Computer Security:

Principles and Practice

Fourth Edition, Global Edition

By: William Stallings and Lawrie Brown

Chapter 1
Overview
The NIST Internal/Interagency Report
NISTIR 7298 (Glossary of Key Information
Security Terms , May 2013) defines the term
computer security as follows:

Measures and controls that ensure

confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of information system
assets including hardware, software,
firmware, and information being
processed, stored, and
communicated
 lity
tia
en In
if d te
n gr
o ity
Acc C

Data
oun

and

city
services
tabi

ti
hen
lity

Aut
Availability

Figure 1.1 Essential Network and Computer Security Requirements

 Key Security Concepts
Confidentiality Integrity Availability

• Preserving • Guarding against • Ensuring timely

authorized improper and reliable
restrictions on information access to and use
information modification or of information
access and destruction,
disclosure, including ensuring
including means information
for protecting nonrepudiation
personal privacy and authenticity
and proprietary
information
 Levels of Impact
Low Moderate High
The loss could be
The loss could be The loss could be
expected to have a
expected to have a expected to have a
severe or
limited adverse serious adverse
catastrophic
effect on effect on
adverse effect on
organizational organizational
organizational
operations, operations,
operations,
organizational organizational
organizational
assets, or assets, or
assets, or
individuals individuals
individuals
1. Computer security is not as simple as it might first appear to the novice

2. In developing a particular security mechanism or algorithm, one must always consider potential attacks
on those security features

3. Procedures used to provide particular services are often counterintuitive

4. Physical and logical placement needs to be determined

5. Security mechanisms typically involve more than a particular algorithm or protocol and also require that
participants be in possession of some secret information which raises questions about the creation, distribution, and
protection of that secret information
6. Attackers only need to find a single weakness, while the designer must find and eliminate all weaknesses
to achieve perfect security

7. Security is still too often an afterthought to be incorporated into a system after the design is complete,
rather than being an integral part of the design process

8. Security requires regular and constant monitoring

9. There is a natural tendency on the part of users and system managers to perceive little benefit from
security investment until a security failure occurs

10. Many users and even security administrators view strong security as an impediment to efficient and
user-friendly operation of an information system or use of information
 Table 1.1
Computer Security Terminology, from RFC 2828, Internet Security Glossary, May 2000

Adversary (threat agent)

Individual, group, organization, or government that conducts or has the intent to conduct detrimental activities.

Attack
Any kind of malicious activity that attempts to collect, disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information system resources or the
information itself.

Countermeasure
A device or techniques that has as its objective the impairment of the operational effectiveness of undesirable or adversarial activity, or
the prevention of espionage, sabotage, theft, or unauthorized access to or use of sensitive information or information systems.

Risk
A measure of the extent to which an entity is threatened by a potential circumstance or event, and typically a function of 1) the adverse
impacts that would arise if the circumstance or event occurs; and 2) the likelihood of occurrence.

Security Policy
A set of criteria for the provision of security services. It defines and constrains the activities of a data processing facility in order to
maintain a condition of security for systems and data.

System Resource (Asset)

A major application, general support system, high impact program, physical plant, mission critical system, personnel, equipment, or a
logically related group of systems.

Threat
Any circumstance or event with the potential to adversely impact organizational operations (including mission, functions, image, or
reputation), organizational assets, individuals, other organizations, or the Nation through an information system via unauthorized access,
destruction, disclosure, modification of information, and/or denial of service.

Vulnerability
Weakness in an information system, system security procedures, internal controls, or implementation that could be exploited or
triggered by a threat source.
(Table can be found on page 8 in the textbook)
 Owners Threat agents
value
wish to abuse
wish to impose and/or
minimize may damage
give
rise to
countermeasures assets

to
reduce

to to
risk threats
that
increase

Figure 1.2 Security Concepts and Relationships

Assets of a Computer
System
Hardware

Software

Data

Communication facilities and

networks
 Vulnerabilities, Threats
and Attacks
• Categories of vulnerabilities
• Corrupted (loss of integrity)
• Leaky (loss of confidentiality)
• Unavailable or very slow (loss of availability)

• Threats
• Capable of exploiting vulnerabilities
• Represent potential security harm to an asset

• Attacks (threats carried out)

• Passive – attempt to learn or make use of information from the system
that does not affect system resources
• Active – attempt to alter system resources or affect their operation
• Insider – initiated by an entity inside the security parameter
• Outsider – initiated from outside the perimeter
Countermeasures
Means used to
deal with
security attacks
• Prevent
• Detect
• Recover

