OSCILLATIONS

Engineering Physics
Module I

1
 Contents

Damped Harmonic Motion Damped Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Damped Case 1: Over Case 2: Critically
Periodic Motion
Motion Harmonic Motion damped damped

Damped Harmonic Motion Forced Harmonic Oscillator

Case 3: Under Forced Harmonic Amplitude
Relaxation Time Q-factor
damped Oscillator Resonance

Forced Harmonic Oscillator Forced Harmonic Oscillator Forced Harmonic Oscillator Comparison of
Sharpness of Special Cases of Q-factor at Electrical electrical and
Resonance ‘p’ and ωo Resonance Oscillator mechanical
oscillator

2
Periodic Motion
Periodic motion : It is any motion that is repeated in equal intervals of time

3
Periodic Motion: Oscillation vs Vibration
Oscillation
The whole body executes to and fro motion about a mean position .

Vibration
Only part of the body executes to and fro motion about a mean position .

4
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple harmonic motion is an oscillation where the restoring force is directly

proportional to the displacement from mean position and is always directed towards mean
position.

5
Simple Harmonic Motion
Force acting on a simple harmonic oscillator is
Restoring force = - Cx where C is the force constant
Force equation of SHM is
d2 x
m 2 = −Cx --------------------------(1)
dt
Dividing through out with ‘m’
d2 x C
+ x=0
dt 2 m
d2 x
2
+ ω2o x = 0 -------------------------(2)
dt

C
where ωo = ඨ m
is the natural angular frequency

Equation (2) is the differential equation of simple harmonic oscillator. General solution of this equation is

sin(ωot + φ) where A is the maximum displacement and ϕ is the initial phase

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 Simple Harmonic Motion
sin(ωot + φ)
This term will vary between +1 and -1, sinusoidally
Value of ‘x’ will vary between +A and -A, sinusoidally

 SHM will continue to be in motion indefinitely

 In real world, simple harmonic motion (also called free harmonic oscillator) does not exist since there is
always some sort of resistive force acting on the oscillator
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Damped Harmonic Motion
 Frictional forces or other external forces can lead to a loss (dissipation) of energy of an oscillator. This phenomenon is
called damping.
 Simple harmonic motion under the effect of damping forces is known as damped harmonic oscillation.

Consider a damped harmonic oscillator with mass ‘m’. Forces acting on a damped harmonic oscillator are damping force
and restoring force.

w C is the restoring force constant

For smaller velocities, damping force is proportional to the velocity and is acting in opposite direction of the displacement.
Damping force

Damping force w  is the damping coefficient

Force equation of a damped harmonic oscillator is

=0

8
Damped Harmonic Motion

Dividing through out with ‘m’

d2 x dx 2
+2 k + ω o x=0
dt
2
dt ---------------------------------------------------------- (1)
where k = is the damping constant and is the natural angular frequency in the absence of damping.

Equation (1) is the differential equation of damped harmonic oscillator.

Let x =A be a possible solution of equation (1).

dx t
= A e
d𝑡
2
d x t
=  2 A e
d t2
Substituting in equation (1)

=0
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Damped Harmonic Motion

=0

) =0

Since A cannot be zero ; we have

c=0
=0

− 2 k ± √ 4 k 2 − 4 ω 2o −2 k ±2 √ k 2 − ω 2o − b ± √ b2 − 4 ac
=− k ± √ k −ω o x=
2 2
= = 2a
2 2

1=− k + √ k −ω 2=−k − √ k −ω
2 2 2 2
o o

Therefore general solution of equation (1) is of the form

x= A1 + A2

(− k + √ k − ωo)t (−k − √ k −ωo )t

2 2 2 2

x= A1e +A 2e --------------------------------- (2)

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 Damped Harmonic Motion
(− k + √ k − ωo)t (−k − √ k −ωo )t (2)
2 2 2 2

x = A1 e + A 2e
---------------------------------

( √ k −ω o )t (− √ k −ω o )t
2 2 2 2
− kt − kt
x = A1 e e +A 2e e
]
---------------------------- (3)

w A1 and A2 are two constants that depends on initial conditions of motion

Displacement of the oscillator from mean

k is the damping constant.
position at time ‘t’.
ω0 is the natural angular frequency in the absence of damping

Depending on relative values of k and ω0 three different cases arise.

