SYSTEM START-UP AND CONFIGURATION

COMPUTER BOOTING
What is booting?
Booting is the initial set of operations that a computer system performs when electrical power is
switched on in order to load the operating system to start-up the computer. The process begins
when a computer that has been turned off is re-energized, and ends when the computer is ready to
perform its normal operations. Booting involves performing power-on self-test, locating and
initializing peripheral devices, and then finding, loading and starting an operating system.
What is a boot loader?
A boot loader is a computer program that loads the main operating system or runtime environment
for the computer after completion of self-tests. The boot process can be considered complete when
the computer is ready to interact with the user, or the operating system is capable of running system
programs or application programs. Typical modern personal computers boot in about one minute, of
which about 15 seconds are taken by a power-on self-test (POST) and a preliminary boot loader,
and the rest by loading the operating system and other software.
Types of Booting
There are two types of booting. They include cold booting and warm booting.
Cold Booting
A cold boot is a reboot with the computer power being off. It is the start-up of a computer from a
powered-down, or off, state. Alternatively a cold boot is referred to as a hard boot, is a term used to
describe the process of turning on the computer after it has been powered off. Cold booting is the
start-up a computer that has been off.
Warm Booting
A soft reboot (warm reboot) involves restarting a computer "normally" under software control,
without suddenly removing power or (directly) triggering a hardware-based reset. It usually, though
not always, refers to an orderly shutdown and restart of the machine that includes safely flushing of
any cached write operations to persistent storage. A warm boot is a reboot with the computer power
placed in the on position. Warm booting also refers to restarting a computer that is already turned
on via the operating system. Restarting a computer returns the computer to its initial state.
Applications of Booting
1. A warm boot is useful for example when a program encounters a problem and the programs
are not responding you can restart or reboot the computer afresh to allow normal program
execution. On PCs, you can perform a warm boot by pressing the Control, Alt, and Delete
keys simultaneously. Or click start, shut down and then restart.
2. Cold boot is useful when starting up a computer in order to perform various tasks.
The System Boot Process
Describe the process of booting (Step-by-step process of booting): In order for a computer to
successfully boot, its BIOS, operating system and hardware components must all be working
properly; failure of any one of these three elements will likely result in a failed boot sequence.

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When the computer's power is first turned on, the CPU initializes itself, which is triggered by a
series of clock ticks generated by the system clock. Part of the CPU's initialization is to look to the
system's ROM BIOS for its first instruction in the start-up program. The ROM BIOS stores the first
instruction, which is the instruction to run the power-on self test (POST), in a predetermined
memory address. POST begins by checking the BIOS chip and then tests CMOS RAM. If the POST
does not detect a battery failure, it then continues to initialize the CPU, checking the inventoried
hardware devices (such as the video card), secondary storage devices, (such as hard drives and
floppy drives), ports and other hardware devices, such as the keyboard and mouse, to ensure they
are functioning properly. Once the POST has determined that all components are functioning
properly and the CPU has successfully initialized the BIOS looks for an Operating System (OS) to
load.
The BIOS typically looks to the CMOS chip to tell it where to find the OS, and in most PCs, For
example, the BIOS may be instructed to first look to drive C (i.e., the hard disk) for the OS and then
drive A (i.e., the floppy disk). If the OS is stored in drive C then the BIOS need look no further;
however, if the BIOS does not find the OS in drive C then it will next look to drive A, and so on
depending on the configuration of the boot sequence. The order of drives that the CMOS looks to in
order to locate the OS is called the boot sequence, which can be changed by altering the CMOS
setup. Looking to the appropriate boot drive, the BIOS will first encounter the boot record, which
tells it where to find the beginning of the OS and the subsequent program file that will initialize the
OS. Once the OS initializes, the BIOS copies its files into memory and the OS basically takes over
control of the boot process. Now in control, the OS performs another inventory of the system's
memory and memory availability (which the BIOS already checked) and loads the device drivers
that it needs to control the peripheral devices, such as a printer, scanner, optical drive, mouse and
keyboard. This is the final stage in the boot process, after which the user can access the system’s
applications to perform tasks.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
In computer systems, a configuration is an arrangement of functional units according to their nature,
number, and chief characteristics. Often, configuration pertains to the choice of hardware, software,
firmware, and documentation. The configuration affects system function and performance. System
Configuration is intended to find and isolate problems, but it's not meant as a start-up management
program.
System Configuration is a tool that can help identify problems that might prevent Windows from
starting correctly. You can start Windows with common services and start-up programs turned off
and then turn them back on, one at a time. If a problem doesn't occur when a service is turned off,
but does occur when that service is turned on, then the service could be the cause of the problem.
The following table describes the tabs and options that are available in System Configuration:
Tab Description
General Lists choices for start-up configuration modes:
1. Normal start-up. Starts Windows in the usual manner. Use this mode to start
Windows after you're done using the other two modes to troubleshoot the
problem.
2. Diagnostic start-up. Starts Windows with basic services and drivers only. This
mode can help rule out basic Windows files as the problem.

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 3. Selective start-up. Starts Windows with basic services and drivers and the other
services and start-up programs that you select.
Boot Shows configuration options for the operating system and advanced debugging settings,
including:
1. Safe boot: Minimal. On start-up, opens the Windows graphical user interface
(Windows Explorer) in safe mode running only critical system services.
Networking is disabled.
2. Safe boot: Alternate shell. On start-up, opens the Windows command prompt in
safe mode running only critical system services. Networking and the graphical
user interface are disabled.
3. Safe boot: Active Directory repair. On start-up, opens the Windows graphical
user interface in safe mode running critical system services and Active Directory.
4. Safe boot: Network. On start-up, opens the Windows graphical user interface in
safe mode running only critical system services. Networking is enabled.
5. No GUI boot. Does not display the Windows Welcome screen when starting.
6. Boot log. Stores all information from the start-up process in the file
%SystemRoot%Ntbtlog.txt.
7. Base video. On start-up, opens the Windows graphical user interface in minimal
VGA mode. This loads standard VGA drivers instead of display drivers specific
to the video hardware on the computer.
8. OS boot information. Shows driver names as drivers are being loaded during the
start-up process.
9. Make all boot settings permanent. Doesn't track changes made in System
Configuration. Options can be changed later using System Configuration, but
must be changed manually. When this option is selected, you can't roll back
your changes by selecting Normal start-up on the General tab.
Advanced boot options:
1. Number of processors. Limits the number of processors used on a multiprocessor
system. If the check box is selected, the system boots using only the number of
processors in the drop-down list.
2. Maximum memory. Specifies the maximum amount of physical memory used by
the operating system to simulate a low memory configuration. The value in the
text box is megabytes (MB).
3. PCI Lock. Prevents Windows from reallocating I/O and IRQ resources on the PCI
bus. The I/O and memory resources set by the BIOS are preserved.
4. Debug. Enables kernel-mode debugging for device driver development. Go to
the Windows Driver Kit website for more information.
5. Global debug settings. Specifies the debugger connection settings on this
computer for a kernel debugger to communicate with a debugger host. The
debugger connection between the host and target computers can be Serial, IEEE
1394, or USB 2.0.
6. Debug port. Specifies using Serial as the connection type and the serial port.
The default port is COM 1.
7. Baud rate. Specifies the baud rate to use when Debug port is selected and the
debug connection type is Serial. This setting is optional. Valid values for baud
are 9600, 19,200, 38,400, 57,600, and 115,200. The default baud rate is
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 115,200 bps.
8. Channel. Specifies using 1394 as the debug connection type and specifies the
channel number to use. The value for channel must be a decimal integer
between 0 and 62, inclusive, and must match the channel number used by the
host computer. The channel specified does not depend on the physical 1394
port chosen on the adapter. The default value for channel is 0.
9. USB target name. Specifies a string value to use when the debug type is USB.
This string can be any value.
Services Lists all of the services that start when the computer starts, along with their current
status (Running or Stopped). Use the Services tab to enable or disable individual
services at start-up to troubleshoot which services might be contributing to start-up
problems.
Select Hide all Microsoft services to show only third-party applications in the services
list. Clear the check box for a service to disable it the next time you start the computer.
If you've chosen Selective start-up on the General tab, you must either choose Normal
start-up on the General tab or select the service’s check box to start it again at start-up.
Warning: Disabling services that normally run at start-up might cause some programs
to malfunction or result in system instability. Don't disable services in this list unless
you know they're not essential to your computer’s operation. Selecting Disable all
won't disable some secure Microsoft services required for the operating system to start.
Start-up Lists applications that run when the computer starts up, along with the name of their
publisher, the path to the executable file, and the location of the registry key or
shortcut that causes the application to run.
Clear the check box for a start-up item to disable it on your next start-up. If you've
chosen Selective start-up on the General tab, you must either choose Normal start-up
on the General tab or select the start-up item’s check box to start it again at start-up.
If you suspect an application has been compromised, examine the Command column
to review the path to the executable file.
Note: Disabling applications that normally run at start-up might result in related
applications starting more slowly or not running as expected.
Tools Provides a convenient list of diagnostic tools and other advanced tools that you can
run.
System Specification
System Information shows details about your computer's hardware configuration, computer
components, and software, including drivers. System Information lists categories in the left pane and
details about each category in the right pane. The categories include:
1. System Summary. Displays general information about your computer and the operating
system, such as the computer name and manufacturer, the type of basic input/output system
(BIOS) your computer uses, and the amount of memory(Random Access Memory - RAM)
that's installed.
2. Hardware Resources. Displays advanced details about your computer's hardware.
3. Components. Displays information about disk drives, sound devices, modems, and other
components installed on your computer.
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 4. Software Environment. Displays information about drivers, network connections, and other
program-related details.
View Your Computer Information
You can view a summary of important information about your computer by opening System in
Control Panel. You can see basic software and hardware information, such as type and version of
operating system installed, the total amount of memory (RAM), the computer processor type and
speed, your computer's name, and you can change important system settings by clicking the links in
the left pane of System.
View basic information about your computer
System presents a summary view of basic details about your computer, including:
1. Windows edition. Lists information about the version of Windows running on your computer.
2. System. Displays your computer's Windows Experience Index base score, which is a number
that describes the overall capability of your computer. Your computer's processor type,
speed, and quantity are listed, if your computer uses multiple processors. For example, if
your computer has two processors, you will see "(2 processors)" displayed. Also displayed is
how much random access memory (RAM) is installed and, in some cases, how much of the
memory is usable by Windows.
3. Computer name, domain, and workgroup settings. Displays your computer's name and
workgroup or domain information. You can change this information and add user accounts
by clicking Change settings.
4. Windows activation. Activation verifies that your copy of Windows is genuine, which helps
prevent software piracy.
COMPUTER PARTS
Parts of a computer
A computer consists of several parts working together they include; System unit, Storage ,Mouse,
Keyboard, Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Modem etc. If you use
a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't
any single part called the "computer." A computer is really a
system of many parts working together. The physical parts,
which you can see and touch, are collectively called
hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the
instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)
The following illustration shows the most common hardware
in a desktop computer system. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single,
notebook-sized package.
Computer part Description

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System Unit The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular
box placed on or underneath your desk.
Inside this box are many electronic
components that process information. The
most important of these components is the
motherboard that contains several
components such as a central processing unit
(CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the
"brain" of your computer. Another component
is random access memory (RAM), which
temporarily stores information that the CPU
uses while the computer is on. Almost every other part of your computer
connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports
(openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device.
Mouse A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your
computer screen. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a
long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.
A mouse usually has two buttons: A
primary button (usually the left button) and
a secondary button. Many mice also have a
wheel between the two buttons, which
allows you to scroll smoothly through
screens of information, when you move the
mouse with your hand, a pointer on your
screen moves in the same direction. (The
pointer's appearance might change
depending on where it's positioned on your
screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then
click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your
mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.
Keyboard A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the
keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has
special keys:
1. The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions
depending on where they are used.
2. The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards,
allows you to enter numbers quickly.
3. The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move
your position within a document or webpage.
You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you
can perform with a mouse.

