forward’.
6. The next step is for software updates from Red Hat, at this point you should skip the registration and register at a
later time and then click ‘Forward’.

7. This step is to create a non-admin user for the system. Enter the details and click ‘Forward’.

8. This step is about configuration of your Sound Card, choose a sound device and then click ‘Forward’.
9. Click ‘Forward’ to complete the configurations and start using your Red Hat Linux OS.
Your Red Hat Linux OS is now all installed and configured, ready to be used. Good luck using and exploring
various features of Red Hat Linux.

Red hat Linux Installation:

1. Insert Linux CD or DVD in the CD/DVD drive.
2. Go to BIOS change the boot settings into CD/DVD drive & save the settings
3. At the boot screen, press the "Enter" key.
4. To skip the text mode Installation Press the "tab" key to move focus to the "Skip" key, then press
the "Enter" key to continue.
5. On the "Welcome" screen, click the "Next" button
6. Select the appropriate language, and then click the "Next" button.
7. Select the relevant keyboard setting, and then click the "Next" button.
8. Specify the serial number : 22eda90cd3f9e5a9
9. Click the "OK" button on the disk partitioning warning dialog.
10. Then allow the installer to automatically partition the disk.
11. Select the “Remove all Linux partitions on this system” or if you create own partition sizes, then
select “Create custom layout” option and click next.
12. Click the "Yes" button on the subsequent warning dialog
13. Select free space and click the selected drive.
14. First we must create mount point (/boot)(/root)(/swap)
15. The installer will list the default partitioning scheme for your size disk.
16. Accept the boot loader settings by clicking the "Next" button.
17. Configure the network interface with the appropriate settings. This can be done automatically
using DHCP, or manually.
18. Select the relevant region by clicking on the map.
19. Select the relevant city by clicking on the map. Click on the "Next" button to proceed.
20. Enter a root password for the server, then click the "Next" button to proceed.
21. Select the "Customize now" option and the appropriate installation type and click the "Next"
button.
22. Select the “Package Group Selection” click next.
23. On the "About to Install" screen, click the "Next" button.
24. Click the "Continue" button on the "Required Install Media" screen.
25. During the installation phase, enter the appropriate CDs as requested.
26. Click the "Reboot" button to complete the installation.
27. On the "Welcome" screen, click the "Forward" button
28. Accept the license agreement and click the "Forward" button.
29. Create an additional system user if required, and click the "Next" button.
30. If you chose not to define an additional system user, click the "Continue" button on the resulting
warning dialog.
31. On the sound card screen, click the "Forward" button.
32. On the "Additional CDs" screen, click the "Forward" button.
33. Click the "OK" button on the reboot request dialog.
34. Once the system has rebooted, you are presented with the login screen.
35. Once logged in, you are ready to use the desktop.
CHAPTER – 6
SOFTWARE TROUBLESHOOTING

SOFTWARE

Computer hardware such as the MOBO CPU, ADAPTER CARDS, DISPLAY DEVICE AND I/O DEVICES, are
only a part of the entire computer system. To make this hardware work we need software that acts as
interface between human beings and the hardware.

Software can be classified into 3 major categories as follows.

1. Operating systems
2. BIOS
3. Drivers
4. Applications

Type of Software Installations

When software is installed, the installer may add, modify, or delete files, registry entries, or
even text within files. There are many different types of software installation packages:

Single executable installation

Web-based installation
Media – based installation
Windows installer

Types of Operating Systems

An operating system of any kind is one of the biggest software applications around (some with over 45
million lines of code). The operating system is what people interact with and the environment on which
other programs run. Operating system all fall into one or more of the following categories:

GUI
Multiprocessing
Multiuser
Multitasking
Multithreading
 Troubleshooting Techniques

In order to troubleshoot problems related to the operating system, you must understand the Windows
boot sequence, the advanced boot options available, and basic diagnostic procedures. Additionally, you
must have good knowledge of using built-in troubleshooting utilities. Familiarity with different types of
error messages and common operational problems will help you resolve problems easily and quickly.

Understanding boot sequence:

The following discussion explains the boot sequence in both Windows 7 and Windows 2000:

Pre-boot Sequence. When the computer is started, it performs a pre-boot sequence in the following
manner:
1. A POST is performed to check the hardware components, which include Physical memory
(RAM), video, and the keyboard. In case the computer BIOS supports Plug and Play (PnP), the
configuration of PnP-compatible hardware devices is performed.
2. The Master Boot Record (MBR) is loaded from the selected boot device. The MBR in turn loads
the NTLDR file from the boot device. In case the computer has a Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI) device as the boot device without its own BIOS, the NTBOOTDD.SYS file is
loaded.

Boot sequence. NTLDR takes charge of the process from here on and performs the following steps:

1. NTLDR switches the processor to 32-bit flat memory mode and loads the file systems driver to
access the FAT, FAT32, or NTFS partitions.
2. NTLDR reads the BOOT.INI file and selects an operating system. If multiple operating systems are
installed on the computer, the BOOT.INI file prompts the user to select an operating system. If
the MS-DOS operating system is selected, NTLDR loads the boot sector from the BOOTSECT.DOS
file.
3. NTLDR calls on the NTDETECT.COM file to perform hardware detection, which displays error
messages if any hardware problems exist. If the computer has more than one hardware profile,
the user is given a choice to select an appropriate profile.

UNDERSTANDING THE ADVANCED BOOT OPTIONS

Safe Mode
In the Safe Mode, Windows XP loads with minimum basic system services and device drivers sufficient to
boot the operating system. These components include the keyboard, mouse, hard disks, the VGA
monitor, and other most essential system services. Safe Mode provides access to all system and device
Configuration options so that you can enable or disable components one by one and try to pinpoint the
problem.

Safe Mode with Networking

Safe Mode with Networking is similar to Safe Mode except that networking devices, drivers, and services
are also initialized.
Safe Mode with Command Prompt
Safe Mode with Command Prompt loads the command interpreter, just like in MS-DOS, instead of the
GUI.
Last Known Good Configuration
The Last Known Good Configuration option loads the last used system configuration that allows you to
return the system to the previous working configuration. Windows saves two types of configurations in
the Registry: Default and Last Known Good. The Default configuration is saved to the registry when you
shut down the system.
Enable Boot Logging
This mode enables the boot logging option that stores the boot process information in a file named
NTBTLOG.TXT. This file is stored in the /WINNT directory and is helpful is diagnosing startup problems.
Enable VGA Mode
This mode loads Windows with basic VGA device drivers and other normal configuration. This mode is
helpful in diagnosing problems with the display driver.

System Restore (Windows 7)

The System Restore can be accessed in one of the following methods:

1. Open the Help and SupportCenter, located in the Start menu. Under Pick a Task, click Undo
Changes to Your Computer Using System Restore.
2. Click Start ➝ All Programs ➝ Accessories ➝ System Tools ➝ System Restore.

