UNIT-1

B SAI BABA,M.Tech(Ph.D),VIT,Bhimavaram
What is Computer Network?
● A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers, devices, and
other hardware components that are linked together to facilitate communication,
data sharing, and resource sharing.
● It allows multiple computers and devices to exchange information, access shared
resources, and collaborate effectively.

( or )

● A computer network is a number of computers linked together to allow them to

“talk” to each other and share resources. Networked computers can share
hardware, software and data.
● Connecting computers to form computer networks and the internet has had a huge
impact on our lives.
What is Internet?
● Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with
each other and to the World Wide Web.
● It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer
users worldwide.
● At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data
between computers across the world.

(or)

● “ Network of networks “
Where does the Internet come from?
What is WWW?
● The World Wide Web, commonly known as the web, is a system of interconnected documents and

resources that are accessed via the internet.

● World Wide Web is an information system that allows users to access and navigate websites and web

pages on the internet

● It is a collection of websites, web pages, multimedia content, and hyperlinks that allow users to

navigate and access information.

● It is a common prefix used in Uniform Resource Locators or URLs(internet addresses) to identify a

web server that hosts a website. Eg: www.google.com

● The web is just one of the many services and applications that utilize the internet infrastructure
Network Elements
 Subnet ?
● A subnet, short for subnetwork, is a
portion of a larger network that is
divided or segmented into smaller
logical networks.
● It involves dividing a single network
into multiple smaller networks to
improve network performance,
security, and manageability.
Internal Network Cards USB based NIC Wireless NIC

External Network Cards

 NIC?
● A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a
hardware component without which a
computer cannot be connected over a
network.
● It is a circuit board installed in a computer
that provides a dedicated network
connection to the computer.
● It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter.
● It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to
1000 Mb/s.
Hub?
 Hub?

● A hub is a physical layer networking device which is

used to connect multiple devices in a network. They
are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
● A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends
to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of
these ports.
● When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to
every other port, without considering whether it is
destined for a particular destination or not.
Switch?
Switch?

● A switch is a data link layer hardware device that

connects multiple devices on a computer network.
● A Switch contains more advanced features than
Hub.
● Switch delivers the message to the correct destination
based on the physical address present in the incoming
message.
● A Switch does not broadcast the message to the
entire network like the Hub. It determines the
device to whom the message is to be transmitted.
Repeater ?
● Repeaters are used at the Physical layer of OSI model.

● A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming signal

from the sender before retransmitting it to the receiver.

● It is also known as a signal booster, The primary function of a repeater is to receive

the weakened signal, amplify it, and then retransmit it at its original strength.

● In a network, as data travels over cables (such as copper or fiber-optic cables), it tends

to weaken or attenuate over long distances.

● This attenuation can lead to data loss and degradation, affecting the overall

performance of the network.

Router?

● A router is a network device that

operates at the network layer (Layer
3) of the OSI model.
● Its primary function is to forward data
packets between different computer
networks, such as local area networks
(LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs).
● A router acts as a central point of
connection for multiple devices and
directs network traffic based on
destination IP addresses.
Network Topologies
“ A topology is the layout of how a network communicate with different devices.”
(or)
“A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.”
The various network topologies are:
➔ Point to Point Topology
➔ Mesh Topology
➔ Star Topology
➔ Bus Topology
➔ Ring Topology
➔ Tree Topology
➔ Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology

● Point-to-point topology is a network

configuration where two devices or
nodes are directly connected to each
other without any intermediate devices.
● It is the simplest communication
between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver.
● In this type of topology, data can flow
directly from one point to another
along a dedicated communication Point to Point Topology
channel.
Mesh Topology
● In a mesh topology, every device is connected to
another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
● Every device is connected to another via dedicated
channels. These channels are known as links.
● Suppose, the N number of devices are connected
with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is
N-1.
● In Figure , there are 5 devices connected to each
Mesh Topology
other, hence the total number of ports required by
each device is 4. The total number of ports required
= N * (N-1).
Advantages of Mesh Topology

● Communication is very fast between the nodes.