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Monitor A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The
portion of the monitor that displays the information is
called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer
screen can show still or moving pictures.
There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray
tube) monitors and the newer LCD (liquid crystal
display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but
LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter.
Storage The computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information
on a metallic or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when
your computer is turned off. They include the following:
Hard disk drive
The computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk—a rigid
platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can
hold massive (mass storage) amounts of information, they usually serve as

your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your

programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the
system unit. However, there are new external Hard drives.

CD/DVD drives and Blu Ray Disk

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive,
usually located on the front of the
system unit. CD drives use lasers to
read (retrieve) data from a CD; many
CD drives can also write (record or
burn) data onto CDs. If you have a
recordable disk drive, you can store
copies of your files on blank CDs. You
can also use a CD drive to play music
CDs on your computer. DVD drives
can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD
drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can
record data onto blank DVDs.
Tip: If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up
(copy) your important files to CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk
ever fails, you won't lose your data.

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 Floppy disk drive
Floppy disk drives store information
on floppy disks, also called floppies or
diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy
disks can store only a small
amount of data. They
also retrieve information
more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these
reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they
used to be, although some computers still include them.
Printer A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper
producing hardcopies of computer generated work such
as text documents, images or pictures and other
computer printable material. The two main types of
printers are inkjet printers and LaserJet printers. Inkjet
printers are the most popular printers for the home use.
They can print in black and white or in full colour and can produce high-
quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster
and generally better able to handle heavy use.
Speakers Speakers are used to play sound. They can be built into the system unit or
connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear
sound effects from your computer. They are connected to the sound card
(the green sound jack) of the computer usually at the back of the computer
system. Headphones or earphones are special speakers used to produce
digital sound. They are wore on the ears.
Modem To connect your computer to the Internet, you
need a modem. A modem is a device that sends
and receives computer information over a
telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are
sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-
speed modems are usually separate components.
Power supply and A modern computer power supply is a switch with on and off supply
cables designed to convert 110-240 V AC power from the mains supply, to
several output both positive DC voltages in the range + 12V,-
12V,+5V,+5VBs and +3.3V. The switched mode power supplies are used
to connect a computer to the mains power through a power cable. A power
supply supplies converted DC voltages to the internal parts of a computer
such as motherboard with an ATX connector, disk drives (hard disk drive,
CD/DVD ROM drive) with Molex and mini connectors.
Power cables are used to connect a computer system unit, monitor, printers
etc to the mains power
Power
Connection and setup of hardware components
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Connection and setup of hardware components refers to connecting several computer parts of a
computer to the system unit.

Install a USB device

Typically, the first time you connect a device that plugs into a USB port, Windows automatically
installs a driver for that device. Drivers allow your computer to communicate with hardware
devices; without one, a USB device that you connect to your computer—for example, a mouse or a
webcam—won't work properly.
Before installing a device
Check the instructions that came with the device to see if you need to install a driver before
connecting the device. Although Windows usually does this automatically after you connect a new
device, some devices require that you install drivers manually. In those cases, the device
manufacturer includes a software disc and instructions on installing the driver before plugging in the
device.
If your USB device came with software from the manufacturer, check to see if it's compatible with
this version of Windows. If it's not compatible, or doesn't say which versions of Windows it's
designed for, try plugging the device in first to see if Windows can find a compatible driver.
If the instructions that came with your device contradict the information in this topic, follow those
instructions.
Plugging in and turning on a device
Most USB devices that have power switches should be turned on before you connect them. If your
device uses a power cord, connect the device to a power source. Then, turn it on before connecting
it.
Next, determine which USB port you want to connect your device to. If your computer has USB
ports on the front, consider using one of those if you plan to frequently connect and disconnect the
device. (You can use any port the next time you plug in the device.)
Plug the device into the USB port (you will see a message “New Hardware Found”). If Windows
can find and install the device driver automatically, you'll be notified that the device is ready to use.
Otherwise, you'll be prompted to insert a disc containing the driver. Windows will notify you when
it finishes successfully installing a device
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After installation is complete, check the information that came with your device to see if you need
to install any additional software. Occasionally, a USB device isn't recognized by Windows and
doesn't come with a disc containing a driver. In that case, you can try to find a device driver online.
Notes: When connecting a device to a USB port on a USB hub, monitor, or other device that's
plugged into your computer, make sure that the USB port has enough power to support your
device. Smaller devices, such as USB flash drives and mice—and devices with their own power
cords, such as printers—typically work properly when connected to an unpowered USB hub.
Some devices that use more power, such as USB-powered scanners and web cameras, require a
hub that has its own power cord to function properly. If a device doesn't work properly when
connected to a hub, try connecting it directly to one of your computer's USB ports.
Devices that transfer large amounts of information, such as external hard disks, scanners, and
video cameras, function best when connected to high-speed USB 2.0 ports. Some older
computers might include only USB 1.x ports, or a mix of USB 1.x and 2.0 ports. If your device
requires a high-speed port to function properly, check the information that came with your
computer to make sure that the port you're using supports USB 2.0. If your computer includes
only USB 1.x ports, you can add USB 2.0 ports by installing a USB 2.0 card inside your
computer.
Disconnecting a Device
Most USB devices can be removed and unplugged easily. When unplugging storage devices, such as
USB flash drives, make sure that the computer has finished saving any information to the device
before removing it. If the device has an activity light, wait for a few seconds after the light has
finished flashing before unplugging it.
If you see the Safely Remove Hardware icon in the notification area on the right side of the taskbar,
you can use this as an indication that devices have finished all operations in progress and are ready
to be removed. Click the icon and you'll see a list of devices. Click the device you want to remove.
Windows will display a notification telling you it's safe to remove the device.
What is a USB Flash Drive?
A universal serial bus (USB) flash drive is a small, portable device that plugs into a computer's USB
port. Like a hard disk, USB flash drive stores information, but with a flash drive you can easily
transfer that information from one computer to another. USB flash drives vary in size and shape and
can hold gigabytes of information. USB flash drives are also called pen drives, key chain drives, key
drives, and memory keys.
Mount or Dismount a Drive
You must be logged on as an administrator in order to accomplish these steps.
A mounted drive is a partition that's mapped to an empty folder on another partition that has been
formatted with the NTFS file system. Mounted drives are typically assigned a label or name instead
of a drive letter. They're useful for organizations that need to share partitions or drives with many
users. A mounted drive is also known as a mounted folder.
Mounted drives let you extend the storage capacity of a drive or partition. Say you save financial
records to the Finance folder on drive C, but drive C is getting full. A separate drive, drive E, has
room. By creating an empty folder in the Finance folder called Records, and mounting drive E to the
new folder, you can then save files to C:\Finance\Records to take advantage of the extra storage
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space on drive E. Mounted drives have an advantage over shortcuts because you can move the
mounted drives without having to update the folder that the drive is mounted to.
To Mount a Drive
Click to open Computer Management. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
On the left, under Storage, click Disk Management.
Right-click the drive that you want to mount, and then click Change Drive Letter and Paths.
Click Add, click Mount in the following empty NTFS folder, and then either type the path to an
empty folder on an NTFS drive or click Browse to locate it. Click OK, and then click OK again.
To Remove a Mounted Drive
Click to open Computer Management. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
On the left, under Storage, click Disk Management.
Right-click the mounted drive that you want to remove, and then click Change Drive Letter and
Paths
Click Remove, and then click Yes.
Note
The Recycle Bin doesn't recognize mounted drives, so if you try to delete a file that's stored in a
mounted drive, you might receive an error. To bypass the Recycle Bin and permanently delete
the file, click the file, and then press Shift+Delete. When you permanently delete a file, you can't
recover it unless you have a current backup copy of the file.
Install or Remove a Hard Disk Drive
Installing a new hard disk is one of the most common upgrade tasks. It’s an easy way to extend the
life of a computer that is running out of storage space. When you install a new internal or external
hard disk, you can boost your total disk space several times over because hard disks are much
bigger today than just two or three years ago.
External Hard Disks
The simplest way to add more hard disk space is to plug in an external hard disk. If you add an
external hard disk, it can't function as your primary hard disk where you install Windows, but you
can use it as a secondary disk to store programs and files. Adding an external hard disk is a good
way to create plenty of extra space to store digital photos, videos, music, and other files that require
a large amount of disk space.
To install an external hard disk, all you have to do is plug it into your computer and connect the
power cord. Most of these hard disks plug into a USB port, but some plug into a Firewire (also
known as IEEE 1394) or external Serial ATA (eSATA) port. For additional instructions, check the
information that came with your external hard disk. You might also need to install any software that
came with the hard disk. You can install most external hard drives just by plugging them into a
USB port.
Internal Hard Disks