You can also create System Restore points manually when you expect to make changes to your system.
The following steps explain how you can create a System Restore point:

1. Click Start ➝ All Programs ➝ Accessories ➝ System Tools ➝ System Restore.

2. Click Create A Restore Point. Click Next.
3. Type a name to identify the restore point in the Restore Point Description box.
4. Click Create.

Common error messages

The following sections cover some more common error messages that you are likely to encounter:

Missing NTLDR
The “NTLDR is missing” error is accompanied by a “Press Any Key to Restart” message. This error is
caused if any of the system startup files are missing or have become corrupt. The files that can cause
this error include NTLDR, NTDETECT.COM, and BOOT.INI. You can restore these files by using the
Recovery Console, an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD in Windows 2000), or by using the setup CD-ROM and
selecting the Repair option when the installation starts. You can also restore these files using a system
restore utility in Windows XP.

Invalid Boot Disk

This error is displayed when the system BIOS cannot access the disk partition that is supposed to contain
system startup files. You might have to reinstall the OS to address this problem.

Operating System Not Found

This error means that the BIOS cannot find an operating system on the configured boot partition or boot
device. This error is common in new computers that do have a boot partition configured in the BIOS and
on which no OS has been installed so far.
Inaccessible Boot Device
This error is displayed when the computer finds a critical error with a boot device. This can be due to a
malfunctioning device driver or to some resource conflicts.

What are the common causes of software failure?

The worst kind of software failure you can have is when your computer refuses to start up because your
operating system (windows) refuses to work. The other type of failure you might experience is that an
application refuses to run. Both of these types of failures can really stop you tracks and ruin your day.
Here are some of the common causes of software failure should put on the top of your troubleshooting
list:
Registry problems: The good news with windows is that it has a built in database and control system to
keep track of all the software and critical information that lives on your PC. This feature is called the
Registry. When the Registry has a “bad hair day”. Your pc might not start up or an important program
installed on your pc might not work.
Improper Installation: Software can be really fussy. If it isn’t installed just right it might not ever run at
all or it might run inconsistently.
A recent software installation: It might seem that just out of the blue your operating system or an
important application starts acting up. This problem will occurs because you’ve recently done something
such as install some new software, a new hardware device like a printer, or attacking virus.
Expired Software: Many programs that users install on their PCs are often downloaded from the
Internet. Many are trail versions. Subscription based software may continue to work after it expires but
not fully.
Viruses: Viruses can create havoc on a PC because of the importance of viruses, we’ve devoted an entire
chapter to them.
Poorly written code: Software developers tell you, their products are flawed. They are riddled with code
flaws, bugs and security holes.

SOFTWARE PROBLEMS

What should I do if my operating system will not start?

Investigate all of hardware failure problems: You might just get lucky and discover the problem is due to
a faulty power cord.

Try to return your system to an earlier state: This solution will work only of your computer is still
booting up and you are using Windows Xp. If you installed some new software or hardware drivers
recently. You can then use the Windows system Restore feature to restore your computer without
losing any of your personal data.
Use the windows Setup CD that came with your PC: This is another important solution that can be used
if you are running Windows XP. Windows XP setup CD provides a repair option that can fix startup
problems, problem with system files and more. With this software we can repair and recover the OS.
Try to fix a Registry boot problem: Your computer may be suffering from having a corrupted registry.
This is a problem that we fix with reinstall Windows.
Use the windows upgrade feature: This is another nice trick you can try if you are running windows XP.
Insert the Bootable CD, boot from it and run the Install/Upgrade option. This option will install windows
XP, but it will treat the installation as an upgrade and therefore it will be repair and install programs.
Perform a clean install of Windows: If you’ve tried everything else and you still can’t get you PC to boot,
you’ll need to use your windows setup CD and perform clean install.

What can I do if my computer boots really slowly?

Remove some of the programs that get loaded when windows startup using with “MSCONFIG”
Clean the Registry using a commercial registry cleaning utility.
Check your antivirus software and scan the entire system. If the virus is there remove it.

What should I do if I can’t run an application?

Application shortcut: Check the shortcut of application and make sure the shortcut is pointing the
correct executable file.
Software Expiration: The software will typically run for a year or so and then expire. If you have a
program that suddenly stops working, make sure you check to see that the software hasn’t expired.
Administrative privileges: Some applications will not run unless you have administrative privileges on
the computer you are running it on. You must take the administrative permissions to access the
applications.
Repair: Some programs allow you to repair an installation by running a special utility. Reinstall the
application and access it.
DLLs: (Dynamic Link Libraries) these files are that application share to provide familiar functionality.
When you’re opening an application it displays some DLL file missing. This can make programs that are
dependent upon them not work properly. Contact your software manufacture if you suspect DLL
problems.

How do I start a Software Install?

Auto run: This method involves putting a CD-ROM in your device and closing it. Your drive will blink and
make whirling noises signifying that it is reading data off of the disc. You should shortly see a splash
screen for the program you are installing.
Executable file: Executable files are another way to start an installation. They are typically named
setup.exe, update.exe, or a host of other names.
Archive: Some programs are archived inside of another file such as a ZIP file. In a case, you should
extract the contents of the archive to a normal folder and then run the install program.

What should I do if I can’t find a program after installing it?

Start Menu: This should be the first place you look. Just click start in the lower left hand corner.
Program File folder: Most window applications install under this main folder. You can find the folder by
double-clicking my computer and then Local disk (C :). You will see a folder named Program files.
Root of your hard disk: Some software will create a folder on the root of your C: drive.
On a different partition or hard drive: If you have multiple partitions or multiple drivers the software
may have been inadvertently installed there.
Why can’t I install/Uninstall Software?
Microsoft created different levels of permissions in order to accomplish this:
Are you an administrator? To install software you need to be a member of the Administrators or Power
Users group.
Are you in Terminal Services? Terminal services are a technology that allows multiple people to log into
a server and access a Windows Desktop.
Are you logged on as administrator? Some programs require that you are actually logged on as the
administrator account.

What can I do if my software install fails?

Reboot and retry

Check the event log: The event log keeps a history of errors and warnings that are generated by the
software and hardware installed on your computer.
Check the install log: During most software installs, a record is kept of all of actions and error messages
that were generated during the installation. It can be found in root of your C: drive and is usually named
install.log
Make sure your system is up-to-date or not
Clear you temp file folder
Disable you antivirus program: Disabling the real-time scanning of your antivirus software may help in
installing stubborn software.
Install the software using safe mode booting.

How can I uninstall software?

Use the Add/Remove Programs feature: Add/Remove programs can be found in windows control
panel. This method is the preferred method of uninstalling software on the windows operating system.

Use the program files menu: Find the program in the program files menu.
Click start
Select all programs
Find the program you want to uninstall
Click the uninstall option.
Use an uninstall file: These files can usually be found in the software’s folder in the program files folder.
Contact the software company

What can I do if my uninstall fails?