● Mesh Topology is robust.
● Fault Tolerance: Mesh topology provides high redundancy and fault tolerance. If one
link or connection fails, there are alternative paths available for data to reach its
destination, ensuring network reliability.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

● Installation and configuration are difficult.

● The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
● The cost of maintenance is high
 Star Topology
● Star topology is a network configuration in which all
devices in the network are connected to a central
hub or switch.
● In this arrangement, each device communicates
directly with the central hub and not with other
devices in the network. The hub acts as a central
point of communication, managing data traffic
between the connected device
● Star topology is very popular because the startup
costs are low. It is also easy to create new nodes to
the network.
● If one device fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network, as they are not directly connected to Star Topology
each other.
● If the central hub fails throughout the network
goes down.
Bus Topology
● The bus topology is designed in such a way that all
the stations are connected through a single cable
known as a backbone cable.
● When a node wants to send a message over the
network, it puts a message over the network. All the
stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
● Data is transmitted in both directions along the
bus.
● The backbone cable is considered as a "single
lane" through which the message is broadcast to all
the stations.
● It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
● In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed
loop, with each device having exactly two neighbors Ring Topology
for communication.
● The node that receives the message from the previous
computer will retransmit to the next node.
● The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional.
● The data flows in a single loop continuously known as
an endless loop.
● It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to
other node and having no termination point.
● The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise
direction.
● Failure of any device or connection in the ring can
cause the entire network to fail, making it less
fault-tolerant. Ring Topology
 Tree Topology

Figure : In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
 ● Tree topology, also known as hierarchical topology, is a network configuration that
combines characteristics of both bus and star topologies.
● In a tree network, all devices are connected to a central hub, which acts as the root of the tree.
From this central hub, branches extend out to other hubs or end devices, creating a
hierarchical structure.
● It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.

Key features of a tree topology:

1. Central hub: The central hub is the primary element of the tree topology and is responsible for
connecting all the branches and end devices in the network. It acts as the main communication point
for all connected devices.
2. Secondary hub: It is the intermediate levels of the hierarchy. Each Secondary hub is connected to
the central hub or other intermediate hubs. These branches can be further extended into
sub-branches, creating a multi-level hierarchy.
3. End devices: The end devices are the devices located at the leaves of the tree. These devices can be
computers, printers, switches, or any other networked devices.

4.Hierarchical structure: The tree topology exhibits a hierarchical arrangement of devices, which makes
it easy to manage and scale the network. Information generally flows from the top (root) of the tree down
to the leaves and vice versa.

Advantages of tree topology:

1. Scalability: Tree topologies can be easily scaled by adding more branches or connecting additional
end devices to the existing branches.
2. Centralized control: The central hub provides a single point of control and management for the
entire network.
3. Fault isolation: If a branch or an end device fails, only the devices in that branch or connected to
that branch are affected, leaving the rest of the network intact.
 Hybrid Topology

● This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above.
● Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
● It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of
various types of topologies seen above.
Types of Networks
● Networks can be categorized into various types based on their size, geographical
coverage, and the way they are structured.
PAN (Personal Area Network)
● PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person.
● A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a type of network used for connecting personal devices
in close proximity to an individual.
● PANs are designed to facilitate communication and data exchange between devices such as
smartphones, tablets, laptops, personal computers, wireless headphones,
smartwatches, and other wearable devices.
● Example: Bluetooth devices
● In the simplest form, Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm of Fig. 1-7.
● The system unit (the PC) is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc., as
slaves.
● The master tells the slaves what addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long they
can transmit, what frequencies they can use, and so on.
Characteristics of a PAN are:

Limited Coverage: PANs have a very limited

coverage area, typically within a range of a few
meters or up to about 10 meters (33 feet). They
are intended to connect devices that are physically
close to each other.
Wireless Technology: PANs typically use
wireless communication technologies for
connectivity.
● Bluetooth is one of the most common
wireless technologies used in PANs due to its
low power consumption and short-range
capabilities.
Examples of PAN Applications:

★ Pairing wireless headphones or speakers with a smartphone or computer.

★ Connecting a wireless keyboard and mouse to a laptop or desktop computer.

★ Synchronizing data between a smartphone and a fitness tracker or smartwatch.