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Internal hard disks connect to your computer's motherboard using an IDE interface or SATA
interface. Most new hard drives come with either an IDE or SATA connection cable, depending on
the type of drive.
Installing an internal hard disk takes a bit more work, especially if you plan to make the new disk
your primary hard disk where you install Windows. To install an internal hard disk, you should be
comfortable opening your computer case and connecting cables.
Most desktop computers have room for at least two internal hard disks. Laptops have room for only
one hard disk. If you are replacing the primary hard disk rather than adding a secondary disk, you'll
have to install Windows after you connect the disk.
Note: Many internal hard disks contain jumper pins that you must set to designate a hard disk as
a primary (master) disk where you install Windows or as a secondary (subordinate) disk where
you store programs and files. These jumpers are small plastic sleeves that you must place on the
correct metal jumper pins. For additional instructions, check the information that came with the
internal hard disk.
To Remove and Replace an Internal Hard Disk
Turn off your computer, disconnect the power, and remove your computer’s cover. If you have a
laptop, check the information from the manufacturer to find out if there is a panel you can remove
to access the hard disk.
Unplug all cables connected to the hard disk, and then remove the hard disk. Pay attention to which
cables you unplug, since you will plug the same cables into the new hard disk. If there are any
screws holding in the hard disk, you'll need a small screwdriver to unscrew them. Many hard disks
slide in and out of the case on rails. If you have questions, check the information that came with
your computer.
Insert the new hard disk and connect it to the same cables that are in the same places as the hard
disk you removed. One cable connects the disk to the computer’s power supply, and the other cable
connects the disk to the computer’s motherboard.
To Add a New Internal Hard Disk (without removing an existing disk)
Turn off your computer, disconnect the power, and remove your computer’s cover. If you have a
laptop, check the information from the manufacturer to find out if there is a panel you can remove
to access the hard disk.
Insert the new hard disk into an empty hard disk bay in your computer case. You might need a
small screwdriver to screw the disk into your case. Different cases have different ways of holding
hard disks. Many slide in and out of the case on rails.
Connect one cable from the computer’s power supply to the power connector on the back of the
hard disk.
Depending on what type of hard disk you have, connect the IDE cable or SATA cable from the back
of the disk to the IDE or SATA connector on the computer’s motherboard. IDE cables are wide and
flat with large connectors, while SATA cables are thin with small connectors. For more information,
check the information that came with the hard disk.
Preparing to Use a New Hard Disk
If you've installed your new hard disk correctly, your computer should recognize it. When you turn
on your computer, the basic input/output system (BIOS) should automatically detect the new hard
disk.
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If you plan to use the new hard disk as the primary partition that contains Windows, then you'll
have to install Windows on the disk before you can use your computer. You'll need a Windows 7
installation disc to do this. For more information, search Help and Support for "Installing and
reinstalling Windows."
If you plan to use the new hard disk as a secondary disk (one that does not contain Windows), you
should be able to see the new hard disk drive the next time you start your computer and log on to
Windows. After Windows starts, click the Start button, click My Computer, and then look for your
new drive. The letter assigned to the drive will depend on your computer’s configuration. If you
don't see the new hard disk drive, try looking for it in Computer Management.
Click to open Computer Management. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
In the left pane, under Storage, click Disk Management, and then look for the new drive.
You'll probably have to format the hard disk before you can use it. Follow these same instructions to
format an old hard disk that contains data you want to erase.
If your computer doesn't recognize the new hard disk, double-check the installation instructions that
came with the hard disk. If you have additional questions, go to the manufacturer's website.
Note: You can divide a new hard disk into more than one partition. Each partition on the hard
disk can be formatted and assigned a drive letter.
Install a Scanner
There are two ways to install a scanner in this version of Windows. The method you choose
depends on whether you want to connect the scanner directly to your computer (called a local
scanner), or use a scanner that's shared on a network.
Installing a Local Scanner
Most scanners sold today connect to your computer via a universal serial bus (USB) cable.
Don't plug it in yet! Some scanners require you to install driver software before connecting the USB
cable, so always follow the setup instructions that came with your device.
If your USB scanner didn't come with specific setup instructions, plug it in to your computer and
Windows should automatically install it. If it's an older model, you might have to install it manually.
Install or Remove A Modem
Usually, Windows will find, and then automatically install, the necessary drivers when you install a
modem. However, if Windows can't find or install the correct driver, you might need to install the
modem manually.
To Manually Install a Modem
Note: You might need to provide information, such as your country or region and any special
phone dialling rules, in the Location Information dialog box before you can access the Phone and
Modem dialog box.
Click the Modems tab.
Click Add, and then follow the instructions in the Add Hardware Wizard. If you are prompted for an
administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.

13
To Remove a Modem
If Windows automatically installs the wrong driver, or if you have problems with your modem, you
can remove it.
Click to open Phone and Modem.
Note: You might need to provide information, such as your country or region and any special
phone dialling rules, in the Location Information dialog box before you can access the Phone and
Modem dialog box.
Click the Modems tab.
Select the modem you want to remove, and then click Remove.
Install a Printer
There are several ways to connect a printer to your PC. Which option you choose depends on the
device itself, and whether you're at home or at the office.
Always consult the information that came with your model for specific instructions.
Local Printers
The most common way to install a printer is to connect it directly to your computer. This is known
as a local printer.
If your printer is a universal serial bus (USB) model, Windows should automatically detect and
install it when you plug it in.
If it's an older model that connects using the serial or parallel port, you might have to install it
manually.
To Install (Add) a Local Printer
1. Click to open Devices and Printers.
2. Click Add a printer.
3. In the Add Printer wizard, click Add a local printer.
4. On the Choose a printer port page, make sure that the Use an existing port button and the
recommended printer port are selected, and then click Next.
5. On the Install the printer driver page, select the printer manufacturer and model, and then
click Next.
 If your printer isn't listed, click Windows Update, and then wait while Windows
checks for additional drivers.
 If none are available and you have the installation CD, click Have Disk, and then
browse to the folder where the printer driver is located. (For additional help, consult
the printer manual.)
6. Complete the additional steps in the wizard, and then click Finish.
Tips: You can print a test page to make sure the printer is working correctly. If you've installed
the printer but it doesn't work, check the manufacturer's website for troubleshooting information
or driver updates.
Network Printers
In the workplace, many printers are network printers. These connect directly to a network as a
stand-alone device. Inexpensive network printers are also made for the home. The network printer
can be shared by all network users to print their documents and other files.
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To Install a Network, Wireless, or Bluetooth Printer
If you're trying to add a network printer at the office, you'll usually need the name of the printer. If
you can't find it, contact your network administrator.
1. Click to open Devices and Printers.
2. Click Add a printer.
3. In the Add Printer wizard, click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer.
4. In the list of available printers, select the one you want to use, and then click Next.
5. If prompted, install the printer driver on your computer by clicking Install driver. If you are
prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide
confirmation.
6. Complete the additional steps in the wizard, and then click Finish.
Tips: Available printers can include all printers on a network, such as Bluetooth and wireless
printers or printers that are plugged into another computer and shared on the network. You
might need permission to install some printers. You can confirm whether the printer is working
by printing a test page.
Removing a Printer
If you'll no longer be using a printer, you can remove it from the Devices and Printers folder.
To delete a printer
1. Click to open Devices and Printers.
2. Right-click the printer that you want to remove, click Remove device, and then click Yes.
If you can't delete the printer, right-click it again, click Run as administrator, click Remove
device, and then click Yes. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
Notes: If you have a multi-function or all-in-one printer, you can often remove the printer from
Devices and Printers without affecting other device functions. So, for example, you might
continue to see a scanner or fax icon for the device. You can't uninstall a printer if you have
unfinished jobs in your print queue. Either delete the jobs, or wait until Windows has finished
printing them. Once the queue is clear, Windows will remove the printer.
Connect to a Projector
You can connect your computer to a projector to give a presentation on a large screen.
The instructions below describe how to connect to a projector by plugging a display cable into a
video port on your computer. This is the most common way to connect a projector.
You can also connect to some projectors (called network projectors) over a network. This allows you
to give a presentation over a network if you aren't in the same room, or even the same building, as
the projector. To see if your projector has this network capability, check the information that came
with the projector or contact the manufacturer.
To Connect to a Projector

15
Make sure the projector is turned on, and then plug the display cable from the projector into a
video port on your computer.
Note: Projectors use VGA or DVI cables. You must plug the cable into a matching video port on
your computer. Although some computers have both types of video ports, most laptops just have
one type. Some projectors can be connected to a USB port on your computer with a USB cable.
Click to open Control Panel.
In the search box, type projector, and then click Connect to a projector.
(To use a keyboard shortcut instead of Control Panel, press the Windows logo key +P).
Select how you want your desktop to be displayed:
Computer only (This shows your desktop only on your computer screen.)
Duplicate (This shows your desktop on both your computer screen and a projector.)
Extend (This extends your desktop from your computer screen to a projector.)
Projector only (This shows your desktop only on a projector.)
Note: You can use this same procedure to connect your computer to a monitor instead of a
projector.
Connect a Microphone to Your Computer
You can connect a microphone to your computer by using one of the jacks on the front, back, or
side of your computer. These jacks directly connect to your computer's sound card or sound
processor.
Many desktop computers also have a microphone jack (in pink), which is often on the front or
back/rear side of the computer. Most laptops don't have line-in or line-out jacks, but usually have
microphone and headphone jacks located on the front or side of the laptop.
If you don't hear any sounds coming from an audio device you've plugged in to one of the jacks on
your computer, check to make sure the jack is not muted. To do so, follow the instructions below.
To Connect a Microphone to Your Computer
After you've plugged a microphone into a microphone jack on your computer and turned it on (if
the microphone has an on button), follow these steps.
1. Click to open Sound.
2. Click the Recording tab, click Microphone, and then click Properties.
3. Click the Levels tab and make sure the Mute button looks like this. If the button looks like
this, click it to turn on sound for this connection, and then click Apply.
4. (Optional) To listen to microphone sounds through your speakers or headphones, click the
Listen tab, click the Listen to this device check box, and then click OK.
Note: You can change the line-in volume on the Levels tab. Select the slider under Line In, drag
it right or left to increase or decrease the volume of your audio device, and then click OK. Try
this if you don't hear any sound coming from your microphone.
Install, View, and Manage Your Devices
When you want to see all the devices connected to your computer, use one of them, or troubleshoot
one that isn't working properly, open the Devices and Printers folder.
16
To Open the Devices and Printers Folder
Click to open Devices and Printers.
The Devices and Printers folder gives you a quick view of devices connected to your computer.
What’s in the Devices and Printers Folder?
Devices displayed in the Devices and Printers folder are typically external devices you can connect
to or disconnect from your computer through a port or network connection. Your computer is also
displayed.
Devices listed include:
1. Portable devices you carry with you and occasionally connect to your computer, such as
mobile phones, portable music players, and digital cameras.
2. All devices you plug into a USB port on your computer, including external USB hard drives,
flash drives, webcams, keyboards, and mice.
3. All printers connected to your computer, which include printers connected by USB cable, the
network, or wirelessly.
4. Wireless devices connected to your computer, including Bluetooth devices and Wireless USB
devices.
5. Your computer.
6. Compatible network devices connected to your computer, such as network-enabled scanners,
media extenders, or Network Attached Storage devices (NAS devices).
Note: The Devices and Printers folder can only display network devices that are able to connect
to your computer. To check the compatibility of a network device, try adding it to your
computer from the Devices and Printers folder. If it doesn't appear in the list of devices you can
connect to, check the information that came with the device or go to the manufacturer's
website.
What’s not in the Devices and Printers Folder?
The Devices and Printers folder doesn't display:
1. Devices installed inside your computer case, such as internal hard drives, disc drives, sound
cards, video cards (graphics cards), memory (RAM), processors, and other internal computer
components.
2. Speakers connected to your computer with conventional speaker wires. (USB and wireless
speakers can be displayed.)
3. Certain older devices, such as keyboards and mice connected through a PS/2 or serial port.