Reboot the PC
Clear your system temporary files in the TEMP folder. Click start- select run- type %TEMP%
Use safe mode Booting
Contact the software company.

Updates come in several different types:

Critical Update: These are important security updates that Microsoft releases in response to
vulnerabilities in its Windows operating Systems.
Recommended Updates: These consist of regularly released updates to windows, Internet Explorer and
other Microsoft products.
Windows Tools: These are utilities and other tools offered by Microsoft for use by system
administrators.
Internet and Multimedia Updates: These are the latest versions of Internet Explorer, windows Media
Player, and other Microsoft Software.
Additional Windows Downloads: These are miscellaneous updates for desktop settings and other
Windows features.
Click Review and install updates and select the ones you want to install.

What is a device driver?

A software routine that links device to the OS. It acts like a translator between a device and the OS.
Device drivers
Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper functioning of devices.
Every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver program
associated with it for its proper functioning. Whenever a new device is added to the computer
system, a new device driver must be installed before the device is used. In modern operating
systems, most hardware drivers, such as the keyboard driver, come with the operating system.
A driver acts like a translator between the device and program (typically, an operating system)
that uses the device. For example, when a user prints a document, the processor issues a set of
genetic commands to the printer driver, and the driver translates those commands into the
specialized instructions that the printer understands. Note that each device has its own set of
specialized commands that only its driver understands. A device driver is not an independent
program; it assists and is assisted by the operating system for the proper functioning of the
device.

How can I Rollback a Driver?

You will still be able to revert to the last driver that was installed. Follow these simple instructions:
Open Device Manger, You should be an expert in this by now.
Right click the device in question
Click Properties
Click the Driver tab
Clicks roll back Drivers.
CHAPTER -7
INTERNET
Introduction of WWW

The Web is a vast collection of information that is stored on the computers that make up the Internet.
The term World Wide Web is often used interchangeably with the terms WWW and W3. It consists of
huge collections of pages containing information, images, sounds and video clips stored in computers
around the world. It is basically a collection of millions of files stored on thousands of computers which
are connected through the internet. The information provided is regularly updated. Each page is called
Website. The very first page of any web site is known as its Home page.

A link is any text, image or figure, which when clicked takes us to some other web page or some other
section of the same web page. These links are commonly known as hyperlink or hypertext links.

Evolution of the World Wide Web:

The Arpanet (Advanced Research Projects Association Network) was born with four host computers (in
the Research Department of the US Department of Defense) connected to each other. However as time
passed the number of computers connected to the Internet increased. The number soon reached 3,
00,000 in 1990. And then the number of host, connected to the Internet crossed over 109 millions in just
a decade. It was in 1991, that the emergences of e-commerce led the business to enter the Internet
world. The NFSnet was responsible for this major development.

Basic Features:

1. Client and Server: In a client/server scenario, we have a client program, which interacts with a
server program. When talking in context of Web, the server is called the web server and all the
computers connected to the Web server are the Web clients. A web server is a repository of all
the files on the web. It is the duty of the web server to store, retrieve and manage these files on
the web. All the host computers requesting the web server for these files are the web clients.
2. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer protocol is a set of rules that are responsible for the transmission of
web pages- on the web. In other words, it is the standard language that tells how the client and
the web server are going to communicate with each other. It has been exclusively designed for
the World Wide Web. When a request is made from web client to the web server, the server
uses this protocol to fulfill the request made.
3. URLs: A URL is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The URL contains the name
of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name a file located on that computer.
You can instantly display a web page if you know its URL. For example,
http://www.wileydreamtech.com is a URL.
 4. HTML: Hyper Text Markup language (HTML) is a computer language used to create web pages.
Thus, a web page is an HTML document made up of text and various HTML tags. It is the
browser, who is responsible to transfer the tags in the HTML document and display the
document as a web page. However, each web browser interprets the HTML tags differently.
When a web browser does not understand a tag or attribute, the information is usually ignored.
The HTML tags tell a Web browser about the structure and formatting of a web page.
5. XML: Extensible markup Language (XML) WAS DEVELOPED BY THE W3C to create information
formats and share both the format and the information on the web. It was not supposed to
replace HTML, but to extend the power of HTML by separating data from presentation.
6. Java and Java Script: In java, there are small programs known as applets that can be sent on the
web. Java Script is a scripting language that is an extension of HTML. Using Java script small
programs called scripts can be embedded in web pages.
7. VB Script: This is a scripting language that `closely resembles Microsoft’s Visual Vasic. Like java
script, VB script can embed small programs on web.
8. Multimedia: These days all kinds of files –graphics, sound, video and animation—are being used
over the Web. Technologies such as Shockwave and Java allow these files to be transferred to
your system and played over there.

WWW Browsers

A browser is a computer program that accesses web pages and displays them on the computer
screen. It is the basic software that is needed to find, retrieve, view, and send information over the
Internet. In fact, to access the World Wide Web, the user requires a web browser.

When you open the Internet Explorer browser, the home page of Microsoft will open by default. If you
have the Netscape browser, the home page of Netscape Incorporation opens in your screen by default.

Browsers are two types:

1. Graphical browsers: It allows retrieval of text, images, audio and video. Navigation is
accomplished by pointing and clicking with a mouse on highlighted words and graphics.
Both Netscape navigator and internet explorer and Graphical browsers.
2. Text browsers: It provides access to the web in text-only mode. Navigation is
accomplished by highlighting emphasized words on the screen with the arrow up and
down keys, and then pressing the Enter key to follow the link.

Mosaic

This was the first Web browser and was developed by the National center for Supercomputing
Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. It is available for Macintosh,
Window and X Windows platforms. This software is available free on the Internet and can be
downloaded from ftp.ncsa.uiuc.eduby any anonymous FTP.
Netscape Navigator

Netscape Navigator was released in 1994 and is one of the fastest Web browsers currently
available in the market. It is available in different versions for UNIX, Windows and Macintosh platforms
and has built-in the e-mail and Newsgroups facilities.

Microsoft Internet Explorer

This is based on NCSA Mosaic and is distributed under a licensing agreement with Spyglass Inc.
This is shareware software and can be downloaded from the Internet. It comes in different versions for
various Windows products. We will discuss Internet Explorer 3.0 in detail.

