SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I - INTRODUCTION – SCIA5202

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 SCIA5202 - Structural Dynamics
UNIT I
Introduction
The dynamic behavior of structures is an important topic in many fields. Aerospace engineers
must understand dynamics to simulate space vehicles and airplanes, while mechanical
engineers must understand dynamics to isolate or control the vibration of machinery and in
civil engineering, an understanding of structural dynamics is important in the design and
retrofit of structures to withstand severe dynamic loading from earthquakes, hurricanes, and
strong winds, or to identify the occurrence and location of damage within an existing
structure.
The basis for structural dynamics is Newton’s Laws of motion which are assumed known,
however they are shortly repeated below.
Law 1 A body at rest (or moving in a straight line at a particular speed) will remain at
rest (or continue moving in a straight line at that speed) unless acted on by a nonzero net
force.
Law 2 When a body is acted on by a nonzero net force, the net force is equal to the
timerate of change of the body’s linear momentum. For a constant mass

Law 3 For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newton’s laws are valid
in any inertial frame of reference i.e. a space-time coordinate system that neither rotates nor
accelerates.

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Fundamental difference between static and dynamic load:
A static load is doesn’t vary with respect to time, but a dynamic load will vary with
respect to time. The responses of a structure are static for static load and for a
dynamic load; the responses of a structure are dynamic in nature.

𝐹 = 𝑘. 𝑢 𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑘. 𝑢(𝑡)

Deterministic approach:
We can use this approach to calculate the dynamic response of the structure, when
the time variant of the force is completely defined. In this analysis we can get the
defined or exact values of structural responses.
Non-deterministic approach
We can use this approach to calculate the dynamic response of the structure, when
the time variant of the force is not completely defined. In this analysis we can’t get
the defined or exact values of structural responses. (We can get only the static
response of the structures).
Types of dynamic loads
 Periodic loads
 Non periodic loads
 Impulse / Pulse loads
 Transient load

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 Figure 1 Types of Dynamic loads

Mass discretization / Discretization of mass

We can discretize the mass of the structure in two senses in the dynamic analysis.
Either we can lump the mass of the structure at a point or we can also consider the
mass is to be distributed continuously along the structure.
 Lump mass (Simple analysis)
 Continuously distributed mass (Complex analysis)
Degree of freedom
It is the number of independent displacement quantities.

Essential characteristics of dynamic loading

Time variant loading

1. Due to time variant loading on structures, we can get time variant response
of thestructures.
2. In static analysis, time is constant.

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System should have significant inertia component
According to Newton’s second law,

D’Alemerts Principle
It is stated about dynamic equilibrium. According to this principle, the body is in
dynamicequilibrium, the inertia force of the body will acts opposite direction of the
body displacement.
Mathematical model of single degree of freedom
Assume a model is having single degree of freedom (direction of motion is
indicated in thefigure)

Figure 2 Mathematical model of SDOF system

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In the assumed model, the mass body can move only in one direction (front
and back)From the fig
 Mass (m) indicates the presence of inertia force.
 Spring (k) implementing an elastic restoring force and it can be representing by stiffness.
 damping component in the system, which can be indicated as “C”.
 Excitation force is a dynamic force and it can be represented as p (t).

Due to an external force p (t), the mass component can able to displace and due to the attached
spring, the mass body will get back to its original position. But due to this displacement some
friction force will generate between wheel and the surface. Due to this frictional force, energy
dissipations will occur. So, it can be measured by providing

Table 1 Factors influencing Dynamic Analysis

Un-damped Damped Un- Damped

Elements free vibration free damped forced
vibration forced vibration
vibration

Mass (m) √ √ √ √
Stiffness (k) √ √ √ √

Damping (c) X √ x √
Dynamic load p(t) X X √ √

Equation of motion
In order to carry out a dynamic analysis of a given structure it is necessary to establish
theequations of motion for the actual degrees of freedom. The coupling between the degrees of
freedom and thus the dynamic behavior of the structure will be determined by the following
parameters
1. Stiffness properties of the system (k)
2. Size and distribution of masses (m)
3. Damping in the system (c)
4. Load intensity and distribution as a function of time (p(t))

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 The stiffness properties are known from static analysis where they commonly are
described by the stiffness matrix. In a static analysis it is assumed that masses are displaced so
slowly that no significant inertia loads are generated. However, in a dynamic analysis the
accelerations generate inertia forces acting on all masses in the structure. The inertia forces can
be determined using Newton’s (second) law.
All real structures possess a certain amount of damping that will reduce vibrations. The
damping is typically due to energy dissipation in the material itself (e.g. plastic deformations in
steel, cracking in concrete) and friction in connections between different parts of a structure.
This type of damping is called internal damping in opposition to external damping that is due to
energy dissipation to the surroundings or in the external forcing mechanism. As damping
mechanisms are difficult to describe in detail, it is often assumed that the effect of damping can
be considered by a viscous damping model where the damping forces are determined as a
damping factor times the velocity.

Different methods to write an equation of motion

We can write the equation of motion for any degree of models (single degree model /
multi degree model). Numbers of methods are available to write the equations of motion
1. Simple harmonic motion method (SHM)
2. Newton’s law of motion
3. Energy method
4. Rayleigh method
5. D Alembert’sprinciple

Simple harmonic motion method (SHM)

They are two main characteristics in Simple harmonic motion method.

 Acceleration will be always proportional to the distance or displacement of the

body measured along the path of motion(x 𝖺 𝑥). A body will always direct towards
its oppositedirection of motion.
x 𝖺 −𝑥
𝑥 = −𝜔𝑥
𝑥 + 𝜔𝑥 = 0

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 Note: Negative sign represented as body will travels to opposite direction of motion

The general equation of motion for an un-damped free vibration of SDOF

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

General classifications of dynamics system / models:

 Un-damped free vibration system/model
 Un-damped forced vibration system/model
 Damped free vibration system/model
 Damped forced vibration system/model
Derive the response of un-damped free vibration of SDOF system
Consider a single degree of un-damped system with free vibration

Figure 3 Mathematical model of SDOF system with Un-damped Condition

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 𝑥0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔

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 Figure 4 Response of SDOF system with Un-damped free vibration
Damped free vibration of SDOF system

Damping
Damping is a dissipation of energy from a vibrating structure. The damping coefficient is
representing as “c” in the following mode
Types of Damping:
1. Viscous damping.
2. Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping.
3. Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping.
4. Magnetic Damping.