★ Transferring files between two smartphones via Bluetooth.

LAN (Local Area Network)
● Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of network that connects devices within a
limited geographical area, such as a single building like a home, office or
factory.
● LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to
let them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
● Types of LAN networks:
a. Wired LAN
b. Wireless LAN

Wired LAN:
➔ Ethernet(IEEE 802.3)is the most common and widely used LAN technology.
➔ It uses twisted-pair or fiber-optic cables to connect devices in a star topology.
➔ Wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, have low delay(microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Wireless LAN:
● There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi, to
connect devices without the need for physical cables.
● WLANs use radio waves to transmit data over the airwaves, providing wireless
connectivity and mobility to devices within the network.
● It runs at speeds anywhere from 10 to hundreds of Mbps.
● Access Points:
○ Access points are sometimes called base stations. The access points connect to the
wired network, and all communication between clients goes through an access point
○ Access points provide the wireless connectivity and allow devices to connect to the
WLAN.
● WLANs are widely used in homes, offices, public spaces, airports, hotels, educational
institutions, and various other environments to provide wireless internet access and
facilitate device connectivity.
● Fig. 1-8( a & b) shows a sample topology of WLAN and Switched Ethernet.
● Each computer speaks the Ethernet protocol and connects to a box called a switch with a
point-to-point link.
● Hence the name. A switch has multiple ports, each of which can connect to one computer.
● The job of the switch is to relay packets between computers that are attached to it, using the
address in each packet to determine which computer to send it to.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● MAN covers a larger geographical area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but is smaller than a Wide Area
Network (WAN).
● A MAN typically spans a city or a metropolitan region, connecting multiple LANs and data centers within the
area.
● The best-known examples of MANs are the cable television networks available in many cities.
● These systems grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television
reception.
● In those early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and a signal was then piped to the
subscribers’ houses.
● When the Internet began attracting a mass audience, the cable TV network operators began to realize that with
some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet service in unused parts of the spectrum.
● At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from simply a way to distribute television to a metropolitan
area network.
● a MAN might look something like the system shown in Fig. 1-9.
● In this figure we see both television signals and Internet being fed into the centralized cable headend for
subsequent distribution to people’s homes.
Q:: How does the MAN network work?

● MAN’s primary goal is to establish a

communication link between two
independent LAN nodes in order to
connect geographically dispersed LANs.
● To accomplish this, the Metropolitan
Area Network typically uses optical
fiber as a transmission medium, and the
network is built with the help of routers
and switches.
● Eg:
○ Cable TV network
○ Telephone networks
WAN (Wide Area Network)
● WAN is a type of computer network that spans a large geographical area, typically
connecting multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) or Metropolitan Area Networks
(MANs) across cities, states, countries, or even continents.
● We will begin our discussion with wired WANs, using the example of a company with
branch offices in different cities.
● The WAN in Fig. 1-10 is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and
Brisbane. Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e.,
application) programs.
● We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The rest of the network
that connects these hosts is then called the communication subnet, or just subnet for
short.
● The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words (really just sounds) from speaker to listener.
● In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
○ Transmission Lines
○ Switching elements.
● Transmission lines move bits between machines.They can be made of copper wire,
optical fiber, or even radio links.
● Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or
more transmission lines.
● When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them.
● These switching computers have been called by various names in the past; the name
router is now most commonly used.
 Reference Models

1. The OSI Reference Model

2. The TCP/IP Reference Model

 [1]

Why
Reference
Models?

[2]
★ The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model are both conceptual frameworks used to
understand and describe how data communication occurs over a network.
★ They both break down the communication process into layers, but there are some key
differences between the two models.
★ Both models serve as important tools for understanding network communication, and
their concepts are used in the design and implementation of modern networks and
protocols.
★ The TCP/IP model's practical implementation and widespread use have made it the
dominant reference model in today's networking landscape.
OSI Reference Model
● OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
● The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework
used to understand and standardize how different networking protocols and
technologies interact and communicate with each other.
● The purpose of OSI reference model is to gude technology vendors(Microsoft,CISCO)
and developers , so their H/W and S/W can interoperate and define common
framework.
● It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.
● All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another
across the globe.
Application Layer
★ At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers.
★ It provides interface to end user.The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer
★ Its primary focus is to enable communication between software applications running
on different devices across a network.
★ All applications and Softwares we use in daily life like Google chrome, Firefox,Drop
box , Yahoo..etc, that all work with the help of Application layer protocols.
★ Some examples of Application layer protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol) for web browsing, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for sending email,
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers, and DNS (Domain Name System) for
translating domain names to IP addresses.
HTTP , HTTPS for Web Browsing