Web Servers

A web server can be any computer, which stores various web pages and contains the web server
software. The web pages on the server are mostly HTML documents. The web client (i.e. a browser, like
Internet Explorer and Netscape) makes a request to the web server. The web server software running on
server accepts this request, makes a search client. Let us first see how the web server works:

Whenever you have to look up a web page, you type that URL into your browser and press
return. After a while, no matter where in the words that URL lives, the page appears on computer
screen. Your browser forms a connection to a Web server, requests a page and receives it. If you want
to get into a bit more detail, here are the basic steps that occur being the scenes:

The browser broke the URL you typed into three parts:

1. The protocol (“http”)

2. The server name (“www.mypage.com”)
3. The file name (“web-server.htm”)

The browser communicates with a www.mypage.com to translate the server name into an IP Address,
which it uses to connect to the server at that IP address on port80. Following the HTTP protocol, the
browser sends a request to the server, asking for the file http://www.mypage.com/web-server.htm. The
server then sent the HTML text for the Web page to the browser. The browser read the HTML tags and
formatted the page onto your computer screen.

Internet Information Server (IIS): This is a product of Microsoft and runs on Windows NT or Windows
2000. It is the most widely used web server. One of the reasons for its popularity is that it is easy to set
up. IIS offers various tools. These tools are as follows:

1. Microsoft Transaction Server:It is used for building distributed applications.

2. Index Server: Index Server is used for indexing and searching web pages and Microsoft word
documents.
3. Site Analyst: The site Analyst carries out the task of site management.

IIS supports a large number of features. Some of the important features are--- crash protection,
support for active server pages and java, script debugging and content management. IIS is also
being used for providing support for HTTP.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
Protocols are the rules that describe how clients and servers communicate with each other over
a network. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is a protocol used by the WWW. It can be defined as a
set of rules that signify how the web pages are transmitted over the web. We know that there
are various types of files that are to be transferred from one host machine to another. These
include text files, sound files, music files, graphics, etc.

Some of the commands that help in the communication between the browser and the web
server are listed below

1. GET: This command initiates the server to retrieve the information located at the path
specified in the URL.
2. HEAD: This command is exactly the same as the GET command. The only difference is that
unlike the GET command, The server retrieves only the document header to the browser.
The body of the document is ignored. The HTML document is divided into 2 parts:

The Head and the Body.

3. Post: The post method instead of reading the page, writes the page. However, instead of
replacing the existing date, the new date is appended to it in some generalized sense.

The transaction in HTTP uses the TCP/IP protocol. Given below are the various phases which a
transaction must undergo:

Connection: This is the first phase of the Transaction cycle. In this phase, a connection is
established between the browser and the web server. The browser requests the server for the
connection and the server on receiving the request establishes a connection.

Request: Once a connection has been established, the client sends a request to the server,
specifying the files it needs to access.

Response: The server searches its database, finds the web pages requested by the client and
sends the results back to the client.

Close: When the server has processed the request made by the client, the connection is no
more needed. The client delivers a request to the server to close the connection.

Uniform Resource Locator

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The
URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that
identifies a specific computer on the Internet, and a hierarchical description of a file located on
that computer.

Example of URL: http://www.yahoo.com

 Search Engines

A search engine is a software program that searches a particular piece of information, according
to the specified criteria. We all know amount of information available on the Web is huge. Most
of us are not even aware of the names of the sites available on net. Even if we know the names
of a few sites, it is quite possible that we do not remember them tomorrow, however, search
engines have made searching a particular type of information very easy. On to any of these
search engines and get the required information, without much effort and wastage of time. The
is way a search engines makes a hunt for the specified criteria through its own database. In a
survey conducted by Neilsen /Net Ratings, it was found that for the year 2002, the two most
popular search engines for navigating the Web were – yahoo and MSN.

Components of the Google search

There are three components that work together to provide us with the search results. These are—the
Robot, the Database and the Search Form. Let us now have a look at these components one by one:

1. Robot: Also known as Spider or Bot, this is a program that automatically navigates the
various hypertext structures on the Web. It makes a move like a robot spider and
retrieves and lists the various web pages. The robot works by categorizing the web
pages and storing information about the web site and the web pages in a database.
2. Database: A database is a repository to store and manage the information (here on the
web). Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2 are some of the Database Management
systems that are used to configure and manage the databases. The search engines make
a list of the web pages and sites using these databases. Remember that different sites
have different databases. Therefore, the search results will vary, depending on the
database used by a particular site.
3. Search Form: This is an interactive form, which is used by a visitor to make a request for
some information. This mainly consists of a text box and a submit button. The visitor
usually types the topics related to his or her search and clicks the script, which then
searches the database using the criteria specified by the visitor. The result of the search,
often known as the result-set is sent by the web server to the browser for display. The
sequence in which, the web pages are listed, depends on the alphabetical order of the
sites, amount spent on their advertisements by their owners, link popularity etc.
What is internet?

The internet is a global collection of computer networks that are linked together by devices called
routers, modems and use a common set of protocols for data transmission known the TCP/IP
(Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol). The Primary purpose of the Internet is to facilitate the
sharing of information. This global network links thousands of computers at universities, research
institutions, government agencies and business houses throughout the world. Using a small pc at your
home and telephone connection, you can access information from any place in the world through
internet. There are many different tools used on the Internet to make this possible. Some of the more
common tools

1. Email
2. Information store house
3. FTP (File Transfer protocol)
4. Telnet
5. Entertainment
6. Online Shopping/Electronic Commerce

Email: Electronic mail is a fast easy and economical way to send messages to anymore having an
Internet account. Through this most widely used feature on Internet you can exchange messages with
your family, friends and business associates around the world. Along with the messages one can also
send pictures, audio and animation.

Information Storehouse: You can easily access information from internet regarding any subject. Internet
is very much like a library with enormous information on any subject.

FTP:There are thousands of free programs and software’s available on Internet. You can transfer them
to your hard disk through a process called File Transfer Protocol.

Telnet:Telnet is an Internet exploration tool that allows your PC to connect to another network
and login as if you were a user on that system. You can communicate with a wide variety of
remote systems with which you have an account. Telnet is widely used to access databases and
explore public access computer systems. Libraries frequently use Telnet. When you search for
resources, and an item is not found in one library, another library needs to be searched. The
Telnet application helps you to do this.

Entertainment:Hundreds of simple games are available for free on internet, Like chess, football, etc.
Internet also allows you to review the current movies as well as indulge in interactive conversation with
people around the world.

Online Shopping/Electronic Commerce: Online shopping means buying or selling on the Net. You can
order goods and services on internet such as computers, software’s, books, dress, vegetable etc.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR AN INTERNET CONNECTION

Computer: Any good IBM compatible pc and unix or windows os, computer that has good storage space
and minimum configuration of pc.

Modem: The term modem is derived from Modulator/Demodulator. A modem is a hardware device that
is used to convert digital signals from a computer to analog signals (modulation) in order to transmit
them over analog lines. At the receiving end, it converts the analog signals back to digital signals
(demodulation) so that a computer can understand them. It can be built onto the MOBO of the
computer can be installed as an extension card, or can be and external device. External modems can
either be connected to one of the serial ports or to the USB port of the computer.