Viscous damping
Viscous damping is the dissipation of energy that due to the movement of bodies in a
fluid medium.
Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping
The damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the motion of the
vibrating body. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that are either dry or have
insufficient lubrication.
Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping
The damping caused by the friction between the internal Planes that slip or slide as the
material deforms is called hysteresis or solid or structural damping.
Magnetic Damping
A phenomenon that has been observed for many years by which vibrating, oscillating or
rotating conductors are slowly be brought to rest in the presence of a magnetic field.

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The damping effects of magnetic induction are also proportional to the speed of the moving object
hence making the braking phenomenon extremely smooth. It is hence the objective of this project
to further investigate the aforementioned damping effects in the case of rotating discs, with the
focus being not on the strength of the magnetic field or the speed of the disc, but on the various
possible orientations of the applied magnetic field in relation to the disc.

Derive the response of damped free vibration of SDOF system

Figure 5 Mathematical model of SDOF system with damped free vibration

Equation of motion of damped free vibration:

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

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where, A and B are constants. It can be found by using initial conditions.

Note: It is observed that damping component will reduces the responses of the structures in
terms of
exponentially.

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The roots are real and imaginary 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝛼𝑡 𝐶1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝛽𝑡

𝑐
− 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑚 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝐷𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝐷𝑡

Where, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constant and it can be found by using an initial conditions.

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Let us consider 𝑥0, 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are represents the peaks of the disturbances along the positive sideof
the curve and similarly 𝑥−1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥−2 are represents the peak of the disturbance along the negative
side of the curve.

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Calculation of 𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 (𝝃) from twosuccessive peaks of a time series

Figure 7 Decaying Curve

In general, 𝑥𝑛 = 1 + 2𝜋𝜉 𝜉 =
1 𝑥𝑛
−1
2𝜋 𝑥𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛 +1

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Calculation of 𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 (𝝃) from any two peaks of a time series

Where

1 𝑥𝑛
𝜉= −1
𝑥0 Is a reference peak. 2𝜋𝑚 𝑥𝑛+𝑚

Derivation of Response of an Un-damped forced vibration of SDOF system

Let us consider a system with un-damped forced vibration condition. External force
(𝐹 𝑡 = 𝑃0 sin 𝜔 𝑡) is acting on the mass body (m). Based on the boundary conditions we are
assuming that, because of an applied external force, the mass body (m) is displacing along only one
direction. (SDOF system).where, 𝑃0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔are peak amplitude and frequency of an appliedforce 𝐹
𝑡.

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 According to newton’s law;

An unbalanced driven force, 𝐹 = 𝑚 × 𝑎 = 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥

𝑚𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑡

By solving second order differential eqn

𝐷2 + 𝜔2 = 0
Complementary function, x t = A cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡

Total Response of an Un-damped Forced vibration system

𝑃0sin 𝜔𝑡
x t = A cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑘 1 − 𝑟2
Note:

 In an above equation, Constants A and B can be derived from an initial conditions.

𝜔
 𝑟= , where “r” is a resonance frequency of a structure.

𝜔
 𝜔 is a frequency of an applied force, 𝐹 𝑡 and it does not depends on any initial conditions.
This part of an equation is called as steady state portion.

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  𝜔 is a frequency of structural vibration and it is depends on initial conditions. This part ofan

𝑃0sin 𝜔𝑡
x t = A cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑘 1 − 𝑟2

Transient Portion Steady Portion

equation is called as transient state portion.

Initial condition, @𝑡 = 0 ;𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0; and 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 0

By using initial conditions an above equation can be reduced to

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Note: the transient part of the response is negligible and it is an unsteady portion, so we can

𝑃0 1
𝑥 𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = × sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑘 1 − 𝑟2

skip that part.

Note: From an above equation, it is informed that, the response of the system 𝑥 𝑡 is inversely
proportional to resonance factor “r”.
𝜔
If 𝑟 = 1 ∴ = 1 then the magnitude of the response of the system is infinite.
𝜔

Similarly we can derive the response of forced vibrations of damped system by following thesame
procedures which we mentioned above.

Response of forced vibrations of damped system

Eqn of motion can be written as

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑃0 sin 𝜔𝑡
The response of damped system with forced condition 𝑥 𝑡

𝑃0 𝑘
1 − 𝑟2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜉𝑟 cos𝜔𝑡
𝑥𝑡 =𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝐷 𝑡
𝐶 sin1𝜔 + 𝐶 𝐷cos 𝜔2 + 𝐷 𝑃0 𝑘
1 − 𝑟 + 2𝜉𝑟 2
2 2 2
𝑥 𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2 2 2 1 − 𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜉𝑟 cos 𝜔𝑡
1 − 𝑟 + 2𝜉𝑟

An above eqn can gave the steady state response of damped system with forced vibration. We can
still reduce an above eqn. we can skip the transient state of response in the response equation to
simplify the analysis. This assumption won’t create any significant effect in the total response of
the structure.