1. k > ω0 Over damped
2. k = ω0 Critically damped
3. k < ω0 Under damped
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Case 1: Over damped (k > ω0 )

The damping is high so that k > ω0

Let =β, a real quantity. Substituting in eqn (2)

(− k+ √ k −ω o )t √
2 2 2 2
(− k − k −ω(2) o) t
x = A1e +A 2e
-------------------------------

( − k +β ) t (− k −β) t
x = A1e +--------------------------------
A2e (4)

x
Since k > β, both terms in RHS of above equation reduces
exponentially with time, and as a result displacement will reduce
to zero, without changing direction.
0
This type of motion is non-oscillatory and is called aperiodic or t
dead beat.

Applications: dead beat galvanometer, door closer

12
 Case 2: Critically damped (k = ω0 )
When k = ω0, eqn (3) becomes
] --------------------------------- (3)

)=B where B= --------------------------------- (5)

Since above equation has only one constant, it does not form solution of a second order differential equation.
Therefore, we shall put = h, a very small positive quantity (h→0). x
]
]
} 0 t
]

]
where D = A 1+A 2 and E=( A 1 − A 2 ) h
Initially the displacement increases slightly due to the factor D+Et. But as time elapses, the exponential term become
dominant factor and as a result displacement will returns continuously to zero, without changing direction, even faster than
over damped condition. This type of motion is non-oscillatory or aperiodic.
Applications: speedometer, multimeter, pressure gauge
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Case 3: Under damped (k < ω0 )
When damping is very low , k <ω 0
= =i and i=

Substituting in eqn (3)

]

]
]

The displacement ‘x’ being a real quantity, both must be real and so both A1 and A2 are complex.
Let φ
and = φ
]
] sin ⁡( A+B)= sinAcosB + cosAsinB
−kt
x=a 0e sin ⁡¿---------------------------- (6)
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Case 3: Under damped (k < ωo)

When k<ω0 ; damping on an oscillator causes it to x

return to equilibrium with the amplitude exponentially
decreasing to zero; system returns to equilibrium faster
but crosses the equilibrium position one or more
times.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
Only underdamped condition represents oscillatory
motion. Ex; simple pendulum , swing etc.

Oscillator oscillates at a reduced angular frequency ω, instead of natural frequency ωo.

√
2π 2π 2π
ω= ( ω − k )
2 2 T= = >
o ω
√( ω 2
o − k2) ω𝑜

Effects of damping on the oscillating system.

1. Amplitude of the oscillations decreases exponentially with time
2. Frequency decreases and time period of oscillations increases.
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Energy of Damped Harmonic Oscillator
Energy of harmonic oscillator is proportional to square of the amplitude. In case of a damped harmonic oscillator, amplitude is
− kt 2
Et ∝( ao e )
E t = Eo e
− 2 kt
where Eo is the initial energy of the oscillator at t = 0

The energy of oscillator decreases exponentially with time. Consider the case when
−2 k
E =¿ E e 2k Eo
1 o =
2k e

Relaxation Time
Time taken by the oscillator to reduce the energy to 1/e times its initial value is called relaxation time
of oscillator.
Relaxation Time

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Quality Factor of Damped Harmonic Oscillator
 Quality factor (Q-factor) is defined as 2π times the ratio of energy stored to the average energy lost per cycle
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝
𝐐 =𝟐 𝛑
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝
Energy of the oscillator at any instant ‘t’,
− 2 kt
E t = Eo e

Energy of after one period (after one complete oscillation)

E t +T = Eo e− 2 k ( t +T )
Energy lost per period
= ;

= 2kT

= 2π 1
ω= τ=
T & 2k

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Quality Factor of Damped Harmonic Oscillator

√
ω= ( ω − k
2
o
2
)
For small value of damping, k2 can be neglected.

k=

=
 Oscillator will execute number of oscillations in the
relaxation time.

√
 Oscillatorx will
Frequency timeexecute
= number oscillation
number in that time
of oscillations interval
when its
C m
𝑄= energy is reduced to (1/e)th of its initial energy.
m γ
 Q-factor a dimensionless quantity and it is a measure of lack of damping of an oscillator.
 High Q means that the oscillation is lightly damped and larger the number of oscillations the system can perform before
coming to rest.
 The system performs Q/2π oscillations during relaxation time.
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 Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillator
Every oscillating and vibrating system has its own natural frequency of oscillation. When excited, it will oscillate with its
natural frequency. If and external periodic force (driving force) is continuously applied, the body will continuously
oscillate with the frequency of applied force.