Web Browser: The software used to navigate through the web is known as a browser. The most popular
browser types today are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Before you start working
on the Internet, make sure you have a web browser in your computer, otherwise you will not be able to
surf the net. The Microsoft Internet Explorer comes installed along with MSOFFICE.

Telephone Line: It is essential to have a telephone connection to get connected to Internet. All the data
and information pass through the telephone lines as analogue signals.

ISP (Internet Service Providers): If you have a computer with a web browser, a modem and a telephone
line connected to your computer, you now need an Internet connection. You can get and Internet
connection from various Internet Service Providers. EX: BSNL, VSNL, MTNL.

INTERNET TERMINOLOGY
TCP/IP

TCP/IP is the protocol suite that is designed especially for the Internet. Basically, the TCP/IP handles
network communications between network nodes (computers connected to each other over the
Internet).The suite is actually composed of several protocols including IP, which handles the movement
of data between host computers and TCP, which manages the movement of data between applications.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A URL is the address of a resource accessible on the Internet. The type of resource depends on the
Internet application protocol. Using the World Wide Web’s protocol, the HTTP and the resource can be
and HTML page.

The URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain name that
identifies a specific computer on the Internet and hierarchical description of a file location on that
computer.

Here is an example of URL: http://www.google.com.

HTTP: (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

HTTP is a protocol used by the WWW. The main task of HTTP is deals with the messages format and
transmission and what actions Web Servers and browsers should take in response to various commands.
The main standards that controls how the WWW works is HTML, which deals with how Web pages are
formatted and displayed.

Modem

Modem: The term modem is derived from Modulator/Demodulator. A modem is a hardware device that
is used to convert digital signals from a computer to analog signals (modulation) in order to transmit
them over analog lines. At the receiving end, it converts the analog signals back to digital signals
(demodulation) so that a computer can understand them. It can be built onto the MOBO of the
computer can be installed as an extension card, or can be and external device. External modems can
either be connected to one of the serial ports or to the USB port of the computer.

Network

A network is a group of interconnected systems sharing services and interacting by means of a shared
communications link. A network therefore, requires two or more individual systems with something to
share (data). The individual systems must be connected through a phyiscal pathway called the
transmission medium. All systems on the physical pathway must follow a set of common communication
rules for data to arrive at its intended destination and for the sending and receiving systems to
understand each other. The rules that govern computer communication are called protocol.

Types of Internet Connection:

The must be connected to a telephone line to access the web. However modems do not need a special
telephone line. Most people use their regular phone line to connect to the Internet. Apart from a normal
telephone line, you could also use other channels to connect to the web. Some of the other common
types of Internet access, available for the use these days, are briefed below:

Dial-up: A dial up connection is the access method that uses telephone lines to connect to the Internet.
It is the most common way that individuals who use home computer connect to the Internet. To
connect to the Internet by using dial up, the user needs to specify a username, a password, and a
telephone number. After the connection is established, the user can start browsing sites on the Internet.

ISDN: It stands for Integrated Services Digital Network and is more common in business and ISDN
involves the digitization of telephone network so that voice, graphics, text and other data can be
provided to users from a single terminal over existing telephone wiring. Digital connections have fewer
errors in transmission, which means speed of downloading graphics, web pages, sound and so on is
increased to four times faster than with dial-up modems.

DSL: Digital subscriber Line service is provided through the existing phone line, but it works differently
than regular analog modem dial-up access. DSL operates over normal telephone lines and it can be used
simultaneously with the telephone. DSL can increase the connection speed by as much as ten – fold
form a standard dial-up modem.

Broadband: This type of access is good for remote locations, where ISDN, cable or DSL are not available.
It gives a decent download speed, but to upload data, the user sill needs a regular analog modem to dial
in, via a phone line. Satellite connection can be either a two way service or a one-way service. In case of
two-way satellite service, the data is transmitted via satellite to a dish antenna at the user’s house. In
one way system, the user needs a conventional modem and telephone link to an ISP. Satellite
connection is expensive but sometimes is the only fast option for people who are beyond the service
area of cable and DSL providers.

Internet Software’s:

TCP/IP: It is the basic communication protocol of the Internet. It allows programs on user’s computer to
communicate properly over the Internet. Usually when you are setup with direct access to the Internet,
Your computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP program. Similarly every other computer that you
may send messages to or get information from also has a copy of TCP/IP.

Dialer Software: This software is provided by the ISP to instruct the modem to dial the phone number
and to identify the user’s machine to the access provider’s system for access to the network.

Browser: To use the Internet a web browser is essential. This program allows the user to view the
information available on the World Wide Web.

Internet Relay chats

The internet relay chat (IRC) feature of internet lets you instantly communicate with people around the
world. Using IRC you can converse on the Net with one or more individuals simultaneously by simply
typing replies to lines coming in from the other individuals. This is a great way to meet people and
exchange ideas.

During Internet conversations, if you type text, it immediately appears on the screen of every person
involved in that conversation. Unlike talking on the telephone, the IRC lets you chat with friends and
colleagues in other cities, states or countries without your having to pay long distance charges.

TYPES OF CHAT

1. TEXT BASED CHAT: It is the oldest and most popular mode of chat on the Internet. This mode
enables you to have conversation with one or more people. During chat when you type text, the
text appears on the computer screen of every person participating in your conversation. The
test gets transferred quickly across the Internet through the modem. So you do not need a high-
speed modem for text – based chat.
2. WEB BASED CHAT: In this type of conversation, you make use of multimedia. In fact, multimedia
chat is a new feature of the Internet. This feature enables you to have voice conversations and
communicate with other people through live video over the Internet. Since sound and video
 signals get transferred slowly across Internet, it is recommended that you use a high –speed
modem for web based chat. However, web-based chat is not functional in India as yet because
of the narrow band-width available for use in India.

Browsing the WWW

When you open the Internet Explorer browser, the home page of Microsoft will open by default. If you
have the Netscape browser, the home page of Netscape Incorporation opens on your screen by default.

Each Web page on the web has a unique address. This address is called a URL (Uniform Resource
Locator). The URLs of web pages start with http:// where http stands for hyper text transfer Protocol. To
view a particular website, you will have to provide an address that is a URL of that website.

1. Open the Internet Explorer and it displays the homepage of Microsoft.

2. Move the mouse-pointer inside the Address box and click the left mouse button.
3. Now type the URL http://www.google.com and then press the Enter key.

IP ADDRESSING

The task of assigning a network address to your network and a host address to each of your servers and
workstations is known as IP Addressing. An IP address is a four-part number in which each part
represents an eight bit binary number. The four parts are known as octets or bytes and are separated by
periods. The total length of an IP Address is 32 bits. A simple example of IP Address is listed here under.
IP addresses are assigned and controlled by an organization called Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA). There are two current versions of IP addressing IPv4 and IPv6. A part of the IP addresses is
known as the network address, or network ID, and the rest of it is known is the host address or host ID.