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 Figure 8 Dynamic amplification curve

Duhamel’s Integration
The impulse loading is a load, which is applied over a short duration of time. The
corresponding impulse of this type of loading is defined as the product of the force and the time of
its duration. For an example, the impulse of the force 𝐹 𝑟 depicted in the figure at time 𝑟 during an
interval 𝑑𝑟 is represented by shaded area and it is equal to 𝐹 𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟

Figure 9 Impulse loading - Duhamel's Integral

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT –II -MUTI-DEGREE-OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS – SCIA5202

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 SCIA5202 - Structural Dynamics
UNIT II

Introduction
All the real structures are actually infinite degree of freedom systems. However, for the purposeof
studying their dynamic behavior we can idealize them into single or multi degree of freedom systems. If
mass of the structure can be lumped at different locations in the structure then the dynamic behavior consists
of same number of modes of vibration. Such structure is called a multi degree of freedom system. Typically
in a multi-storey building, masses of different elements can be lumped at center of mass at eachslab level.

Formulation of MDOF equations of motion

Figure 1Mathematical model of two degree of freedom system

Let us consider a mathematical model of two degree of freedom system. Where, m1 and m2 are two mass
bodies. These mass bodies are connected with two stiffness and the stiffness of the springs are representedas
k1 and k2.

The displacement of the mass bodies’ m1 and m2 are represented as x1 and x2.

Figure 2 FBD of two degree of freedom system

𝑚1 𝑥 1 → 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑚1 , 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

𝑚2 𝑥 2 → 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑚2 , 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

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According to newton’s second law,

First DOF

𝑚1𝑥 1 = −𝑘1𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

𝑚1𝑥 1 + 𝑥1 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 + 𝑘2𝑥2 = 0

Second DOF

𝑚2𝑥 2 = −𝑘2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

𝑚2𝑥 2 + 𝑘2𝑥2 − 𝑘2𝑥1 = 0

 For the lumped mass system, the masses in the mass matrix as a diagonal matrix
𝑚1 0
𝑚 =
0 𝑚2
 Stiffness matrix is square/symmetric and the diagonally dominant matrix
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2
−𝑘2 𝑘2
Where, diagonally dominant means, the diagonal elements in the stiffness matrix isgreater
than any other elements in the matrix.
 The size of the “k” matrix will be an order of
n. Where, n is called as degree of freedom.

Natural frequencies and mode shapes calculations of MDOF system by Eigen value solver
method

Figure 3 Example problem

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Let us consider a single bay-two story framed structure. The stiffness of the both columns can be k and
2k.consider a bay width as 2h and story height of an each story as h. the lumped masses in the frames at
two different points can be m and 2m. The excitation directions of the lumped masses are shown in the
figure

Note:

Mass of an each floor level is lumped at one point. So the mass matrix of the structure is an ideal
matrix.

𝑚1 0
∴ 𝑚 = = 2𝑚 0
0 𝑚2 0 𝑚

Figure 4 Equivalent Single Column model

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 𝑘 − 𝜔2𝑚 = 0
3𝑃 −𝑃 − 𝜔2 2𝑚 0 =0
−𝑃 𝑃 0 𝑚
After simplifying, we can get 2𝑚2 𝜔4 − 5𝑃𝑚 𝜔2 + 2𝑃2 = 0
 The natural frequencies from roots 𝛼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼2 can be𝜔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2.
 Natural frequencies of the system are called as Eigen values.
 Mode shapes of the structure are called as Eigen vectors.
 From the mode shape diagram only, it is possible to find basic natural frequency of a
system.

Mode shape calculation

It can indicate the relative position of mass at any specific frequency of vibration.

𝐴−𝜆𝑥=0

(𝑘 − 𝜔2𝑚)𝑥 = 0(𝑘 −

𝜔2𝑚)𝜙 = 0

Note:

Mode shape is a relative displacement of lumped massed in the system for a corresponding
frequency. So for an each frequency of vibration, we can get a corresponding mode shapes.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔1 → 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝜙1

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔2 → 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝜙2

Orthogonally conditions of mode shapes
Let 𝜙𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙𝑗 are two distinct mode shapes
𝜙𝑖 𝑇 𝜙𝑗 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑗
Condition or 0rthogonality
𝜙𝑖 𝑇 𝜙𝑗 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

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 Normalization of modes and weighted modes
Normalization is a process to make non orthogonal modes to an orthogonal modes. The
resultant mode shape is called as weighted modes. We can normalize it by using mass matrix or
stiffness matrix.
To Prove an Orthogonal Property
Let us consider two mode shapes 𝜙𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙𝑗

(𝑘 − 𝜔𝑖 2𝑚)𝜙𝑖 = 0
2
𝑘 𝜙𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑚 𝜙𝑖
Multiply [ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 on both sides

[ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝑘 𝜙𝑖 = [ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝜔𝑖 2 𝑚 𝜙𝑖

[ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝑘 𝜙𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖 2[ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝑚 𝜙𝑖

2
(𝑘 − 𝜔𝑗 𝑚)𝜙𝑗
=0
Multiply [ 𝜙𝑖 ]𝑇 on both sides

[ 𝜙 ]𝑇 𝑘 𝜙 = [ 𝜙 ]𝑇 𝜔 2 𝑚𝜙
𝑖 𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑗

take transpose on both sides

𝑇 2 𝑇
𝑇 [ 𝜙𝑖] 𝑘 𝜙𝑇 = 𝑗[ 𝜙𝑖] 𝜔𝑗 𝑚 𝜙𝑗
2
[ 𝜙 ]𝑇[𝑘]𝑇 𝜙 = 𝜔 [ 𝜙 ]𝑇 𝑚 𝑇 𝜙
𝑗 𝑖 𝑗 𝑗 𝑖

Where [𝑘]𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑇 = [𝑚] because 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 are symmetrical matrix in nature.so we can
rewrite it as
2
[ 𝜙𝑗]𝑇 𝑘 𝜙 =𝑖𝜔 𝑗 [ 𝜙𝑗]𝑇 𝑚 𝜙 𝑖

From top two eqn it is proved as[ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝑘 𝜙𝑖 = [ 𝜙𝑗 ]𝑇 𝑚 𝜙𝑖 = 0,if it is true, then because
𝜔𝑖 ≠ 𝜔𝑗 .

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Approximate methods of extraction of Eigen values
In exact method difficulties arises in

 Solving roots of the characteristic equation. Except for very simple boundary conditions,
one has to go for numerical solution.