Note: To find devices that are connected to your computer but aren't listed in the Devices and
Printers folder, look in Device Manager. Device Manager Lists all the hardware installed inside
your computer as well as devices connected externally. Device Manager is primarily for advanced
computer users and does not display icons for your devices. You must be logged on as an
administrator to make any changes to device settings in Device Manager.
What you can do with the Devices and Printers folder
The Devices and Printers folder allows you to perform many tasks, which vary depending on the
device. Here are the main tasks you can do:
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 1. Add a new wireless or network device or printer to your computer.
2. View all the external devices and printers connected to your computer.
3. Check to see if a specific device is working properly.
4. View information about your devices, such as make, model, and manufacturer, including
detailed information about the sync capabilities of a mobile phone or other mobile device.
5. Perform tasks with a device.
 When you right-click a device icon in the Devices and Printers folder, you can select
from a list of tasks that vary depending on the capabilities of the device. For example,
you might be able to see what's printing on a network printer, view files stored on a
USB flash drive, or open a program from the device manufacturer. For mobile devices
that support the new Device Stage feature in Windows, you can also open advanced,
device-specific features in Windows from the right-click menu, such as the ability to
sync with a mobile phone or change ringtones.
6. Take steps to fix devices that aren't working properly.
Troubleshoot a device with a problem
Right-click a device or computer with the yellow warning icon, click Troubleshoot, wait while the
troubleshooter tries to detect problems (this may take several minutes), and then follow the
instructions.
Formatting Disks
Disk formatting is the process of preparing a data storage device such as a hard disk drive, solid-
state drive, floppy disk or USB flash drive for initial use. In some cases, the formatting operation may
also create one or more new file systems.
There are two types of disk formatting; they include low-level formatting and high level formatting
Low-level formatting: The first part of the formatting process that performs basic medium
preparation is often referred to as "low-level formatting". Partitioning is the common term for the
second part of the process, making the data storage device visible to an operating system.
High level formatting: The third part of the process, usually termed "high-level formatting" most
often refers to the process of generating a new file system. In some operating systems all or parts of
these the three processes can be combined and the term "format" is understood to mean an
operation in which a new disk medium is fully prepared to store files.
As a general rule, formatting a disk leaves most if not all existing data on the disk medium; some or
most of which might be recoverable with special tools. Special tools can remove user data by a
single overwrite of all files and free space.
Formatting Hard Disks
Hard disks are the primary storage devices on your computer; they need to be formatted before you
can use them. When you format a disk, you configure it with a file system so that Windows can
store information on the disk. Hard disks in new computers running Windows are already formatted.
If you buy an additional hard disk to expand the storage of your computer, you might need to
format it.
Storage devices such as USB flash drives and flash memory cards usually come preformatted by the
manufacturer, so you probably won't need to format them. CDs and DVDs, on the other hand, use
18
different formats from hard disks and removable storage devices. You format a hard disk, usually,
only when adding additional storage to your computer. If you install a new hard disk on your
computer, it must be formatted with a file system, such as NTFS, before Windows can store files on
it.
Warning: Formatting erases any existing files on a hard disk. If you format a hard disk that has
files on it, the files will be deleted.
Create and Format a Hard Disk Partition
Disk partitioning refers to create logical divisions to a hard disk. To create a partition or volume (the
two terms are often used interchangeably) on a hard disk, you must be logged in as an
administrator, and there must be either unallocated disk space or free space within an extended
partition on the hard disk.
If there is no unallocated disk space, you can create some by shrinking an existing partition, deleting
a partition, or by using a third-party partitioning program.
To Create and Format a New Partition (Volume)
1. Click to open Computer Management. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
2. In the left pane, under Storage, click Disk Management.
3. Right-click an unallocated region on your hard disk, and then click New Simple Volume.
4. In the New Simple Volume Wizard, click Next.
5. Type the size of the volume you want to create in megabytes (MB) or accept the maximum
default size, and then click Next.
6. Accept the default drive letter or choose a different drive letter to identify the partition, and
then click Next.
7. In the Format Partition dialog box, do one of the following:
o If you don't want to format the volume right now, click Do not format this volume,
and then click Next.
o To format the volume with the default settings, click Next.
8. Review your choices, and then click Finish.
Note: When you create new partitions on a basic disk, the first three will be formatted as
primary partitions. Beginning with the fourth, each one will be configured as a logical drive
within an extended partition.
To Format an Existing Partition (Volume)
Warning: Formatting a volume will destroy any data on the partition. Be sure to back up any data
you want to save before you begin.
1. Click to open Computer Management. If you are prompted for an administrator password or
confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
2. In the left pane, under Storage, click Disk Management.
3. Right-click the volume that you want to format, and then click Format.
4. To format the volume with the default settings, in the Format dialog box, click OK, and then
click OK again.
Notes
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 o You cannot format a disk or partition that is currently in use, including the
partition that contains Windows.
o The Perform a quick format option will create a new file table, but will not fully
overwrite or erase the volume. A quick format is much faster than a normal format,
which fully erases any existing data on the volume.
Format a CD or DVD
Before you can burn files to a CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc, the disc must first be prepared using a
process called formatting. There are several ways to format a disc. Your choice of format determines
which computers and other devices will be able to read the disc.
1. Insert a recordable or rewritable disc into your computer's CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc burner.
2. In the AutoPlay dialog box that appears, click Burn files to disc using Windows Explorer.
3. Type a name for your disc in the Disc title box.
4. Click one of the following formatting options:
o Like a USB flash drive
The disc will use the Live File System format.
o With a CD/DVD player
The disc will use the Mastered format.
5. Click Next to prepare the disc.
Now you can burn files to your disc using whichever method you selected.
Erase a CD or DVD
Rewritable CDs (for example, CD-RW discs) and rewritable DVDs (for example, DVD-RW,
DVD+RW, or DVD+RAM) can be erased and written to many times. After you erase a rewritable
CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc, you can format the disc and burn files to it again.
You can erase all the files at one time on a rewritable disc, such as CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW,
or DVD-RAM discs. You can do this for discs that use either the Live File System or Mastered disc
format. The following steps for erasing a disc won't work for recordable discs, such as CD-R, DVD-
R, or DVD+R discs.
1. Insert the rewritable disc, such as a CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, or DVD-RAM disc, into
your computer's CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc burner.
2. Click to open Computer.
3. In Windows Explorer, click the CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc burner icon.
4. On the toolbar, click Erase this disc, and then follow the steps in the wizard.
To Delete One or More Files on a Disc
If you have a rewritable disc (such as a CD-RW or DVD-RW disc) or recordable disc (such as a CD-
R or DVD-R disc) formatted using the Live File System, you can delete one, some, or all the files on
the disc.
1. Insert the recordable or rewritable disc into your computer's CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc
burner.
2. Click to open Computer.
3. Double-click the CD, DVD, or Blu-ray Disc burner icon in Windows Explorer to view the
files on the disc.
4. Select the files or folders that you want to delete.

20
 To select more than one file, press and hold the Ctrl key, and then click the files you want to
delete.
5. Press the Delete key.
Format a Floppy Disk
To save information to a blank floppy disk, you must first format the disk. You can also format a
previously used disk, which erases all existing information on the disk.
1. Insert the floppy disk into your computer’s floppy disk drive.
2. Right-click Floppy Disk Drive and then click Format. If you are prompted for an administrator
password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation. In order to accomplish
this task you must have logged in as with administrator account.
Note: Most new computers don't have floppy disk drives. If you don't see Floppy Disk Drive
listed in the My Computer folder, check to see if your computer actually has a floppy disk drive.
If you aren't sure, check your computer specifications or contact the computer manufacturer.
3. In the Format Floppy Disk Drive dialog box, do any of the following:
 Type an optional volume label in the Volume label box. The volume label is the
name of the disk and can be up to 11 characters long, with letters and numbers only.
 To speed up the formatting process by skipping the disk damage check, select the
Quick Format check box.
 To create a disk that can be used to start your computer, select the Create an
MS-DOS startup disk check box.
4. Click Start to format the floppy disk.
Warning: Formatting a floppy disk erases all information currently on that disk.
Formatting Disks and Drives: Frequently Asked Questions
Hard disks, the primary storage devices on your computer, need to be formatted before you can use
them. When you format a disk, you configure it with a file system so that Windows can store
information on the disk. Hard disks in new computers running Windows are already formatted. If
you buy an additional hard disk to expand the storage of your computer, you might need to format
it.
Storage devices such as USB flash drives and flash memory cards usually come preformatted by the
manufacturer, so you probably won't need to format them. CDs and DVDs, on the other hand, use
different formats from hard disks and removable storage devices.
Warning: Formatting erases any existing files on a hard disk. If you format a hard disk that has
files on it, the files will be deleted.
Here are answers to some common questions about formatting disks and drives.
When do I need to format a disk or drive?
Usually, only when adding additional storage to your computer. If you install a new hard disk on
your computer, it must be formatted with a file system, such as NTFS, before Windows can store
files on it.
What do I need to do to format a hard disk?