An oscillator which is forced to oscillate with the frequency of applied periodic force is called forced or driven harmonic
oscillation.

Forces acting on a forced harmonic oscillator are

Restoring force = - Cx where C is the force constant
Damping force w  is the damping coefficient

External driving force where Fo is amplitude and p/2π is the frequency of applied periodic force

Force equation of a forced harmonic oscillator is

d2 x dx
m 2
=− Cx − γ + F o sinpt
dt dt
2
d x dx
m 2
+γ +Cx = F o sinpt
dt dt

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Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillator
Dividing 2through out with ‘m’
d x γ dx C Fo
2
+ + x= sinpt
dt m dt m m
d2 x dx 2
2
+2 k + ω o x= f o sinpt - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
dt dt
Equation (1) is the differential equation of forced harmonic oscillator.
where k = is the damping constant
is the natural angular frequency of the oscillator.
fo = is a constant

Eqn (1) is a linear differential equation of second order and its solution contains two parts: a complementary function
and particular integral
2
d x dx
1. Complementary function is the solution of 2 +2 k + ω 2o x=0
dt dt
) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

where ω= √ (ω
2
o
2
−k )
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Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillator

2. Particular Integral is found by trial

At steady state, the body oscillates with the same frequency as the driving force, but the displacement lag behind applied
force. So particular integral can be of the form

x = A sin( pt − θ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - (3)

where A is the amplitude of maintained oscillations

θ is the phase lag of displacement behind the applied force
dx
= p A cos ( pt −θ)- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (4)
dt
d 2x
= − p 2 A sin( pt −-θ)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (5)
dt2
d2 x dx 2
Substituting from eqns (3), (4) and (5) in eqn (1) 2
+2 k + ω o x= f o sinpt- - -- (1)
dt dt

2
− p 2 A sin ( pt −θ)+2 kpA cos ( pt −θ)+ ω o A sin ( pt − θ)= f o sinpt

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Forced or Driven Harmonic Oscillator
2
− p 2 A sin ( pt − θ)+2 kpA cos ( pt −θ)+ ω o A sin ( pt − θ)= f o sinpt
)

Comparing coeffieicents of sin ( pt − θ ) ∧cos ( pt − θ )

(ω ¿ ¿ o − p2) A=fo cosθ¿ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6)
2

2 kpA =f o sin θ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7)

Divide eqn ( 7 ) witheqn (6) Squaring∧adding eqn ( 7 ) ∧eqn(6)

(ω ¿ ¿ o − p2)2 A 2+4 k 2 p2 A 2=fo 2cos2θ+f o2sin 2θ ¿
2
f o sinθ 2 kpA
=
f o cosθ (ω ¿ ¿ o2 − p 2) A ¿
] =

tan θ =
2 kp f o2 fo
2 A 2= 2 A= - - - - - (8)
ωo − p 2 (ω ¿ ¿ o − p2)2+4 k 2 p2¿ √(ω¿¿ o − p2)2+4 k 2 p2¿
2

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Forced Harmonic Oscillator

So particular integral is

fo
x = - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9)
√(ω¿ ¿o − p2)2+4k 2 p2sin ( pt − θ)¿
2

Complete solution of equation (2) is {substituting from eqns (2) and (9)}

− kt
x =ao e sin ⁡¿
where θ= tan
−1
[ 2 kp
2
ωo − p 2 ]

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Forced Harmonic Oscillator
Complete solution is
− kt
x =a0 e sin ⁡¿
First term represents natural damped oscillation at frequency ‘ with amplitude reducing exponentially with time. Second
term represents forced oscillation at frequency ‘p’, with a constant amplitude ‘A’. Initially both vibrations will ebe present,
but with the passage of time, the first term vanishes and the motion of the body can be completely represented by the
second term . So the displacement of the forced harmonic oscillator is given by the equation
Refer next slide
fo
x=
√ (ω ¿ ¿o 2
− p 2)2+4 k2 p2sin( pt − θ)¿

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Forced Harmonic Oscillator
Complete solution is
− kt
x =a0 e sin ⁡¿
+A 1

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑡)
-A
-1

 Natural damped oscillation at frequency ‘

 Forced oscillation at frequency ‘p’
 Amplitude reduces exponentially with time.  Amplitude is a constant

fo
x=
√ (ω ¿ ¿o 2
− p 2)2+4 k2 p2sin( pt − θ)¿
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 Amplitude Resonance
Resonance is the phenomenon by which the amplitude of the forced harmonic oscillator becomes maximum at
a particular driving frequency which is very close to its natural frequency.
Frequency at which resonance occur is known as resonant frequency (p R).