 In determining the normal modes of the system

 Determination of steady state response

So for quick determination of the natural frequencies of a system, when a very accurate
result is not of much importance one should go for an approximate method.

Dunkerley’s Method (Semi empirical) approximate solution

Let W1, W2 ….Wnbe the concentrated loads on the shaft due to masses m1, m2… mn and Δ1, Δ2
…Δ3 are the static deflections of the shaft under each load. Also let the shaft carry a uniformly
distributed mass of m per unit length over its whole span and static deflection at the mid span dueto
the load of this mass be Δs. Also

 n = Frequency of transverse vibration of the whole system.

 ns = Frequency with distributed load acting alone

n1, n2 ........... = Frequency of transverse vibration when each of W1, W2, W3…. act alone.

According to Dunkerley’s empirical formula

1
 1 1  .......... 
1

n2 n2 1
n2 2 ns
2

1 1 1 1
   .......... 
f2 f2 f2 f 2
n n1 n2 ns

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In the case of transverse vibration of beams, if n functions are chosen for approximating the
deflectionW (x), can be written as
w(x)  c1w1 (x)  c2 w2 (x)  cnwn (x)
Where, w1 (x), w2 (x),wn (x) are linear independent functions of the spatial coordinate x which
satisfy the boundary condition of the problem, and c1 , c2 , cn are the coefficient to be found.
As the Rayleigh quotients have stationary value near the natural mode by differentiate by
differentiating the Rayleigh quotient with respect to these coefficients will yield a set of
homogeneous algebraic equations, which can be solved to obtain the frequencies.

Matrix iteration method

This method is used to determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a multi degree of
freedom system. As it is known that for a multi degree of freedom system, the governing equation
can be reduced to the eigenvalue problem given by

AXX (1)

A  M 1  K    X
Where is known as the dynamic matrix, is the Eigen value and
is the mode shape. From this equation it may be noted that any normal mode when multiplied
with the dynamic matrix will reproduce itself. In matrix iteration method, assumed
displacement of the masses is used to get the calculated displacement. This is repeated till
equation (1) is satisfied.

Steps used in the matrix iteration method.

 Assume a value of the modal vector. (for example 3:2:1 for 3 dof system)
 Substitute the assumed value in left hand side of equation (1) and simplify to obtain
a ratio (for example the obtained value is 4:3:1).
 If the value obtained in step II is same as the assumed value, then it is accepted as
the correct modal value. Otherwise, the obtained value is substituted as the trial
value and the second step is repeated till the correct modal value is obtained.
 After getting the modal values, from equation (1) the corresponding eigenvalue can
be obtained.

In general matrix iteration method would converge to the fundamental mode. If the assumed
system of displacements does not include the fundamental mode then the matrix iteration will
converge to the next higher mode contained in the assumed system of displacements. Orthogonality
principle is used to sweep out the unwanted modes from assumed displacements. In case of semi-
definite systems, rigid body mode (zero frequency) is also present. For such cases constraint
matrices can be constructed to sweep out rigid body component of the absolute motion.

30
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT –III -DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF MDOF SYSTEMS – SCIA5202

31
 UNIT III

SCIA5202 - Structural Dynamics

Normal co-ordinates
The eqn of MDOF system is given as follows

𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑡

In an above eqn is a coupled eqn, so we need to uncouple it for easy analysis. The MDOF
system having n degree of freedom is represented by n equations based on n independent
coordinates of masses.

Coordinated have been chosen as the displacement of masses from the static equilibrium
position. However other set of independent coordinate system can also be chosen by proper
selection. It is also possible to select a set of coordinates such that the coupling of eqn can be
removed as a result n set of coupled eqn are reduced to n set of an individual eqn.

Each of an individual eqnsis having unique amplitude, frequency and phase angles are
called principal coordinates or normal coordinates.

𝑥 = 𝜙 𝜀

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜙 = 𝜙 1 𝜙 2 𝜙 3
⋯⋯𝜙 𝑛

Each column of 𝜙 represent one normal mode and 𝜀 represents the principle coordinates.

Mode super position technique

The normal coordinate transformation which serves to change the set of ‘N’ coupled
equation of motion of a MDOF system into a set of ‘N’ uncoupled equation, in the basis of Mode
superposition or Modal analysis method.

This method is reduces the problem of finding the response of a multi degree of freedom of
system to the determination of response of SDOF system.

For a MDOF system under an un-damped condition, the equation of motion can be written
as

𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑡

Such system of eqn contains number of variables which contains number of variables which are coupled
or dependent. Those eqns should be uncoupled or independent to determine the response ofmulti degree
of freedom system under forced vibration

32
 The co-ordinates is to transform the coupled differentiate equations into uncoupledequation.
It is called as Principle of co-ordinates.

The transformation equation is 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑢 →2

Where: 𝑥 → 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.

𝜙 → 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.

𝑢 → 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

The transformation matrix can be rewritten as 𝑥 = 𝜙 𝑢→3

Substitute the eqn 2 and 3 in eqn 1

𝑚 𝜙 𝑢 + 𝑘 𝜙 𝑢 = 𝑃𝑡

Pre multiply 𝜙 𝑇 on both sides

𝜙𝑇𝑚𝜙𝑢+𝜙𝑇𝑘𝜙𝑢=𝜙𝑇𝑃𝑡

𝑀 𝑢 + 𝐾 𝑢 =𝑅

The uncoupled eqns are

𝑚1 𝑢 + 𝑘1 𝑢 = 𝑅1

𝑚2 𝑢 + 𝑘2 𝑢 = 𝑅1

⋮ ⋮ ⋮

𝑚1 𝑢 + 𝑘1 𝑢 = 𝑅1

To get the maximum value of u

𝑅
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷𝐿𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘

𝐷𝐿𝐹 → 𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

33
 Numerical Integral Procedure
Numerical method of integration, which is applied to linear and non- linear system of
displacement, velocity and acceleration at any 𝑖𝑡ℎ and 𝑖 + 1 𝑡ℎ time in the dynamic system.