21
Before formatting a hard disk, you must first create one or more partitions on it. After you've
partitioned the hard disk, you can format each partition. (The terms volume and partition are often
used interchangeably.) You can partition the hard disk so it contains a single volume or several
volumes. Each volume is assigned its own drive letter. For more information, see Create and format
a hard disk partition.
What file system should I use?
For this version of Windows, the best choice for hard disks is NTFS. Some previous versions of
Windows required FAT32, so there are a few circumstances, such as a multi-boot computer, where
FAT32 might be required.
What's a quick format?
Quick format is a formatting option that creates a new file table on a hard disk but does not fully
overwrite or erase the disk. A quick format is much faster than a normal format, which fully erases
any existing data on the hard disk.
What are partitions and volumes?
A partition is an area of a hard disk that can be formatted and assigned a drive letter. On a basic
disk (the most common type of disk) a volume is a formatted primary partition or logical drive. (The
terms volume and partition are often used interchangeably.) Your system partition is typically
labelled with the letter C. Letters A and B are reserved for removable drives or floppy disk drives.
Some computers have hard disks that are partitioned as a single partition, so your whole hard disk is
represented by the letter C. Other computers might have an additional partition that contains
recovery tools, in case the information on your C partition becomes damaged or unusable.
How do I create more partitions?
You can create more partitions or volumes only if the hard disk contains unallocated space
(unformatted space that is not part of an existing partition or volume). To create unallocated space,
you can shrink a volume, or use a third-party partitioning tool.
How do I add a new hard disk?
If you're adding an internal hard disk, refer to the information that came with the new hard disk. If
you're installing an external hard disk that is connected by a USB cable, this version of Windows
should recognize the hard disk.
What does reformatting my hard disk do?
Reformatting refers to formatting a hard disk or partition that already has been formatted or that
contains data. Reformatting a disk deletes all data on the disk.
In some older versions of Windows, reformatting a hard disk and then reinstalling Windows was
sometimes recommended as a method for fixing a serious computer problem. Reformatting would fix
the problem at the expense of deleting everything on the computer. You would then have to reinstall
your programs by using the original installation files or discs, and then restore all of your personal
files, such as documents, music, and pictures, from backups that you had made beforehand.
Why do I get an error when I try to reformat my hard disk?

22
You can't reformat a disk or partition that is currently in use, including the partition that contains
Windows. This is a safety feature so that you can't delete Windows by accident. To reformat your
computer's hard disk and reinstall Windows, restart your computer using the Windows installation
disc (this is commonly known as booting from the installation disc). During the Setup process, you
can repartition and reformat your hard disk and then reinstall Windows. The process will erase your
files and programs, so be sure to back up your data and program files before you begin.
SYSTEM INSTALLATION
Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plug-in), is the act of
making the program ready for execution or running on a computer. Because the process varies for
each program and each computer, programs (including operating systems) often come with an
installer, a specialized program responsible for doing whatever is needed for their installation.
Some computer programs can be executed by simply copying them into a folder stored on a
computer and executing them. Other programs are supplied in a form unsuitable for immediate
execution and therefore need an installation procedure. Once installed, the program can be
executed again and again, without the need to reinstall before each execution. Common operations
performed during software installations include:
1. Making sure that required system requirements are present
2. Checking for existing versions of the software
3. Creating or updating program files and folders
4. Adding configuration data such as configuration files, Windows registry entries or
environment variables
5. Making the software accessible to user, for instance by creating links, shortcuts or bookmarks.
6. Configuring components that run automatically, such as daemons or Windows services
7. Performing product activation

Types of Installations
Type of Description
installation
Attended This is the most common form of installation. An installation process usually
installation needs a user who attends it to make choices, such as accepting or declining
an end-user license agreement (EULA), specifying preferences such as the
installation location, supplying passwords or assisting in product activation. In
graphical environments, installers that offer a wizard-based interface are
common. Attended installers may ask users to help mitigate the errors. For
instance, if the disk in which the computer program is being installed was full,
the installer may ask the user to specify another target path.
Silent Installation Silent Installation is the Installation that does not display messages or windows
during its progress. "Silent installation" is not the same as "unattended
installation", all silent installations are unattended but not all unattended
installations are silent. The reason behind a silent installation may be
convenience or subterfuge. Malware is always installed silently.
Unattended This is the Installation that is performed without user interaction during its
Installation progress or with no user present at all. An unattended installation either does
not require the user to supply anything or has received all necessary input
prior to the start of installation. Such input may be in the form of command
23
 line switches or an answer file, a file that contains all the necessary
parameters. Windows XP is an example of an operating system that can be
installed with an answer file. In unattended installation, it is assumed that there
is no user to help mitigate errors. For instance, if the installation medium was
faulty, the installer should fail the installation, as there is no user to fix the
fault or replace the medium. Unattended installers may record errors in a
computer log for later review.
Headless Installation performed without using a computer monitor connected. In
Installation attended forms of headless installation, another machine connects to the target
machine (for instance, via a local area network) and takes over the display
output. Since a headless installation does not need a user at the location of the
target computer, unattended headless installers may be used to install
computer software on multiple machines at the same time.
Scheduled or It is an installation process that runs on a preset time or when a predefined
automated condition transpires, as opposed to an installation process that starts explicitly
installation on a user's command. For instance, a system administrator willing to install a
later version of a computer program that is being used can schedule that
installation to occur when that program is not running. An operating system
may automatically install a device driver for a device that the user connects.
(See plug and play.) Malware may also be installed automatically.
Clean installation A clean installation is one that is done in the absence of any interfering
elements such as old versions of the computer program being installed or
leftovers from a previous installation. In particular, the clean installation of an
operating system is an installation in which the target disk partition is erased
before installation. Since the interfering elements are absent, a clean
installation may succeed where an unclean installation may fail or may take
significantly longer.
Network Network installation is an installation of a program from a shared network
installation resource. This may simply be a copy of the original media but software
publishers which offer site licenses for institutional customers may provide a
version intended for installation over a network.
Installer
An installation program or installer is a computer program that installs files, such as applications,
drivers, or other software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically made to install the files
they contain; other installers are general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the software
package to be installed.
Installers for Microsoft Windows include Windows Installer, a software installation component.
Additional third party commercial tools for creating installers for Windows include InstallShield
The differences between a package management system and an installer are:
Package management system Installer
Usually part of an operating Each product comes bundled with its own installer.
system.
Uses one installation database. Performs its own installation, sometimes recording
24
 information about that installation in a registry.
Can verify and manage all Works only with its bundled product.
packages on the system.
One package management Multiple installer vendors.
system vendor.
One package format. Multiple installation formats.
Installing Operating Systems
Before you are able to use a computer, the computer system must have been installed with an
operating system (Microsoft Windows XP) and without it no activity can be performed or other
program cannot run.
The Preparations you should make before installing Windows
You need to Do these things before you start; to save time and help you avoid problems during
installation:
1. Update your antivirus program, run it, and then disable it. After you install Windows,
remember to renew the antivirus program, or install new antivirus software that works with
Windows the operating system you installed.
2. Back up your files. You can back up files to an external hard disk, a DVD or CD, or a
network folder. For more information about backing up your files, search for "back up" in
Help and Support.
3. Connect to the The Internet. Make sure your The Internet connection is working so that you
can get the latest installation updates. These updates include security updates and hardware
driver updates that can help with installation. If you don't have an The Internet connection,
you can still upgrade or install Windows.
You need these items during the installation process:
 The Windows installation disc CD/DVD.
 Your product key. You can find your product key (a 25 character code) on your computer or
on the installation disc holder inside the Windows package. A product key sticker looks
similar to this:
PRODUCT KEY: XXXXX-XXXXX-XXXXX-XXXXX-XXXXX
7HCHR-2Y7MW-7RCRH-WMYDY-Y22CT
If you do not find a product key, go to the Microsoft website to see examples of product key
stickers.
 Your computer name, if your computer is currently connected to a network.
Start Windows from a CD or DVD
You might need to start Windows from the installation CD or DVD if:
 You want to install or reinstall Windows.
 You want to recover Windows from a serious error.
If your computer won't start Windows at all, you can access system recovery options from the
Windows installation disc that can help you get Windows running again.
To start Windows from a CD or DVD

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 1. Turn on your computer, insert the Windows installation CD or DVD, and then restart your
computer.
2. Press any key when prompted to do so, (press any key to boot from a CD)and then follow
any instructions that appear.
3. When the Install Windows page appears, click Install now to begin the installation process or
click Repair your computer to access system recovery options.
4. Follow the instructions. To complete the installation process
If the Install Windows page does not appear
If the Install Windows page does not appear and you aren't asked to press a key to start (or "boot")
from CD or DVD, you might have to specify that your computer use its CD or DVD drive as the first
start-up device. To do this, you need to change settings in the computer's basic input/output system
(BIOS).
Warning
 Be careful when changing BIOS settings. The BIOS interface is designed for advanced users,
and it's possible to change a setting that could prevent your computer from starting correctly.
1. Turn on your computer, insert the Windows installation disc, and then restart your computer.
2. Newer computers often display a start-up (or boot) menu. On the start-up menu, select "BIOS
setup," or "BIOS settings," or something similar.
Procedures vary depending on the BIOS manufacturer. Usually, you must press a key (such
as F2, F12, Delete, Esc) or a key combination immediately after you turn on your computer
but before Windows starts. For more information, check the information that came with your
computer or go to the computer manufacturer's website.
3. The BIOS setup screen appears. On the BIOS setup screen, select the option called "Boot
order," or something similar.
4. Select your CD or DVD drive as the first start-up device, save the setting changes, and then
exit the BIOS.
Restart your computer, and then start Windows from the installation CD or DVD as previously
described.
Installing Application and Utility Software
Boot-strapper
During the installation of computer programs it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or
package manager itself. To make this possible, a technique called bootstrapping is used. The
common pattern for this is to use a small executable file (e.g. setup.exe) which updates the installer
and starts the real installation after the update. This small executable is called boot-strapper.
Sometimes the boot-strapper installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping
process too.
Install a Program (an application)
Installing Microsoft Office suite
You're not limited to using the programs that came with your computer—you can buy new
programs on CD or DVD or download programs (either for free or for a fee) from the Internet.
Installing a program means adding it to your computer. After a program is installed, it appears in
your Start menu in the All Programs list. Some programs might also add a shortcut to your desktop.