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for

sending email

FTP for File Transfer

Presentation Layer
➢ The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
➢ The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
○ i.e Converts Application layer data into Machine understandable binary format (
1’s and 0’s ).
➢ The Functions of the Presentation Layer are
○ Translation: The Presentation Layer translates data from the application layer's
format into a common format that can be understood by both the sender and receiver.
This translation is necessary when different systems use different data formats.
○ Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known
as plain text. This ensures that data remains confidential and protected from
unauthorized access.
○ Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Session Layer
➔ Session Layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions or
connections between two communicating devices on a network. Its primary goal is to
provide synchronization and coordination between the two endpoints to enable reliable
data exchange.
➔ Key functions of the Session Layer include
◆ Session Establishment: The Session Layer is responsible for setting up and
initiating communication sessions between two devices. It establishes a logical
connection between the sender and receiver before data exchange begins.
◆ Session Maintenance: Once the session is established, the Session Layer ensures its
stability and integrity during the data transfer. It manages the session and monitors
its status to handle any issues that may arise.
◆ Session Termination: When the communication between the devices is complete,
the Session Layer terminates the session in an organized manner, releasing any
allocated resources and freeing up system memory.
Transport Layer
● The Transport layer is responsible for the transmission of data across network
connections.
● The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.
● The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
● The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
● It is responsible for the “End to End Delivery” of the complete message.
● The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
● The Functions of the Transport Layer are :
○ Segmentation and Reassembly
○ Flow Control
○ Error control
1. Segmentation and Reassembly

Sender Side Receiver Side

Sender Side

Receiver Side

● Transport layer breaking up messages into smaller segments, then transmitting them over
the network.
● The transport layer also reassembles the segments into the original message when they
reach their destination.
2. Flow Control
1 2

● The Transport Layer manages the flow of data between the sender and receiver to prevent
overwhelming the receiver with data.
● It uses flow control mechanisms to regulate the rate of data transmission and ensure that the
receiver can handle the incoming data..
● Error Control: This layer is responsible for error detection and correction. It checks for errors in
the received data and requests retransmission of any lost or corrupted segments to ensure the data's
integrity.
Transport layer protocols
● Protocols in the transport layer of the OSI model provide communication between applications on
different hosts.
● The two main Transport layer protocols are:
○ Transmission Control Protocol [TCP]
■ The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is connection-oriented, meaning that before
exchanging data, the two applications must establish a connection between them.
■ After the connection is established, packets are sent and received reliably.
■ It provides reliable communication between two hosts.
○ User Datagram Protocol [UDP]
■ The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is connectionless, meaning that data is exchanged
without establishing a connection.
■ Packets are sent and received without any guarantees about their order or
delivery(Unreliable).
Network Layer
Logical Addressing:
 ● The Network layer operates above the data link layer (Layer 2) and below the transport
layer (Layer 4) in the OSI model.
● It is responsible for delivery of data from original source to destination.

Services provided by the Network layer are:

Logical Addressing:

● It is responsible for breaking down the data segments into data packets and is tasked with
reassembling them on the receiver side.
● Devices at the network layer are identified using logical addresses, such as IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses. The network layer adds the source and destination IP addresses to the
data packets to ensure proper delivery.
Routing:

● The Network layer determines the most efficient path for data packets to travel from the source
to the destination across multiple networks.
● It uses routing algorithms and protocols to make forwarding decisions based on the network
topology and destination address.
Congestion:

● The network layer can detect and respond to network congestion, either by slowing down
the rate of packet transmission or by using other congestion control mechanisms.