Example: 192.68.1.15

Subnet Mask

The subnet Mask is used to identify which part of the IP address is the network address and which part is
the host address. The subnet mask is telling the network that the first eight bits of the corresponding IP
address are to used as the network address. The last 24 bits in this example are to be used as the host
address.

Domain

A domain name is one that follows the at sign (@) in an email address, such as hotmail.com. The domain
names have different words, separated by periods that indicate different levels of organization. The size
of the organization increases from left to right. For Example, the domain indianrail.gov is meant for
Indian railways, which is part of Indian government and comes under its direct jurisdictions.

Domain can be categorized into two broad categories: Three – letter top-level domains and two-letter
top – level domains.
Three – Letter Top-Level Domains

TLD MEANING EXAMPLES

.com Commercial Business, a company Hotmail.com
.net Network provider, ISP Usa.net
.gov Government agency Indianrail.gov
.edu Educational Institution Stanford.edu
.org Non-profit institution Redcross.org
.mil U.S. Military Army.mil
.int International Itu.int

Two – Letter Top – Level Domains: these are country codes

TLD COUNTRY EXAMPLES

In India www.drc.in
Us United states Nasdap.us
Uk United Kingdom Bbc.uk
De Germany (Deutschland) Sgi.de
Jp Japan www.nihon-u.ac.jp

Sending and Receiving E-mails using Outlook Express

Outlook Express is a message - or – E-mail – handling software. This comes along with the Internet
Explorer. The Electronic Mail is sent and received in the form of text or images to different Internet
Users. The Internet Explorer mail and news program, Outlook express is used to exchange Email
messages.

Receiving an Email

1. You will notice a mail button present on the standard toolbar of Internet Explorer
2. Then click the left mouse button on the mail button.
3. Inside the pull down menu click on the read mail option
4. Immediately a Microsoft outlook express logo appears on the screen for a few seconds.
5. Now to view all the Emails you have received, move the mouse – pointer over the inbox option
inside the Folders box and click the left mouse button.
6. If you wish to read the contents of a particular mail, in our case a mail that has come from
Microsoft Outlook Express, Just move the Mouse-Pointer to it and double-click the left mouse
button.

Replying to and Email using Outlook Express

1. Click on the particular mail which has to be replied to.

2. Now click on the reply button.
3. Type the message in the mail.
4. Now send the mail to To Email address.
Sending an Email using Outlook express

1. Click on the new mail button present on the standard toolbar.

2. Inside the pull down menu click on the any letter option, Instantly a new message box gets
displayed on the screen.
3. Now type the Email address of the person to whom you wish to send a message.
4. Then press the tab key two times to move the cursor in the box beside the Subject option.
5. Next, type a brief description for the subject of Email.
6. Then pres s tab key from the keyboard to move the cursor into the typing area.
7. Now type the message in the mail.
8. When you are ready to send your message, click on the send button.
9. Click on the Outbox option present inside the Outlook window. Instantly all the mails present
inside the outbox get displayed.

HOW TO CREATE EMAIL ID:

1. Connect your computer to the Internet.

2. Step 2
Open a Web browser and type in the Web address of the company with which you want to get an
email ID. Yahoo is free and very easy to set up
3. Step 3
Click on "Sign up." On the Yahoo page this says "Don't have a Yahoo ID?" above it.
4. Step 4
Fill out your personal information. This includes your name, date of birth, gender and country. Most
companies do not ask for your specific address.
5. Step 5
Get out a pen and paper and begin writing out email ID's that you would like to have. He best ones
are easy to remember. Your name or a nickname that everyone knows you by are good places to
start.
6. Step 6
Start with your favorite ID and type it in the ID box on the email service's Web page and click
"Check." A few seconds later you will be told whether this ID is taken or not taken.
7. Step 7
Create a password. This is usually longer than eight characters and it is best to make it a
combination of both letters and numbers.
8. Step 8
Type in the letters on the screen and click done.
9. Step 9
Let your friends know what your new email address is and start sending and receiving your emails.
Dealing with a search Engine – Google

1. First of all you need to open the website of google by typing www.google.com in the address bar
of the Internet Explorer.
2. Once the home page of google appears on the screen, enter the search query in the text
provided on the home page for entering queries and press the Enter key from the keyboard.
3. In a few moments google will display the links and name of websites that can provide you
information on search query entered by you. You can click on any link to view the information.

E-Learning

Electronic Learning is the mode of learning and acquiring knowledge by means of Internet, Intranet, CD-
ROM, which can include text, audio, graphics or animation. In e-learning, you can learn about any
subject at anytime and anywhere with the help of a computer.

Types of e-Learning

1. Knowledge-based e-learning
2. Online Support – based e-learning
3. Synchronous Based e-learning
4. Asynchronous Based e-learning

Knowledge based e-learning: This type or e-learning involves giving step-by-step instructions to perform
a particular task. Example: Software Websites.

Online Support-based e-learning: In online support-based e-learning the user puts up his query on
forums, chat rooms, online bulletin boards, emails etc. and gets the answer to his query online.

Synchronous based e-learning: The synchronous based e-learning operates in real-time environment
where an instructor provides learning and training to students. In this type of e-learning, students and
instructor can set a time for communication over the internet and can communicate directly with the
instructor and fellow students.

Asynchronous based e-learning: This type of e-learning is most common as it involves self – learning by
means of Internet, Intranet and CD-ROM.

E-Commerce

In today’s web-oriented society the most discussed word is e-Commerce . The concept of e-Commerce
originated from the word commerce, which means transaction/exchange of goods and services for their
worth. This applies to e-Commerce too, but the difference is that e-Commerce involves selling and
purchasing of commodities and services using a computer network, usually the Internet.

Product: To conduct e-commerce you must have some produce to sell.

Selling place: In a e-commerce, the place of selling and ordering goods is an web site.
Accessibility to people: This element decides how people would access the web site that is hosting e-
commerce.

How to place orders: The website must have some on-line forms that people can use to place their
orders.

How to accept money from customers: In e-commerce credit card is the most convenient and commonly
used means of accepting money from customers.

Delivery mechanism: The website that is hosting e-commerce must have the provision to deliver
commodities to their customers.

Internet Telephony

Internet Telephony is one of the latest and most discussed technologies. From the very first day of its
launch, this technology has found increasing favour with corporate companies and programmers. This
technology was first introduced by Vocal Tech Inc that deployed this technology in its Internet phone
software. To use this technology you must have the following devices.

1. Sound card
2. Speakers
3. Microphone
4. Voice-capable modem

Category1: PSTN to PSTN using voice over the Internet

In this category communication between two users takes place over PSTN line. As a phone call is made
the telephone exchange transfers the telephone call on an IT gateway, which delivers the call to the
target telephone exchange. The target telephone exchange on receiving the call delivers the call to the
intended user.