26
You can do a lot with the programs and features included in Windows, but you'll probably want to
install other programs.
Typically, programs are installed from a CD or DVD, from the Internet, or from a network. If you
want to uninstall or make changes to a program already installed on your computer,
To install a program from a CD or DVD
Insert the disc into your computer and follow the instructions on your screen. If you are prompted
for an administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation.
Many programs installed from CDs or DVDs launch an installation wizard for the program
automatically. In these cases, the AutoPlay dialog box will appear and you can choose to run the
wizard. For more information, see AutoPlay: frequently asked questions.
If a program doesn't begin to install, check the information that came with the program. This
information will likely provide instructions for installing the program manually. If you cannot access
the information, you can also browse through the disc and open the program setup file, usually
called Setup.exe or Install.exe.
To install a program from the Internet
1. In your web browser, click the link to the program.
2. Do one of the following:
o To install the program immediately, click Open or Run and follow the instructions on
your screen. If you are prompted for an administrator password or confirmation, type
the password or provide confirmation.
o To install the program later, click Save and download the installation file to your
computer. When you are ready to install the program, double-click the file and follow
the instructions on your screen. This is a safer option because you can scan the
installation file for viruses before you proceed.
Note: When downloading and installing programs from the Internet, be sure you trust the
publisher of the program and the website that is offering the program.
Uninstalling software
Uninstall or change a program
You can uninstall (remove) a program from your computer if you no longer use it or if you want to
free up space on your hard disk. You can use the Programs and Features to uninstall programs or to
change a program's configuration by adding or removing certain options.
Click to open Programs and Features from the control panel.
Select a program you want remove or change, and then click Uninstall. Some programs include the
option to change or repair the program in addition to uninstalling it, but many simply offer the
option to uninstall. To change a program, click Change or Repair. If you are prompted for an
administrator password or confirmation, type the password or provide confirmation. Open the
control panel and click add or remove programs. Look for the program you want to remove and
click change or uninstall.
Installing Device Drivers
A driver is software that allows your computer to communicate with hardware or devices. Without
drivers, the hardware you connect to your computer—for example, a video card or a printer—won't
work properly.
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In most cases, drivers come with Windows or you can find them by going to Windows Update in
Control Panel and checking for updates. If Windows doesn't have the driver you need, you can
usually find it on a disc that came with the hardware or device you want to use, or on the
manufacturer's website.
You can have Windows automatically download recommended drivers and detailed information for
your devices. This is a good way to make sure all your hardware works properly.
Drivers and information
Windows can find and download two kinds of updates for devices connected to your computer:
Drivers
A driver is software that allows your computer to communicate with hardware devices. Without
drivers, the devices you connect to your computer—for example, a mouse or external hard drive—
won't work properly. Windows can automatically check if there are drivers available for new
devices that you connect to your computer.
For hardware that you've connected to your computer in the past, updated drivers might become
available at a later date; but those drivers aren't installed automatically. To install these optional
updates, go to Windows Update in Control Panel, check for updates, and then view and install
driver updates that are available for your computer.
Information
Using Device Manager, you can view and update the device drivers installed on your computer,
check to see if hardware is working properly, and modify hardware settings
COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes. It
is a logical, systematic search for the source of a problem so that it can be solved, and so the
product or process can be made operational again. Troubleshooting is needed to develop and
maintain complex systems where the symptoms of a problem can have many possible causes.
Troubleshooting requires identification of the malfunction(s) or symptoms within a system. Then,
experience is commonly used to generate possible causes of the symptoms. Determining which
cause is most likely is often a process of elimination – (eliminating potential causes of a problem).
Finally, troubleshooting requires confirmation that the solution restores the product or process to its
working state.
In general, troubleshooting is the identification of, or diagnosis of "trouble" in the management flow
of a corporation or a system caused by a failure of some kind. The problem is initially described as
symptoms of malfunction, and troubleshooting is the process of determining and remedying to the
causes of these symptoms.
Any unexpected or undesirable behaviour is a symptom. Troubleshooting is the process of isolating
the specific cause or causes of the symptom. Frequently the symptom is a failure of the product or
process to produce any results. (Nothing was printed, for example).
Troubleshooting in Control Panel contains several troubleshooting programs that can automatically
fix some common problems with your computer, such as problems with networking, hardware and
devices, using the web, and program compatibility. Although troubleshooters aren't designed to fix
every problem, they are a useful thing to try first, as they can often save you time and effort.
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Computer Alerts and Error Messages
What is a runtime error?
A runtime error is a software or hardware problem that prevents a program from working correctly.
Runtime errors might cause you to lose information in the file you're working on, cause errors in the
file (corrupt the file) so you can't work with it, or prevent you from using a feature. Unlike stop
errors, runtime errors don't typically cause Windows or a program to stop working.
Runtime errors can occur if you are running two software programs that aren't compatible, if your
computer has memory problems, or if the computer has been infected with malicious software. If a
runtime error keeps occurring, follow these steps:
1. Install the latest updates for Windows and for the program displaying the error. Note that the
update for the program might be listed as an optional update on the Windows Update page.
2. Update and run your antivirus software. Windows doesn't come with antivirus software, but
Action Center can often monitor the antivirus software that you or your computer
manufacturers have installed.
3. Make sure your computer has at least the minimum amount of random access memory
(RAM) required to run the program that is displaying the error. Look for the program
requirements online or in the packaging information. To learn more about computer memory
requirements.
What is CMOS?
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor, or CMOS, typically refers to a battery-powered memory
chip in your computer that stores start-up information. Your computer's basic input/output system
(BIOS) uses this information when starting your computer.
CMOS-related error messages could be caused by a faulty or discharged battery. The battery can
become discharged if your computer has been turned off for a very long time. Because your CMOS
settings are specific to your computer's hardware, Microsoft can't provide specific instructions for
changing them.
What is program compatibility?
Program compatibility is a mode in Windows that lets you run programs written for earlier versions
of Windows. Most programs written for Windows Vista also work in this version of Windows, but
some older programs might run poorly or not run at all. If an older program doesn't run correctly,
start the Program Compatibility troubleshooter to simulate earlier versions of Windows.
Malicious software (malware)
The terms malicious software and malware refer to programs that pose a security or privacy risk by
demonstrating illegal, viral, fraudulent, or malicious behaviour. For example, viruses, worms, and
Trojan horses are malicious software
What is spyware?
Spyware is software that can install itself or run on your computer without providing you with
adequate notice, consent, or control. Spyware might not display symptoms after it infects your
computer, but many types of spyware or unwanted programs can affect how your computer runs.
For example, spyware can monitor your online behaviour or collect information about you