Residual
vulnerabilities
may remain

Goal is to
May itself minimize
introduce new residual level of
vulnerabilities risk to the
assets
 Table 1.3
Computer and Network Assets, with Examples of Threats
Availability Confidentiality Integrity
Equipment is stolen or
An unencrypted CD-
Hardware disabled, thus denying
ROM or DVD is stolen.
service.
A working program is
modified, either to
Programs are deleted, An unauthorized copy cause it to fail during
Software
denying access to users. of software is made. execution or to cause it
to do some unintended
task.
An unauthorized read
of data is performed. Existing files are
Files are deleted,
Data An analysis of modified or new files
denying access to users.
statistical data reveals are fabricated.
underlying data.
Messages are destroyed Messages are modified,
Communication or deleted. Messages are read. The delayed, reordered, or
Lines and Communication lines traffic pattern of duplicated. False
Networks or networks are messages is observed. messages are
rendered unavailable. fabricated.
 Passive and Active
Attacks
Passive Attack Active Attack
• Attempts to alter system
• Attempts to learn or make use resources or affect their
of information from the system operation
but does not affect system
resources • Involve some modification
of the data stream or the
• Eavesdropping on, or
creation of a false stream
monitoring of, transmissions
• Four categories:
• Goal of attacker is to obtain o Replay
information that is being o Masquerade
transmitted
o Modification of messages
• Two types: o Denial of service
o Release of message contents
o Traffic analysis
 Attack Surfaces
Consist of the reachable and exploitable vulnerabilities in
a system

Examples:

Code that
processes An employee
Open ports on incoming data, with access to
outward facing Services email, XML, sensitive
Web and other available on the office Interfaces, SQL, information
servers, and inside of a documents, and and Web forms vulnerable to a
code listening firewall industry- social
on those ports specific custom engineering
data exchange attack
formats
Attack Surface Categories
Network Software Human Attack
Attack Surface Attack Surface Surface

Vulnerabilities over an Vulnerabilities in application,

enterprise network, wide-area utility, or operating system
network, or the Internet code

Vulnerabilities created by
personnel or outsiders, such as
social engineering, human
error, and trusted insiders
Included in this category are
network protocol vulnerabilities,
such as those used for a denial- Particular focus is Web server
of-service attack, disruption of software
communications links, and
various forms of intruder attacks
 Shallow
Medium High
Layering Security Risk Security Risk

Low Medium
Deep

Security Risk Security Risk

Small Large
Attack Surface

Figure 1.4 Defense in Depth and Attack Surface

Bank Account Compromise

User credential compromise UT/U1a User surveillance

UT/U1b Theft of token and

handwritten notes

Malicious software
Vulnerability exploit
installation
UT/U3a Smartcard analyzers UT/U2a Hidden code

UT/U3b Smartcard reader UT/U2b Worms

manipulator
UT/U2c E-mails with
malicious code
UT/U3c Brute force attacks
with PIN calculators

CC2 Sniffing

User communication
UT/U4a Social engineering
with attacker
UT/U4b Web page
obfuscation

Redirection of
Injection of commands CC3 Active man-in-the communication toward
middle attacks fraudulent site
User credential guessing IBS1 Brute force attacks CC1 Pharming

IBS2 Security policy IBS3 Web site manipulation

violation

Use of known authenticated Normal user authentication CC4 Pre-defined session

session by attacker with specified session ID IDs (session hijacking)

Figure 1.5 An Attack Tree for Internet Banking Authentication

Computer Security Strategy
 Standards
• Standards have been developed to cover
management practices and the overall
architecture of security mechanisms and services
• The most important of these organizations are:
o National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
• NIST is a U.S. federal agency that deals with measurement science,
standards, and technology related to U.S. government use and to the
promotion of U.S. private sector innovation
o Internet Society (ISOC)
• ISOC is a professional membership society that provides leadership in
addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet, and is the
organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure
standards
o International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T)
• ITU is a United Nations agency in which governments and the private
sector coordinate global telecom networks and services
o International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• ISO is a nongovernmental organization whose work results in
international agreements that are published as International Standards
 Summary
• Computer security • Fundamental
concepts security design
o Definition principles
o Challenges
o Model • Attack surfaces
• Threats, attacks, and attack trees
o Attack surfaces
and assets o Attack trees
o Threats and attacks
o Threats and assets • Computer
• Security functional security strategy
o Security policy
requirements o Security
• Standards implementation
o Assurance and
evaluation