Step 1: Form stiffness, mass and damping coefficient matrixes.Step

2: Determination of integral constants.

1 𝛿
𝑎0 =
𝛼. Δ𝑡 2 𝑎4 = −1
𝛼
𝛿 Δ𝑡 𝛿
𝑎1 = 𝑎5 = −2
𝛼. Δ𝑡 2 𝛼
1 𝑎6 = Δ𝑡 1 − 𝛿
𝑎2 =
𝛿. Δ𝑡
𝑎7 = 𝛿. Δ𝑡
1
𝑎3 = −1
2𝛼

Step 3: Formulate effective stiffness matrix

𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑎0 𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑐

−1
Step 4: Find an inverse of an effective stiffness matrix 𝑘

Step 5: Effective load at 𝑖 + 1 time

𝐹 𝑖+1 = 𝐹 𝑖+1 + 𝑚 𝑎0𝑥𝑖 − 𝑎2𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎3𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑐 𝑎1𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎4𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎5𝑥 𝑖

Step 6: Displacement at 𝑖 + 1 time

= 𝑘 −1 𝐹
𝑖+1 𝑖+1
𝜆
Step 7: Velocity at 𝑖 + 1 time

𝑥 𝑖+1 = 𝑥 + 𝑎6𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎7𝑥𝑖 +1

34
 Step 8: Acceleration at 𝑖 + 1 time

𝑥 𝑖+1 = 𝑎0𝑥 𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑎2𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑎3𝑥 𝑖

MODE SUPERPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
There are fundamentally two approaches that may be followed to compute the dynamic responseof
structures:
 Time domain approach
 Frequency domain approach
The “time-domain involves solving the governing differential equation(s) wherein the loading
function is a function of time “t” : p(t) and the in frequency domain approach the loading is
discretized into a series of harmonic components (sines and cosines) by Fourier series / Fourier
transformation and the dynamic response is expressed by superimposing the responses due to each
harmonic component.

Most common dynamic analysis procedures that may be classified under the time domainapproach
include: Duhamel / convolution integral based procedure wherein the loading p(t) is considered to
be a succession of short-duration impulses, and the free vibration response to each impulse
becomes a separate contribution to the response history at any subsequent time.

35
PRINCIPLE OF THE MODE SUPERPOSITION METHOD OF DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Consider the 2 DOF systems shown in the figure below;

Figure: 2 storey frame excited by a harmonic force (also idealized as a mass-spring system)
The 2 storey frame with degrees of freedom u1 and u2 (neglecting rotational inertia) could be
idealized in to the mass-spring system. The system is excited by a harmonic force: p1 (t) = P 0sin
ωt. Thus the equation of motion of the system may be written as:

It may be noted that the equations are coupled through the stiffness matrix i.e. the stiffness matrix
is non-diagonal and hence one equation cannot be solved independent of the other and theequations
must be solved simultaneously.
One would normally resort to the numerical approximation procedures like the explicit central
difference method or the implicit Newmark’s integration scheme in order to solve the coupled
equations.
A simpler method to obtain the dynamic response of the frame is the mode superposition method
which principally transforms the equations of motion from the physical coordinate system into
another co-ordinate system known as the normal or the modal coordinate system and in this
coordinate system the structural matrices i.e. the mass and the stiffness matrix are diagonal.

36
Therefore, the solution of the simultaneous coupled equations is completely avoided in this
coordinate system and would solve one equation independent of the other. The solution of each
equation now (after the problem is transformed into the normal coordinate system) becomes
equivalent to solving an equation of a SDOF system. That is: instead of solving a coupled system
with ‘N’ degrees of freedom in the physical coordinate system, one, instead solves ‘N’ uncoupled
equations wherein each of the ‘N’ equations is independent of the other and thus solved as an
equation of a SDOF system.
This coordinate system where the structural matrices are diagonal is called the “normal” coordinate
system or the “modal” coordinate system.

UNCOUPLING THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR MODE

SUPERPOSITION ANALYSIS
Let us consider the same 2 DOF system shown in section or any other undamped system with ‘N’
DOF’s wherein the mass and / or stiffness matrices are non-diagonal i.e. the equations are coupled.
The equation of motion for such a system can be written as;

It should be noted that;

 M, C and K, in general, are non-diagonal
 Thus, the equations are coupled.
Suppose, we introduce a new set of dependent variables Z (t) using the transformation;
X (t) = T Z (t)
Where; T is an n x n transformation matrix to be selected.
Then;

37
 These represent the displacement and velocity at t = 0; the initial conditions.Now,
carrying out the transformation, that is;

The Eigen value problem

Considering the seemingly unrelated problem of un-damped free vibration analysis;

Let us assume that all the points of the structure oscillate harmonically at the same frequency;That
is;

OR;

Where; R is an nx1 vector

Substituting this in the equation;

Therefore;

38
This is an algebraic Eigen value problem because:
Mathematically, we’re looking for vectors R that solve this equation, as every positive definite
matrix is invertible, any vector that solves that equation will also solve:

So then solving it is merely a task of finding the eigenvectors and respective eigenvalues. On the
other hand, assuming you only have M and K, you can find multiple R and w that will satisfy this
equation, assuming the matrix has a complete set of eigenvectors.
Hence R must an eigenvector of [M-1 K] with eigenvalue ω.

Solving the eigenvalue problem

Consider;

That is;

If [K – ω2 M] -1 exists, R = 0 is the solution.