Category 2: PC to PC using Voice over the Internet

In this category a user makes a call to the other user by using a computer and applications such a s
phone dialer. When a user makes a call by using a computer, the IT gateway delivers the call to the
target telephone exchange. On receiving the call the telephone exchange delivers the call to the target
user. It must be remembered that only a person using a computer can make a call to another user
irrespective of whether the other user has a computer or not.

Category 3: PC to PC using voice over Internet

In this category there is no role of PSTN whatsoever. Here two users communicate with each other over
the Internet using H.323 protocol, which is specially designed for delivering voice over the Internet.
CHAPTER - 8
CUSTOMIZE THE WEB BROWSER
What are Favorites?

When browsing the World Wide Web you will come across certain web sites which you might want to
visit again. Instead of typing in the address each time, you can store a list of Favorites in Internet
Explorer which require only a simple click to take you to a web site.

View Favorites

To view your current list of Favorites, in Internet Explorer 6 click on the Favorites menu at the top of
your browser. In Internet Explorer 7 you can access your Favorites list by clicking on the FavoritesCenter
button.

Add a Favorite Site

To add the current web site page to your list of Favorites, right-click somewhere on the page and select
Add to Favorites from the menu that appears. Alternatively, in Internet Explorer 7 you can also click the
Add to Favorites button at the top left of the screen.

A new window will open allowing you to give this Favorite a name to help you remember what the site
was about. Type it into the Name box.

What is popup?

Pop-up ads are a form of online advertising on the World Wide Web intended to increase web traffic. It
works when certain web sites open a new web browser window to display advertisements. The pop-up
window containing an advertisement is usually generated by JavaScript, but can be generated by other
means as well. A less intrusive variation on the pop-up window is the pop-under advertisement. This
opens a new browser window, but in the background, so as not to interrupt the user's page-view.

OPTION A: Disable the pop-up blocker in Windows XP Service Pack 2

1. Launch Internet Explorer.

2. Click Tools > Internet options > Security tab.
3. Click the Custom Level button.
4. Scroll down the Security Settings list to find and select the Use Pop-Up Blocker Disable setting.
5. Click OK.
6. When prompted with a security settings warning, click Yes.

OPTION B: Create an exception for the pop-up blocker in Windows XP Service Pack 2

NOTE: The pop-up blocker remains enabled in this option

 1. Open Internet Explorer.
2. Click Tools > Popup blocker.
3. Select Popup blocker settings.
4. Under "Address of Web site to allow:" enter "*.platoweb.com" and click Add. If the URL you use
to access Web Learning Network is different, use the appropriate URL for your school or facility.
5. Click Close to close the Pop-up blocker settings window.

What is ACTIVE X CONTROLS?

A control using ActiveX technologies. An ActiveX control can be automatically downloaded and executed
by a Web browser. ActiveX is not a programming language, but rather a set of rules for how applications
should share information. Programmers can develop ActiveX controls in a variety of languages, including
C, C++, Visual Basic, and Java.

ActiveX controls have full access to the Windows operating system. This gives them much more power
than Java applets, but with this power comes a certain risk that the applet may damage software or data
on your machine. To control this risk, Microsoft developed a registration system so that browsers can
identify and authenticate an ActiveX control before downloading it. Another difference between Java
applets and ActiveX controls is that Java applets can be written to run on all platforms, whereas ActiveX
controls are currently limited to Windows environments.

Active X Control

1. Click "Tools" located on the IE 6 toolbar.

2. Select "Internet Options."
3. Click the "Security" tab.
4. Click "Custom Level."
5. Configure the categories by following the directions below:
o Active X Controls and Plug-ins - Enable Download signed ActiveX, Run ActiveX controls and
plug-ins, and Script ActiveX controls marked safe for scripting.
o Cookies - Enable both options in this category.
o Downloads - Enable File Download.
o Miscellaneous - Set Software Channel to Medium.
o Scripting - Enable all options in this category.
6. Click "OK."

Web Browser Plug INS

There are a core set of key programs from third parties that you can download to extend the capabilities
of your browser.

Several companion programs for Internet Explorer can be set on the window accessed under "Tools /
Internet Options / Programs", and others under the "Manage Add-ons" on that window. Internet
Explorer generally downloads additional plug-in automatically the first time it needs them, and will
prompt you for permission if it runs an installer program.
You can get information on Mozilla Firefox plug-in from the menu "Tools / Options / Downloads / Plug-
Ins".

You should try not to download too many plugins if they aren't needed, especially if they provide
duplicate capabilities -- try to stick to one preferred plug-in for each type of media. You can delete any
extra and/or old plugins if find they aren't being used.

Resources: The average plugin is between 500 KB and 1 MB in size. If you have the disk space, you
should get the latest copy of the following key plugins which are widely used across the Internet:

 Acrobat
 Mediaplayer
 Quicktime
 Realplayer
 Shockwave
 Flash Player

PROXY SERVER

In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application program) that
acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other servers. A client connects
to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource,
available from a different server. The proxy server evaluates the request according to its filtering rules.

 To speed up access to resources (using caching). Web proxies are commonly used to cache web
pages from a web server.
 To apply access policy to network services or content, e.g. to block undesired sites.
 To bypass security/ parental controls.
 To scan transmitted content before delivery for malware.
 To scan outbound content, e.g. for data leak protection.

How to configure Internet Explorer to use a proxy

Internet Explorer 6.0

1. On the Tools menu in Internet Explorer, click Internet Options, click the Connections tab, and
then click LAN Settings.
2. Under Proxy server, click to select the Use a proxy server for your LAN check box.
3. In the Address box, type the IP address of the proxy server.
4. In the Port box, type the port number that is used by the proxy server for client connections (by
default, 8080).
5. You can click to select the Bypass proxy server for local addresses check box if you do not want
the proxy server computer to be used when you connect to a computer on the local network
(this may speed up performance).
6. Click OK to close the LAN Settings dialog box.
7. Click OK again to close the Internet Options dialog box.
CHAPTER -9
COMPUTER VIRUS/ANTIVIRUS
Computer Virus

A virus is a piece of programming code usually disguised as something else that causes some unexpected
and usually undesirable event. A virus is often designed so that it is automatically spread to other
computers. Viruses can be transmitted as attachments to and e-mail, as downloads, or be present one
diskette of CD. It must be remembered that a computer virus does not spread on its own; rather it
requires some carrier to transport it from one place to another.