29
(including personally identifiable or other sensitive information), change settings on your computer,
or cause your computer to run slowly.
How can I prevent spyware from infecting my computer?
1. Run up-to-date antispyware software. Windows Defender, which ships with this version of
Windows, helps prevent spyware and other potentially unwanted software or adware from
installing itself or running on your computer. It can automatically find and remove spyware
that might already be installed.
2. Keep your computer up to date. Microsoft often releases security updates to help prevent
spyware from being installed without your knowledge.
3. Most new antivirus programs have spyware protection, and should be kept up to date as
well.
4. We recommend that you turn on Windows Update, and that you update your spyware and
antivirus programs regularly.
5. Review license agreements before installing software. When you visit websites, don't
automatically agree to download anything the site offers. If you download free software, such
as file sharing programs or screen savers, read the license agreement carefully. Look for
clauses that say you must accept advertising and pop-ups from the company, or that the
software will send certain information back to the software publisher.
How do I remove spyware and other unwanted software?
The best way to remove spyware is to run up-to-date antispyware software that can monitor software
that is trying to install itself on your computer, and also scan for and remove potentially unwanted
software that might already be installed.
Computer Lights
What is a sensor?
Sensors are hardware components that can provide your computer with information about your
computer's location, surroundings, and more. Programs on your computer can access information
from sensors, and then store or use it to help you with everyday tasks or to improve your computer
experience.
There are two types of sensors:
1. Sensors that are built in to your computer
2. Sensors that are connected to your computer by a wired or wireless connection
Some examples of sensors include a location sensor, such as a GPS receiver, that can detect your
computer's current location. A program could then use that location to provide you with information
about nearby restaurants or driving directions to your next destination. A light sensor installed on
your computer could detect the light in your surroundings, and then adjust the screen brightness to
match it.
BIOS: frequently asked questions
Here are answers to some common questions about basic input/output system (BIOS).
What is BIOS is a program built into personal computers that starts the operating system
BIOS? when you turn on your computer. It is also referred to as system firmware. BIOS is
30
 part of your computer's hardware and is separate from Windows.
Do I need No, BIOS doesn't need to be managed and you don't need to change any settings.
to do Advanced users might choose to change certain settings, such as the order the
anything computer searches devices when starting.
with BIOS?
What kind You can view general information about your computer's BIOS in System
of BIOS Information.
does my Click to open System Information.
computer Click System Summary in the left pane, and then look under BIOS Version/Date in
have? the right pane to view the BIOS manufacturer, version number, and the date the
BIOS was released. For specific information about the BIOS used by your computer,
check the information that came with your computer or go to the computer
manufacturer's website.
How do Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) refers to a chip inside your
CMOS and computer that saves your BIOS settings. As a result, the terms CMOS and BIOS are
ACPI relate sometimes used interchangeably. Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
to BIOS? (ACPI) is an industry standard that defines power management features and other
configuration information for computers. Some previous versions of BIOS don't
support ACPI, and so the computer might not successfully enter advanced power
modes such as sleep or hibernate. For more information, check the information that
came with your computer or go to the computer manufacturer's website.
How do I Procedures vary depending on the BIOS manufacturer. Usually, you must press a
access my key (such as F2, F12, Delete, or Esc) or a key combination immediately after you
computer's turn on your computer before Windows starts. For more information, check the
BIOS? information that came with your computer or go to the computer manufacturer's
website.
How do I Procedures vary depending on the BIOS manufacturer. If you think you need to
update update your BIOS, check the information that came with your computer or go to the
BIOS? computer manufacturer's website.
Warning
Be careful when changing BIOS settings. The BIOS interface is designed for
advanced users, and it's possible to change a setting that could prevent your
computer from starting correctly.
Updating BIOS should only be done if necessary (to solve a compatibility problem,
for example). It can be a complicated process, and if an error occurs, your computer
could be rendered inoperable. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions
exactly.
System Freeze and Bugs
A software bug is the common term used to describe an error, flaw, mistake, failure, or fault in a
computer program or system that produces an incorrect or unexpected result, or causes it to behave
in unintended ways. Most bugs arise from mistakes and errors made by people in either a program's
source code or its design, and a few are caused by compilers producing incorrect code. A program
that contains a large number of bugs, and/or bugs that seriously interfere with its functionality, is
said to be buggy. Reports detailing bugs in a program are commonly known as bug reports, fault
reports, problem reports, trouble reports, change requests, and so forth.
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Bugs trigger errors that can in turn have a wide variety of ripple effects, with varying levels of
inconvenience to the user of the program. Some bugs have only a subtle effect on the program's
functionality, and may thus lie undetected for a long time. More serious bugs may cause the
program to crash or freeze. Others qualify as security bugs and might for example enable a
malicious user to bypass access controls in order to obtain unauthorized privileges.
System freeze due to fatal error has
Common types of computer bugs
Arithmetic 1. Division by zero
bugs 2. Arithmetic overflow or underflow
3. Loss of arithmetic precision due to rounding or numerically unstable algorithms
Logic bugs 1. Infinite loops and infinite recursion
2. Off by one error, counting one too many or too few when looping
Syntax bugs Use of the wrong operator, such as performing assignment instead of equality test.
For example, in some languages x=5 will set the value of x to 5 while x==5 will
check whether x is currently 5 or some other number. In simple cases often warned
by the compiler; in many languages, deliberately guarded against by language
syntax
Resource 1. Null pointer dereference
bugs 2. Using an uninitialized variable
3. Using an otherwise valid instruction on the wrong data type (see packed
decimal/binary coded decimal)
4. Access violations
5. Resource leaks, where a finite system resource such as memory or file handles
are exhausted by repeated allocation without release.
6. Buffer overflow, in which a program tries to store data past the end of allocated
storage. This may or may not lead to an access violation or storage violation.
These bugs can form security vulnerability.
7. Excessive recursion which though logically valid causes stack overflow
Multi- 1. Deadlock, where task A can't continue until task B finished, but at the same
threading time, task B can't continue until task A finishes.
programming 2. Race condition, where the computer does not perform tasks in the order the
bugs programmer intended.
3. Concurrency errors in critical sections, mutual exclusions and other features of
concurrent processing. Time-of-check-to-time-of-use (TOCTOU) is a form of
unprotected critical section.
Interfacing 1. Incorrect API usage
bugs 2. Incorrect protocol implementation
3. Incorrect hardware handling
Performance 1. Too high computational complexity of algorithm
bugs 2. Random disk or memory access
Team 1. Un-propagated updates; e.g. programmer changes "myAdd" but forgets to
working change "mySubtract", which uses the same algorithm. These errors are mitigated
bugs by the Don't Repeat Yourself philosophy.
2. Comments out of date or incorrect: many programmers assume the comments
accurately describe the code
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 3. Differences between documentation and the actual product
Why won't my computer turn on or off quickly?
If your computer seems to shut down slowly (or not at all) or start up slowly, or if it doesn't enter
power-saving modes, it's possible that a program or device driver is interfering with Windows power
settings. You can use Performance Information and Tools to try to detect these programs or device
drivers.
To check for performance issues
1. Click to open Performance Information and Tools.
2. In the left pane, click Advanced tools.
3. In Advanced Tools, under Performance issues, click any issues that are listed.
4. Read the information in the dialog box that appears to learn which programs or drivers are
causing problems.
If a program or driver prevents your computer from turning on quickly
You can try the following tasks to fix the problem:
1. Manage the programs that run at start-up. Some programs start automatically when you start
Windows. Too many of these programs opening at the same time can slow down your
computer. To disable these programs from start-up and improve performance, use Windows
Defender. For more information, see Stop a program from running automatically when
Windows starts.
2. Check with the manufacturer of the program or driver for an update. A newer version of the
program might include a resolution to the problem.
If a program or driver prevents your computer from turning off quickly
You can try the following tasks to fix the problem:
1. Close the program before shutting down. It's possible that the problem occurs only if the
program is running. Try closing the program before shutting down Windows, and then see if
your computer turns off properly.
2. Check with the manufacturer of the program or driver for an update. A newer version of the
program might include a resolution to the problem.
If these options don't solve the problem, then the program or driver might be incompatible with
Windows. If you installed the program or device yourself and you no longer use it, consider
removing the device, or uninstalling the program or driver.
System Performance
Ways to improve your computer's performance
Performance Information and Tools, the Windows Experience Index, and ReadyBoost all offer ways
to help improve the performance of your computer.
Tasks that can help improve performance
Tasks in the left pane of Performance Information and Tools can help you improve your computer's
performance.
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To open Performance Information and Tools
Task Description
Adjust visual Optimize performance by changing how menus and windows appear.
effects
Adjust Indexing options can help you find what you're looking for quickly and easily on
indexing your computer. You can search more efficiently by narrowing your search to
options focus on those files and folders that you commonly use.
Adjust power Change power-related settings so that your computer resumes from power-saving
settings settings more efficiently, and adjust battery usage for portable computers.
Open Disk This tool deletes unnecessary or temporary files on your hard disk so you can
Cleanup increase the amount of storage space you have.
Advanced Access advanced system tools, such as Event Viewer, Disk Defragmenter, and
tools System Information, that system administrator and IT professionals often use to
solve problems. You can also view notifications about performance-related issues
and what to do about them.
View details about your computer's capability
The Windows Experience Index measures the capability of your computer's hardware and software
configuration and expresses this measurement as a number called a base score. A higher base score
generally means that your computer will perform better and faster than a computer with a lower
base score, especially when performing more advanced and resource-intensive tasks.
COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS
Introduction to Computer Communication
Computer and Communications networks are key infrastructures of the information society with high
socio-economic value as they contribute to the correct operations of many critical services (from
healthcare to finance and transportation). The Internet is the core of today's computer-
communication infrastructures. This has transformed the Internet, from a robust network for data
transfer between computers, to a global, content-rich, communication and information system where
contents are increasingly generated by the users, and distributed according to human social
relations. Next-generation network technologies, architectures and protocols are therefore required to
overcome the limitations of the legacy The Internet and add new capabilities and services. The
future The Internet should be ubiquitous, secure, resilient, and closer to human communication
paradigms.
Computer Communications is a peer-reviewed international journal that publishes high-quality
scientific articles (both theory and practice) and survey papers covering all aspects of future
computer communication networks (on all layers, except the physical layer), with a special attention
to the evolution of the Internet architecture, protocols, services, and applications.
Term Used in Computer Communication
Importance of computer communication
Limitations of Computer Communications
NETWORKS
Introduction to Computer Networks
What is a Computer Network?
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A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computers and other hardware
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where
at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing
in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. A network is a group of
devices connected to each other for communication. Networks may be classified into a wide variety
of characteristics: the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale,
topology, benefit, and organizational scope.
Computing networking is the activity of interlinking various computers communication to facilitate
sharing of resources.
Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a
computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. Well-known communications
protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area
networks, and the Internet protocol suite, which defines a set of protocols for Internetworking, i.e.
for data communication between multiple networks, as well as host-to-host data transfer, and
application-specific data transmission formats. In computer networks there are basically two types of
computers, server and client.
Computer networks have had a profound effect on the way we communicate with each other today,
and have made our life easier. From the World Wide Web to your local office LAN, computers have
become indispensable in our daily life, and networks have become a norm in most businesses. If
networks are designed and configured keeping in mind its pros and cons, they are the best piece of
facility you could ever have.
Characteristics or Properties of Computer Networks
Feature or property Description
Facilitate Using a computer network, people can communicate efficiently and easily
communications via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, voice telephone, video telephone
calls, and video conferencing.
Permit sharing of In a network environment, authorized users may access data and
files, data, and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of
other types of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an
information important feature of many networks.
Share network and In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and
computing use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a
resources document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses
computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
May be insecure A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer
viruses and other data threats on devices connected to the network or to
prevent these devices from normally accessing the network (denial of
service).
May interfere with Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio
other technologies communication, e.g., amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile
access technologies such as ADSL and VDSL.
May be difficult to A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. And It may also be
set up very costly to set up an effective computer network in a large organization
or company.

35
Advantages of Computer Networks
Computer networks have had a profound effect on the way we communicate with each other today,
and have made our life easier. From the World Wide Web to your local office LAN, computers have
become indispensable in daily life, and networks have become a norm in most businesses. If
networks are designed and configured keeping in mind its pros and cons, they are the best piece of
facility you could ever have.
1. File Sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that; it allows file sharing and remote file
access. For instance, A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can
easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. This saves
him/her the hassle of carrying a storage device every time data needs to be transported from
one system to another. Further, a central database means that anyone on that network can
access a file and/or update it. If files are stored on a server and all of its clients share that
storage capacity, then it becomes easier to make a file available to multiple users.
2. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is another important benefit of a computer network. For instance, if there
are seventeen employees in an organization, each having his/her own computer, they will
require seventeen modems and seventeen printers if they want to use the resources at the
same time. A computer network on the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the
provision of resource sharing. All the computers can be interconnected using a network, and
just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all seventeen users. And
the resource of shared folders can as well be availed and accessed by all employees.
3. Inexpensive Set-Up
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory
requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses. A particular software
can be installed only once on the server and made available across all connected computers
at once. This saves the expense of buying and installing the same software as many times for
as many users.
4. Flexible handling
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files. This offers
flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.
A network also allows the network administrator to choose which user on the network has
what specific permissions to handle a file. For example, the network administrator can allot
different permissions to User A and User B for File XYZ. According to these permissions, User
A can read and modify File XYZ, but User B cannot modify the file. The permission set for
User B is read-only. This offers immense flexibility against unwarranted access to important
data.
5. Increased Storage Capacity
Because there is more than one computer on a network which can easily share files, the
issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. For example, A standalone computer
might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network, the memory

36
 of different computers can be used in such a case. One can also design a storage server on
the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
6. Increased communication capabilities: computer networking provides several different
collaboration tools that can be used to communicate between computer networks.
7. Speed of data accessibility
Networks provide a very rapid/faster method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to disks, then carrying or sending the disks from
one computer to another. This method of transferring files in this manner is very time-
consuming.
8. Cost effective
The network version of most software programs are available at considerable savings when
compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a
program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be
done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.

9. Centralized Software Management

One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a school is the fact that all of the
software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend
time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout
the building.

10. Resource Sharing

Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone computers. Most
schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM
players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network,
they can be shared by many users.
11. Flexible Access
School networks allow students to access their files from computers throughout the school.
Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area
of the network, and then go to the media center after school to finish their work. Students
can also work cooperatively through the network.
12. Security
Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not
have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to unauthorized users.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
1. Security Concerns
One of the major drawback of computer networks is the security issues that are involved. If a
computer is a standalone computer, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data
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 theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a hacker can get unauthorized access by using
different tools of a network. In case of big organizations, various network security software
need to be used to prevent theft of any confidential and classified data.
2. Easy spread of computer Virus and Malware
If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus; there is a possible threat for the
other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily, because of the
inter-connectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with common resources are
the perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply. Similarly, if malware gets accidentally
installed on the central server, all clients in the network that are connected to that server will
get affected automatically.
3. Lack of Robustness
If the main file server of a computer network breaks down, the entire system becomes
useless. If there is a central linking server or a bridging device in the network, and it fails, the
entire network will come to a standstill. In case of big networks, the file server should be a
powerful computer, which often makes setting up and maintaining the system doubly
expensive.
4. Needs an Efficient Handler/administration
The technical skills and know-how required to operate and administer a computer network is
considerably high. Any user with just the basic skills cannot do this job. Also, the
responsibility that comes with such a job is high, since allotting username-passwords and
permissions to users in the network are also the network administrator's duties.
Similarly, network connection and configuration is also a tedious task, and cannot be done
by an average user who does not have advanced knowledge of computers and/or networking.
5. Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client users lack
any freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder how a client
user wants to use his own computer.
6. High initial setup Costs
Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs can be
substantial, and the installation may require the services of a technician. The initial costs
of establishing are very high; this makes network installation an expensive task.
7. It very expansive o enhance network security system

8. It Requires Administrative Time

Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools
have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary
administrative support.