Condition for existence of the non-trivial solution is that;[K

– ω2 M] -1 should not exist.
That is; if [K – ω2 M] -1 does not exist;

This is called the characteristic equation and this leads to the characteristic values;

39
Orthogonality property of eigenvectors

Consider the rth and the sth Eigen pairs;

Multiplying (1) by Rst and multiplying 2 by Rrt, we get;

Transposing both sides of equation 4 we get;

Since, Kt = K and Mt = M; we get;

Subtracting (3) from (5);

That is;

40
 Substituting;

In equation 3;

Conclusions because of the orthogonality property of eigenvectors

The properties of Eigen vectors derived in section 3.3, lead to very important conclusions. Thatis;
If we introduce;

Then we have;

T=φ

41
SOLVING THE UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATION ANALYSIS IN THE MODAL
(NORMAL) CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

Consider the un-damped forced vibration analysis of a MDOF System, the equation of motion of
which is denoted by;

We have the initial conditions given by;

Carrying out the transformation, using the transformation matrix as φ which corresponds to the
mode shapes obtained by considering the free vibration problem wherein all DOF oscillate simple
harmonically with the same frequency;

Substituting this transformation in the equation of motion;

Pre-multiplying by φT and then normalizing;

42
 In the above equation, I corresponds to the identity matrix, Λ is the matrix whose diagonal terms
correspond to the square of frequencies ω12, ω22, ω32,….
In the above, the equations of motion are uncoupled and each equation can be solved as a SDOF
system;

The initial conditions: Z (0) and in the new coordinate system can be evaluated as below;

Thus, initial conditions in the new coordinate system are obtained.

Solving the equation of motions in the new coordinate system

Thus, now the equation of motion of the MDOF system has been transformed to a new coordinate
system wherein each equation could be solved independently as a SDOF system. The SDOF system
equation may be solved through any of the techniques like;
Duhamel / convolution integral approach
Explicit central difference method Implicit
Newmark’s integration scheme.
If one were to solve the SDOF equation in the new coordinate system, using the Duhamel
integral approach, then;

43
In order to obtain the solution in the original / physical coordinate system,

As seen from the above equation, the response corresponding to each DOF is obtainedsuperimposing
the contribution from each mode. Hence, the name mode superposition.Thus;

SUMMARY: MODE SUPERPOSITION ANALYSIS

From the above, it can be summarized that;
1. Equations of motion for MDOF systems are generally coupled.
2. Coupling between co-ordinates is manifest in the form of structural matrices being non-
diagonal
3. Coupling is not an intrinsic property of a vibrating system. It is dependent upon the co-
ordinate system. This choice itself arbitrary.
4. Equation of motions are not unique. They depend upon the choice of the co-ordinate
system.
5. Normal modes of vibration (mode shapes) are special undamped free vibration solutions
such that the degrees of freedom of the structure oscillate simple harmonically at the
same frequency with the ratio of the displacements between any two degrees of freedom
being independent of time.
6. The frequencies at which normal mode oscillations are possible are called the natural
frequencies.

44
 7. The modal matrix (each column of the modal matrix corresponds to a mode shape) is
orthogonal to the mass and the stiffness matrix.
8. The undamped normal modes in conjunction with proportional damping models
(dampingis not discussed in this write-up) simplify vibration analysis considerably.

Dynamic Analysis of system with distributed Properties:

The dynamic analysis of the structures, modeled as a lumped parameter system with
discrete coordinates was presented in previous problems.

The modeling of structures with discrete coordinates provides a practical approach for
the analysis of structures subjected to dynamic loads. However the results obtained from these
discrete models can only give approximate solutions to the actual behavior of dynamic system
which have continuous distributed properties and consequently an infinite number of degree of
freedom.

In this present topic, we considered the dynamic theory of beams and rods having distributed
mass and elasticity for which the governing equations of motion are partialdifferential equation.

Figure1 Flexural Member with distributed mass

45
Flexural vibration of uniform beam

The study on flexural behavior of beam is generally based on simple bending theory. The
method of analysis is known as Bernoulli-Euler’s theory, which assumes that plane section remains
plane during flexure

Let us consider a beam with varying load along its length (L) and consider a small segment inbeam
of length “dx”. Where 𝑚 is the mass per unit length and 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡 is the load per unit length. The
shear force and bending moment acting on the segment is shown in the figure.
Due to an equilibrium condition, the sum of the forces in the particular section is zero

𝜕𝑉 𝜕2 𝑦
−𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑚𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑡2 = 0
An above eqn can be reduced to

𝜕𝑉 𝜕2𝑦
+ 𝑚 2 = 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

From simple bending theory

𝜕2 𝑦
𝑀 = 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥2
𝜕𝑀
𝑉=
𝜕𝑥
𝜕3 𝑦
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑥3
𝑑𝑉 𝜕4 𝑦
= 𝐸𝐼 4
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥
By substituting these terms into above expressions then we will get

𝜕4𝑦 𝜕2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 + 𝑚 = 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑥4 𝜕𝑡2

46
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT –IV - CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS – SCIA5202

47
SCIA5202 - Structural Dynamics
UNIT IV

48
An above expression is representing an eqn of motion of flexural member with forcedcondition.
Similarly for the free condition of vibration, an above eqn can be modify as

𝜕4𝑦 𝜕2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 4 +𝑚 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Note:

An above eqn have two variables (x and t), so by solving this we have to use method ofseparation of
variables.