What is Congestion:

● Congestion in the network layer is a situation where the network is overloaded with
traffic, and this can lead to a number of problems, including:
○ Packet loss
○ Increased delay
Data Link Layer
★ The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.

Services provided by Data Link Layer:

1.Framing: Physical Addressing

★ The Data Link Layer takes the packets received from the Network Layer and encapsulates
them into frames for transmission over the physical medium. At the receiving end, it
extracts the data from the frames and passes it up to the Network Layer.
★ When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address(Media Access Control).
★ MAC addresses are used for addressing and delivering data frames to the correct destination
on the same network.
2. Error Detection and Correction: The data link layer is responsible for error detection
at the link level. It checks for transmission errors in received frames using error-checking
mechanisms like CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). If errors are detected, the layer can
request retransmission of the corrupted frames.

3. Flow Control: The Data Link Layer manages the flow of data between devices to avoid
overwhelming the receiving end. It ensures that data is sent at a rate that the receiving
device can handle.

4. Access control :It ensures that only authorized devices can access the network.

Note:
Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Physical Layer
● It deals with the physical transmission of data bits over a physical medium, such as
copper cables, fiber optics, or wireless channels.
● The primary function of the Physical Layer is to establish and maintain a physical link
between network devices and transmit raw binary data as electrical or optical signals.
● It is also responsible for converting the data frames received from the Data-link layer into
data bits of 1’s and 0’s (raw bits)for transmission over the network.
● The physical layer consists of three main components:
■ Transmission media
■ Transceivers
■ Connectors
● Transmission media includes wires, cables, and optical fibers.
● Transceivers convert electrical signals into optical or radio signals.
● Connectors attach transmission media to devices such as
computers,hub,repeaters,modems .

Note:
Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
Data Format Layer Function
Data Application Layer Applications access network services

Data Presentation Layer Translations ,Encryption and decryption of data

Data Session Layer Connection management b/w networks

Segmentation,Flow control, responsible for End-to-end

Segment Transport Layer
delivery

Packet Network Layer Adding IP add, Determine the path for data transfer

Frame Data Link Layer Framing, Error detection and correction

Raw Bits Physical Layer Transfer raw bits using physical media
TCP/IP Model
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet
because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP
model.

● TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the
1960s and is based on standard protocols.
● It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
● The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
TCP/IP Model
 The Link Layer [Network Access Layer]
● A Network Access Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
● A Network Access Layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
● The Link Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model and handles the physical
transmission of data over the network medium.
● It is responsible for defining hardware-specific details such as MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses for devices, error detection.
● The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
● The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 The Internet Layer
● An Internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
● An Internet layer is also known as the network layer.
● The Internet layer is responsible for Logical Addressing, Routing, and Congestion
Control data packets across different networks.

The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:

1. IP (Internet Protocol)
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
1. IP (Internet Protocol) :
★ It is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination host by
looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
★ IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
★ IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of
IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
★ It is encapsulated within IP Packets and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network conditions or to report errors.
3. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
★ Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
 The Transport Layer
1. The Transport Layer is responsible for managing end-to-end communication and
ensures reliable data delivery between applications running on different devices.
2. It handles the segmentation and reassembly of data, as well as flow control and
error recovery.
3. It The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error.
4. It ensures that data is delivered in the correct order, without loss or duplication. The
most commonly used protocols at this layer are the
a. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is connection-oriented and
guarantees reliable delivery.
b. User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which offers a connectionless and faster but
less reliable delivery option.
 The Application Layer
★ The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers.
★ The Application layer is responsible for supporting end-user applications and their
protocols.

It contains all the higher-level protocols.

★ TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection

between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
★ FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
 The Application Layer
★ HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access

the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,

video. i.e. HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and Websites.

★ SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that

supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used

to send the data to another e-mail address.

★ SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol is used for managing and monitoring

network devices and systems. It is commonly used in network management systems to

collect information, configure devices, and monitor network performance.

★ DNS: The DNS (Domain Name System) protocol is an application-layer protocol used

to translate human-readable domain names, such as "www.google.com," into their

corresponding IP addresses.

★ RTP: The RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) for delivering real-time media such as

voice or movies over networks.

OSI vs TCP/IP Reference Model

Assignment Topic