Amplitude of a forced harmonic oscillator is given by

fo
A=
√ (ω ¿ ¿ o 2
− p2)2+4 k 2 p2¿
Value of A =Amax when the denominator is minimum.
]= 0

− 2 (ω ¿ ¿ o − p 2) x 2 p+ 8 k 2 p= 0 ¿
2

− (ω ¿ ¿ o − p 2) x 4 p+ 2 k 2 x 4 p=0 ¿
2

− (ω ¿ ¿ o − p 2)+ 2 k 2= 0 ¿
2

p 2= ω2 o − 2 k 2

p=p R=√ ω − 2 k 2 2
is the resonant frequency
o
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Amplitude at Resonance
When p=pR
fo
A max=
√(ω¿ ¿ o 2 − p R 2)2+4 k 2 p R 2¿
fo
A max=
fo
√ [ω ¿ ¿ o2 −( √ ω 2o −2 k 2) 2] 2+4 k 2 p R 2= ¿
√[ ω ¿¿ o
2 2
−(ω −2 k 2)] 2+ 4 k 2 p R 2 ¿
o

fo fo
A max= =
√ [2 k 2 ]2+4 k 2 p R 2 √ 4 k 4+4 k 2 p R 2
f o
A max =
2 k √ k 2+ p R 2
For low damping k2 can be neglected and so p=p R=ω o
𝐟𝐨 𝐟 𝐨𝛕
𝐀 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = =
𝟐 𝐤 𝛚𝐨 𝛚𝐨

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Amplitude Resonance
When p=pR ≈ ωo
fo f oτ
A max = =
2 kωo ωo

 Amplitude is maximum

Case 1: When p<< ωo

fo Low damping
A=
√(ω¿¿ o 2 − p2)2+4 k 2 p2¿ Medium
damping
Neglecting and 4k2 pR High damping
f o Fo m Fo
A= 2 = =
ωo m C C
 Amplitude is a constant at low frequencies

Case 2: When p>> ωo Neglecting and 4k2

f o Fo
A= =  Amplitude decreases rapidly with increase in driving frequency
p2 m p2

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Quality Factor at Amplitude Resonance

Quality Factor at amplitude resonance is defined as the ratio of amplitude at resonance to

amplitude at zero driving frequency.
Q

fo f oτ
A max = =
2 kωo ωo

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 Sharpness of Resonance

 Sharpness of resonance refers to the rate of fall of amplitude with change of driving frequency on either side
of resonant frequency.
 Resonance is sharp if a small change in driving frequency from resonant frequency cause a large change in
amplitude of oscillation.

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LCR Circuit as an Electrical Analogue of Mechanical Oscillator
di d 2q
Potential difference across inductor V L= L =L
dt dt 2
dq
Potential difference across resistor V R=Ri=R
dt

q
Potential difference across capacitor V C=
C

The sum of Potential difference across each circuit element is equal to the applied voltage
d2q dq q
L +R + =Vapplie d
dt 2 dt C
Force equation of forced harmonic oscillation of an oscillator of mass ‘m’ is
2
d x dx
m 2
+γ + kx= F applied
dt dt

Above force equation is similar to voltage equation of LCR circuit. The electric charge oscillates between capacitor (C) and
inductor (L) through resistor (R) similar to mechanical oscillations of the oscillator. The resistance (R) causes the dissipation
of electric energy where as damping causes dissipation in mechanical oscillator.

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Comparison of Mechanical and electrical Oscillator
No. Quantity in Mechanical Oscillator Quantity in Electrical Oscillator
1 Mass (m) Inductance (L)
2 Displacement (x) Charge (q)
3 Damping Coefficient () Resistance (R)
4 Velocity () Current (i=)

5 Force Constant (k) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/C)

6 Potential Energy () Energy stored in Capacitor ( = )

7 Kinetic Energy () Energy stored in Inductor()

8 Angular frequency Angular frequency

9 Quality factor Q Quality factor Q

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