A solution of above eqn can be written as 𝑦 = 𝜑 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑓(𝑡) → 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 𝑦 = 𝜑 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑡)

𝜕4𝑦
= 𝜑𝐼𝑉 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑡)
𝜕𝑥4

𝜕2𝑦
= 𝜑 𝑥 . 𝑓𝐼𝐼(𝑡)
𝜕𝑡2

49
 By solving an above eqn, we can get

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑃 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑄 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑦 = 𝜑 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑦 = 𝐶1 cosh 𝑎𝑥 + sinh 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶2 cosh 𝑎𝑥 − sinh 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶3 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶4 sin 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑃 cos 𝜔𝑡

+ 𝑄 sin 𝜔𝑡

50
FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:

Case (i): Derivation of 𝝋 𝒙 by keeping 𝒇(𝒕) as constant

Boundary conditions:
𝑦 0, 𝑡 = 0𝑀 0, 𝑡 = 0

𝑦 𝐿, 𝑡 = 0𝑦 𝐿, 𝑡 = 0

By applying all the boundary condition, we can get a natural frequency of a system

𝐸𝐼
𝜔𝑛= 𝑛2𝜋2
𝑚𝐿

By applying all the boundary condition, 𝝋 𝒙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠

𝑛𝜋
𝜑 𝑥 = 𝐴. sin 𝑥
𝐿

An eqn “y” can be written as

𝑦 = 𝜑 𝑥 . 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑛𝜋
𝑦 =𝐴. sin 𝑥 . 𝑃 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑄 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐿

51
 Case (i): Derivation of 𝒇(𝒕)

Let us assume the distributed mass in a system can be doesn’t change with respect to time. So
𝑓(𝑡) leads to 1.

Therefore an above expression can be written as

𝑛𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴. sin 𝐿𝑥
Let us assume response amplitude can be 1 (∴ 𝐴 = 1)

Therefore normal of a system can be written as

𝑛𝜋
𝑥
𝑦𝑛 = sin
𝐿

Rayleigh’s Method for Continuous Mass System

In Rayleigh method, the basic principle is the strain energy stored in a member/structure isequal to
kinematic energy in a member/structure.

It is an approximate method to compute the fundamental frequency of the system.It can

apply for both discrete and continuous system.

Example:

Determine the fundamental frequency of simply supported beam with total distributed massof “m”
and a central load of M

52
Calculation of kinetic Energy:
It can be due to both cases

1. Due to central load “M”

2. Due to total distributed mass“m”

53
Kinetic Energy due to self-weight “m”

𝑚
Mass per unit length=𝑚 𝑥 =
𝐿 𝐿
1
𝐾. 𝐸 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑡 = 𝜔2 𝑚 𝑥 . 𝑦2 . 𝑑𝑥
2
0

To reduce an above eqn, we can get

𝑚𝜔2𝑎2
𝐾. 𝐸 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑡 =
4

Total Kinetic Energy in a system= 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾. 𝐸 𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀 + 𝐾. 𝐸 𝐷𝑢𝑒

1 𝑚𝜔2𝑎2
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = × 𝑀 × 𝑎𝜔 2 + 4
2

𝐾. 𝐸 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑃. 𝐸 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

1 𝑚𝜔 𝐸 𝜋 4
× 𝑀 × 𝑎𝜔 2 + 𝐼
2 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝐿
2 =
4 4 𝐿
By solving an above expression

𝐿𝜋 4
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐿
𝜔2 = 𝑚
𝑀+
2

54
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT –V -APPLICATIONS – SCIA5202

55
 SCIA5202 - Structural Dynamics

UNIT V
BASE ISOLATION METHOD IN BUILDING

INTRODUCTION

 Earthquake by itself, is not a disaster, it is natural phenomenon result from ground

movement, sometimes violent.
 These produce surface waves, which cause vibration of the ground and structures
standing on top.
 Depending on the characteristics of these vibrations, the ground may develop cracks,
fissures and settlements.
 The possible risk of loss of life adds a very serious dimension to seismic design, putting a
moral responsibility on structural engineers.
 In recent times, many new systems have been developed, either to reduce the earthquake
forces acting on the structure or to absorb a part of seismic energy.
 One of the most widely implemented and accepted seismic protection systems is base
isolation.

BASE ISOLATION:

 Base isolation is one of the most widely accepted seismic protection systems inearthquake
prone areas.
 It mitigates the effect of an earthquake by essentially isolating the structure frompotentially
dangerous ground motions.
 Seismic isolation is a design strategy, which uncouples the structure for the damagingeffects of
the ground motion.
 The term isolation refers to reduced interaction between structure and the ground.
 When the seismic isolation system is located under the structure, it is referred as“base
isolation”.
 The other purpose of an isolation system is to provide an additional means of energydissipation,
thereby reducing the transmitted acceleration into the superstructure.
 The decoupling allows the building to behave more flexibly which improves itsresponse to
an earthquake.

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CONCEPT OF BASE ISOLATION

 The concept of base isolation is explained through an example building resting onfrictionless
rollers.
 When the ground shakes, the rollers freely roll, but the building above does not move.
 Thus, no force is transferred to the building due to shaking of the ground; simply, thebuilding
does not experience the earthquake.
 A careful study is required to identify the most suitable type of device for a particularbuilding.
 Also, base isolation is not suitable for all buildings.
 Most suitable structures for base-isolation are
 Low to medium-rise buildings rested on hard soil underneath
 High-rise buildings or buildings rested on soft soil are not suitable for base isolation.

Figure 1 Building base with bottom roller condition

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PRINCIPLE OF BASE ISOLATION

 The fundamental principle of base isolation is to modify the response of the building
so that the ground can move below the building without transmitting these motions
into the building.
 A building that is perfectly rigid will have a zero period.
 When the ground moves the acceleration induced in the structure will be equal to the
ground acceleration and there will be zero relative displacement between the structure
and the ground.
 The structure and ground move the same amount.
 A building that is perfectly flexible will have an infinite period.
 For this type of structure, when the ground beneath the structure moves there will be
zero acceleration induced in the structure and the relative displacement between the
structure and ground will be equal to the ground displacement.
 So in flexible structures the structure will not move, the ground will.

Figure 2 Difference between Rigid and FlexibleStructure

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FIXED BASE STRUCTURE VS ISOLATED BASE STRUCTURE

 During earthquakes, the conventional structure without seismic isolation is subjected to

substantial story drifts, which may lead to damage or even collapse of the building.
 Whereas the isolated structure vibrates almost like a rigid body with largedeformations
or displacements restricted by the isolation bearings.
 The decoupling effect gives this extra advantage to isolated structures.
 The lateral forces of the isolated building are not only reduced in magnitude but
also fairly redistributed over the floors, which further mitigates the overturning
moment of the structure.