Categories of Computer Viruses

The three broad categories of viruses are as follows:

File Infectors

System Infectors

Macro Viruses

1. File Infectors: Some file infector viruses attach themselves to program files while some can
infect any program for which execution is requested. When the program is loaded, the virus is
loaded as well. Other file infector viruses arrive as wholly-contained programs or scripts sent as
an attachment to an e-mail note.
2. System infectors: These viruses infect executable code found in certain system areas on a disk.
They attach to the DOS boot sector on diskettes or the Master Boot record on hard disks. A
typical scenario is to receive a diskette from an innocent source that can be read without
triggering the boot disk virus. However, if you leave the diskette in the drive, and then turn the
computer off or reload the operating system, the computer will look first in you’re A drive, find
the diskette with its boot disk virus, load it, and make it temporarily impossible to use your hard
disk. This is why you should make sure you have a bootable floppy.
3. Macro Viruses: These are among the most common viruses, and they tend to do the least
damage. Macro viruses infect your Microsoft Word application and typically insert unwanted
words or phrases.

Symptoms of a Virus

Some common symptoms for a virus are as follows:

1. The computer begins to run slowly

 2. Unusual messages and graphics appear on your screen for inexplicable reasons
3. Music, not associated with any of the current programs, begins to play
4. Some of the program and/or data files have either been corrupted, or they have become
difficult to locate.
5. Unknown files or sub-directories have been created.
6. The sizes/dates of executable files change automatically.
7. The computer does not remember CMOS settings.
8. The disk volume label has been changed unexpectedly.
9. The hardware devices begin to exhibit unusual behavior.

WORM:

A worm, like a virus, is a program that is designed that is designed to harm the computer and destroy
data stored on a computer. Worms are considered more harmful that viruses because they rely less on
human behavior in order to spread themselves from one computer to another.

TROJAN HORSES:

A Trojan horse, or simply a Trojan, is a malicious program that is embedded inside a legitimate
application. The application appears to be very useful, interesting and harmless to the user until it is
executed. Trojans are different from other computer viruses in that they must be executed by the victim
user who fails for the interesting “software.”

Anti-Virus Software:

Anti-virus software protects your computer from unexpected virus attack. Apart from protecting your
system, anti-virus performs the following tasks:

 Detects the name of virus and its type.

 Detects the name of infected file or folder and mentions the exact location of infected file or
folder on your computer and removes the virus from the computer.
 Most of the anti-virus software’s come with Alert feature. This feature keeps a vigil on your
computer and as soon as some virus-like activity is found, the Alert feature displays a message
box and alters the user.
 By changing the settings of anti-virus, you can instruct it to scan the computer on a regular basis.

The names of some popular anti-virus software’s are listed below:

Norton Anti-Virus:

This anti-virus software is most widely used and can easily be purchased from the market. Norton anti-
virus has direct patch up with software firm Symantec, which specially deals in anti-virus operations.

McAfee
Software giant Microsoft used this anti-virus software for its email website – Hotmail. Whenever you
open some email or download some file from hotmail, the McAfee anti-virus software automatically
checks the files for viruses.

HOW TO INSTALL ANTIVIRUS

Here’s what to do before installing your antivirus software:

Back up your files: I don’t mean copy them to another directory on the same hard drive — that would be
like making copies of important documents and putting them in the same drawer. Convenient — until
you have a fire. Instead, copy everything to another computer, or to a CD-ROM that you have verified is
readable on another computer.

 Reboot your system:

 Stop all of your other programs
 Open the Antivirus software CD in the OS
 Open the setup file (Executable file)
 Install your new anti-virus program. Follow the instructions carefully. If you become dazed and
confused, stop the install, and get some help.
 After completing Installing restart your computer
 Open the Antivirus Application and update through Internet
 After completing update process
 Scan the all Hard Drives.

Virus Information:
This section provides a list of the latest viruses and their symptoms. You can use this section to
prepare yourself for facing the latest virus threats.

Virus name: W32.KazaA.Benjimin

This new type of worm spreads via a computer network known as KaZaA. Whenever a contact is
made with this type of worm, a message is displayed to the user which forces him to believe
that this worm is a new game or utility to enhance the performance of computer.

Virus name: W32.Klez.H

W32.Klez.H is file type worm, which infects files by renaming them with a random extension
and copying itself as the name of the original file. It is network aware and detects all open
shares and copies itself to them with random filenames.

Virus name: W32.Nimda

W32.Nimda is a very highly infectious worm, which creates.EML and .NWS files in all folders
that are accessed by the user. This is a network aware virus and creates the .EML and/or .NWS
files in the shared folders of other computers as well. When any of these files are opened in
Outlook, the virus automatically gets executed on computers without the outlook patch.

Virus name: W32.Sircam

This is a network aware trojan. It installs itself as a hidden file in the RECYCLED folder with the
name SIRC32.EXE.It changes the registry to execute the virus whenever any .EXE file is run.

Virus name: CHM.Britney-Pics.Worm

This is a worm that arrives in emails as a CHM (Compiled HTML) attachment. The subject of the
mail is “RE: Britney Pics”. It spreads through e-mails by using addresses it collect from the
Microsoft Outlook Address Book.

How to avoid Virus?

If we follow some simple safety measures, we can easily protect our computers from getting
corrupted by viruses. For this keep the following tips in mind:

 First of all you must prepare yourself against viruses by knowing about their symptoms,
behavior, general working and their common source of origin.
 On a regular basis collect information about the latest virus threats. You can find such
information from websites like www.s-cop.com and www.symantec.com.
 Never download files from unfamiliar or doubtful websites.
 Do not open any suspicious or unfamiliar email. Simply delete it.
 Maintain a separate folder for downloading files from the Internet. Once the download
is complete, scan the folder with anti-virus software. Once the scan is complete, move
the file to some other location on your computer.
 Scan your computer thoroughly on a regular basis and never stop the scanning
operation in the middle.
 Update your anti-virus software regularly from the Internet to empower it against new
viruses.
 Always scan a floppy disk before using it because it may also contain viruses.
 Take regular back-ups of files so that a possible damage is minimized if a virus attack
does occur.
 Create strong passwords so that virus could not guess the password and breach the
security settings of your computer.
 Maintain a strict security level for browsing the Internet.
 Remove files having extension .TMP and .CHK regularly.

What is malicious code and software?

Malicious codes are the software programs that generate threats to the computer system and
precious data. This code can be in the form of viruses, worms, Trojan horses, Logic bombs, and
other ‘uninvited’ software. Viruses are a small segment of code, which replicates by attaching
copies of itself to existing executables files. The new copy of the virus is executed when a user
executes the new host program.

SCANNING HARD DISK FOR VIRUSES

To Open the Antivirus Software:

 Start Button- Mouse Cursor Place over the Programs Option- Select the Antivirus Software-Click
it.
 The main window of Antivirus appears.
 Select the Scan drivers Option and click it.
 By default antivirus software selects all drives present on computer for scanning
 Select the which drive do you want to scan
 Next click the scan button
 Antivirus starts scanning selected drives for viruses
 After completing the scanning, antivirus display a Summary window.
 This window mentions how many files or folders scanned by antivirus, number of infected files
detected by antivirus, files repaired and deleted by antivirus.
 After viewing the scan summary, click the finished button.