Figure 3 Comparison of Fixed Base Structure VSIsolated

Base Structure

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 Figure 4 Fixed Base Structure vs Isolated BaseStructure
ISOLATION COMPONENTS

 Elastomeric Isolators
Natural Rubber Bearings
Low-Damping Rubber BearingsLead-
Rubber Bearings
High-Damping Rubber Bearings
 Sliding Isolators
Resilient Friction System Friction
Pendulum System

Elastomeric Isolators

 These are formed of horizontal layers of natural or synthetic rubber in thin layers bonded
between steel plates.
 The steel plates prevent the rubber layers from bulging and so the bearing is able to
support higher vertical loads with only small deformations.
 Plain elastomeric bearings provide flexibility but no significant damping and will move
under service loads.

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  Methods used to overcome these deficits include lead cores in the bearing, specially
formulated elastomers with high damping and stiffness for small strains or other devices in
parallel.

Low Damping Natural or Synthetic Rubber Bearings

 Elastomeric bearings use either natural rubber or synthetic rubber (such as neoprene),which
have little inherent damping, usually 2% to 3% of critical viscous damping.
 For isolation they are generally used with special elastomer compounds (high dampingrubber
bearings) or in combination with other devices (lead rubber bearings).
 They are also flexible at all strain levels.

Lead Rubber Bearings

 A lead-rubber bearing is formed of a lead plug force-fitted into a pre-formed hole in an

elastomeric bearing.
 The lead core provides rigidity under service loads and energy dissipation under high lateral
loads.
 Top and bottom steel plates, thicker than the internal shims, are used to accommodate
mounting hardware. The entire bearing is encased in cover rubber to provide environmental
protection.
 When subjected to low lateral loads (such as minor earthquake, wind or traffic loads) the
lead rubber bearing is stiff both laterally and vertically.

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  The lateral stiffness results from the high elastic stiffness of the lead plug and the vertical
rigidity (which remains at all load levels) results from the steel-rubber construction of the
bearing.

Isolation Systems based on Sliding

 The second most common type of isolation system uses sliding elements between the
foundation and base of the structure.
 In this type of Isolation system, the sliding displacements are controlled by high-tension
springs or laminated rubber bearings, or by making the sliding surface curved.
 These mechanisms provide a restoring force to return the structure to its equilibriumposition.

Sliding isolator without Recentering capacity

 This consists of a horizontal sliding surface, allowing a displacement and thus dissipating
energy by means of defined friction between both sliding components and stainless steel.

 One particular problem with a sliding structure is the residual displacements that occurafter
major earthquakes.

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Sliding Isolator with Recentering Capacity

 Compared with sliding isolators, sliding isolation pendulum (SIPs) with recentering capacity
have a concave sliding plate.
 Due to geometry, each horizontal displacement results in a vertical movement of theisolator.
 The potential energy, stored by the superstructure, which has been pushed to the top,
automatically results in recentering the bearing into neutral position.
 They remain horizontally flexible, dissipate energy and recenter the superstructure intoneutral
position.

Isolator Locations

 The requirement for installation of a base isolation system is that the building be able tomove
horizontally relative to the ground, usually at least 100 mm.
 The most common configuration is to install a diaphragm immediately above theisolators.
 If the building has a basement then the options are to install the isolators at the top,bottom or
mid-height of the basements columns and walls.

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Response Spectrum

Typical Accelerograms

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Response Spectrum:

• If the ground moves as per the given accelerogram, what is the maximum response ofa single
degree of freedom (SDOF) system (of given natural period and damping)?

– Response may mean any quantity of interest, e.g., deformation, acceleration

– Using a computer, one can calculate the response of SDOF system with time(time
history of response)
– Can pick maximum response of this SDOF system (of given T and damping)from this
response time history

– Repeat this exercise for different values of natural period.

– For design, we usually need only the maximum response.

– Hence, for future use, plot maximum response versus natural period (for agiven value
of damping).

– Such a plot of maximum response versus natural period for a given

accelerogram is called response spectrum.
RESPONSE SPECTRUM – IS 1893:2002
• Different terms used in the code:

- Design Acceleration Spectrum (clause 3.5)

– Response Spectrum (clause 3.27)

– Acceleration Response Spectrum (used in cl. 3.30)

– Design Spectrum (title of cl. 6.4)

– Structural Response Factor

– Average response acceleration coefficient (see terminology of Sa/g on p. 11)

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WIND LOAD ANALYSIS:

For tall, long span and slender structures a „dynamic analysis‟ of the structure is essential.
Wind Gusts cause fluctuating forces on the structure which induce large dynamic motions /oscillations.
The severity of the wind-induced dynamic motions /oscillations depends on - the naturalfrequency
of vibration - the damping of the structure.
Dynamic motions are induced in both directions „along-wind‟ direction as well as „across-wind‟
direction.
The „along-wind‟ response of the structure is accounted for by a magnification factor („
gust factor‟) applied to static forces.
The “across-wind‟ response requires a separate “dynamic - analysis”.

Provisions of IS 875: 1987 (SP-64, 2001) can be broadly classified as:

• Computation of design wind speed based on wind zone, terrain category,topography

and wind direction.
• Computation of design wind pressure.
• Computation of wind load using pressure coefficients. (Pressure coefficientsare
applicable to design of structural elements like walls, roofs and cladding.)
• Computation of wind load using force coefficients. (Force coefficientsapplicable
to the building frame / structural frameworks as a whole)
• Computation of along-wind forces using gust factor method to account fordynamic
effect of wind.
• Evaluation of across-wind forces using wind tunnel - model analysis.

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TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. MarioPaz, “Structural dynamics”, Academic Press,1985.
2. Anderson R.A., “Fundamentals of vibration”, Amerind Publishing Co.,1972.
3. Ray W. Clough and Joseph Penzien, “Dynamics of structures”,McGrawHill, New York, 1993

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