38
 9. File Server May Fail
Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the
files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this happens, the
entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.
10. It may be insecure
A computer network may be infiltrated by computer hackers, virus, worms and other
threats.
COMMUNICATION/network MEDIA
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software technology
that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as electrical cable (Home
PNA, power line communication, G.hn), optical fibre, and radio waves (wireless LAN). A well-
known family of communication media is collectively known as Ethernet. It is defined by IEEE 802
and utilizes various standards and media that enable communication between devices.
Communication/network media refers to the methods or technology used for computers to be able to
communicate each other. Computer networks use different types of communication media and they
include; twisted pair cabling, coaxial cabling, and optical fibres.
The Ethernet
Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). Ethernet
uses various standards and mediums that enable communication between devices. It mostly used in
local area network connections using hubs, network switches,
bridges, routers among others.
The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signalling
variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet. The original
10BASE5 Ethernet used coaxial cable as a shared medium. Later the
coaxial cables were replaced by twisted pair and fibre optic links in
conjunction with hubs or switches. Data rates were periodically
increased from the original 10 megabits per second to 100 gigabits per second.
Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. Each
frame contains source and destination addresses and error-checking data so that damaged data can
be detected and re-transmitted. As per the OSI model Ethernet provides services up to and including
the data link layer.

 Wireless LAN Technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use
radio waves or infrared signals as transmission medium.
 G.hn technology uses existing home wiring such as coaxial cable, phone lines and power
lines to crate a high speed local area network of up to 1gigabits per second
WIRED TECHNOLOGIES
This involves physical connection of computer networking devices. It is most common technology
used to establish or set computer networks.
The order of the following wired technologies is roughly from slowest to fastest transmission speed.
Twisted pair wire
39
 Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for
telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper
wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires
consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs.
Computer networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by
IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be
utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two
wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and
electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges
from 2 kilo bits per second to 10 mega bits per second.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for
use in various scenarios.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for
local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminium wire surrounded by an insulating
layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself is surrounded by a

conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize

interference and distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more
than 500 million bits per second.
An Optical Fibre
An optical fibre is a glass fibre, which consists of one or more glass filaments
wrapped in protective layers that carry data by means of pulses of light. It
uses pulses of light to transmit data. Some advantages of optical fibres over
metal wires are less transmission loss, immunity from electromagnetic
radiation, and very fast transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second.
One can use different colours of lights to increase the number of messages
being sent over a fibre optic cable. It transmits light which can travel over
extended distances. They are not affected by electromagnetic radiations. The transmission speed may
reach trillion of bits per second. It is extremely faster as compared to coaxial cable and twisted pair
wire.
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

40
A network can be one computer connected to the Internet, or two or more computers connected to
each other (and possibly to the Internet as well). In a wireless (Wi-Fi) network, the computers are
connected by radio signals instead of wires or cables. Advantages of wireless networks include
mobility and the absence of unsightly wires. Disadvantages can include a slower connection speed
than a wired network and interference from other wireless devices, such as cordless phones.
Terrestrial Microwave
Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite
dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range,
which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations
are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.
Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings,
towers, hills and mountains peaks to transmit radio waves.

Communications Satellites
The satellites communicate via microwave
radio waves, which are not deflected by the
Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically in
geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km
(22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-
orbiting systems are capable of receiving and
relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies.
The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area. It uses several
radio communications technologies.
Wireless LANs
Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any
kind. It is a method by which telecommunications network
and enterprise, installations avoid the costly process of
cabling to a building or as a connection between various
equipment locations. Wireless networks are generally
implemented and administered using a transmission system
called radio waves.
Wireless local area networks use a high frequency radio
technology similar to digital cellular and low frequency
radio technology. Wireless LANs use spreads spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in the line of transmitting.
Radio and Spread Spectrum Technologies
41
Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a
low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable
communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavour
of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology.
Infrared communication
Infrared communication can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than 10 meter
peer to peer (face to face) without any obstacle in the line of transmission. In most cases, line-of-
sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of
wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing
off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves
a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.
The Telephone Network
The telephone network is originally built to handle voice communications. However, it is also an
integral part of computer communications. Data can be sent over the telephone network using dial-
up lines or dedicated lines.
Dedicated lines:
A dedicated line is a permanent connection between two communications devices. Dedicated lines
can be analog or digital. Digital lines have faster transfer rates than analog lines. Popular types of
digital dedicated lines are ISDN lines, DSL lines, cable TV lines, T-carrier lines and ATM
Types of Computer Networks
Networks are often classified by their physical or organizational extent or their purpose. Usage, trust
level, and access rights differ between these types of networks.
Type of Description, Characteristics and Functions
Network
Local Area A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers
Network in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office
(LAN) building using network media. Ethernet, twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the
two most common technologies currently used to build LANs.

42
 A conceptual diagram of a local area network using 10BASE5 Ethernet
Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other,
with one generally connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for
Internet access. Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links
with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to
manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate
traffic with VLANs. Larger LANs also contain a wider variety of network devices
such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.
LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services,
or by tunneling across the Internet using virtual private network technologies.
Characteristics of LANs
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area
Networks), include their
(i) Higher data transfer rates,
(ii) smaller geographic range,
(iii) LANs can be connected to Wide area network by using routers.
Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology is designed to connect devices without
wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission
medium.
Wide Area A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large
Network geographical area such as city, country, or spans even intercontinental
(WAN) distances, using a communications channel that combines many types of media
such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves.
Business and government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees,
clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence,
this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its
daily function regardless of location. The The Internet can be considered a
WAN as well, and is used by businesses, governments, organizations, and
individuals for almost any purpose imaginable.
43
 Connection technology options: Several options are available for WAN
connectivity
Option Description Advantag Disadvantag
es es
Leased Point-to-Point connection between Most Expensive
Line two computers or Local Area secure
Networks (LANs)
Circuit A dedicated circuit path is created Less Call Setup
Switching between end points. Best example Expensive
is dialup connections
Packet Devices transport packets via a Shared
Switching shared single point-to-point or media across
point-to-multipoint link across a link
carrier the Internetwork. Variable
length packets are transmitted over
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) or
Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC)
Cell Relay Similar to packet switching, but Best for Overhead
uses fixed length cells instead of simultane can be
variable length packets. Data is ous use of considerable
divided into fixed-length cells and voice and
then transported across virtual data
circuits
Transmission rates usually range from 1200bit/s to 24Mbit/s, some connections
such as ATM and Leased lines can reach speeds greater than 156Mbit/s. Typical
communication links used in WANs are telephone lines, microwave links &
satellite channels.
Personal Area A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication
Network among computer and different information technological devices close to one
person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal
computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video
game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a
PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with
USB and Fire wire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and
infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.
Home Area A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN which is used for
Network communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually
a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and
mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of The Internet
access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL) provider.
Storage Area A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to
Network consolidated, block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage
devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to
servers so that the devices appear like locally attached devices to the operating
44
 system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are
generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices.
Campus Area A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an
Network interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking
equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fibre, copper
plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the campus tenant /
owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.). In the case of a university
campus-based campus network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus
buildings including, for example, academic colleges or departments, the
university library, and student residence halls.
Backbone A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that
Network interconnects various pieces of network, providing a path for the exchange of
information between different LANs or sub networks. A backbone can tie
together diverse networks in the same building, in different buildings in a
campus environment, or over wide areas. A large corporation which has many
locations may have a backbone network that ties all of these locations together.
For example, a server cluster that needs to be accessed by different departments
of a company, which are located around the world, would benefit from the use
of a backbone network.
Metropolitan A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually
Area Network spans a city or a large campus.
Enterprise An enterprise private network is a network built by an enterprise to interconnect
Private various company sites, e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops,
Network in order to share computer resources.
Virtual Private A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the
Network links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some
larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link
layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunnelled through the larger
network when this is the case. One common application is secure
communications through the public The Internet, but a VPN need not have
explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs,
for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities
over an underlying network with strong security features.
VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level
agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider.
Virtual Virtual Network defines data traffic flows between virtual machines within a
Network hypervisor in a virtual computing environment. Virtual Networks may employ
virtual security switches, virtual routers, virtual firewalls and other virtual
networking devices to direct and secure data traffic.
The An Internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common
Internetwork routing technology using routers. The Internet is an aggregation of many
connected the Internetworks spanning the Earth.
Intranet An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools
such as web browsers and file transfer applications that are under the control of
a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to all
but specific, authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal
45
 network of an organization. A large intranet will typically have at least one web
server to provide users with organizational information.
Extranet An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a single organization or
entity and also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other
usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities—a company's
customers may be given access to some part of its intranet—while at the same
time the customers may not be considered trusted from a security standpoint.
Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or
other type of network, although an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it
must have at least one connection with an external network.
The Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic,
corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is a world wide network of
networks that connects any organisation into a common information society. It
is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite.
Networking Cables
Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other network devices or to connect
two or more computers to share network resources such as printer, the Internet, scanner etc.
Different types of network cables like Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are
used depending on the network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a
few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the
Internet).
While wireless may be the wave of the future, most computer networks today still utilize cables to
transfer signals from one point to another.
Network Cable Description
Type
Twisted Pair Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two wires (the forward and
return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of
cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. For
instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables
and crosstalk between neighbouring pairs. This type of cable is used for
home and corporate Ethernet networks. Twisted pair cables consist of two
insulated copper wires. There are three types of twisted pair cables: Shielded
Cabling Twisted Pair, Unshielded Twisted Pair and Foiled.
Fibre Optic cable An optical fibre cable consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several
layers of protective material. The outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or
PVC. The centre core is made of glass or plastic fibre. The fibre optic cables
transmit light rather than electronic signals, thus eliminating the problems of
electrical interference. It is expensive but has higher bandwidth and transmits
data over longer distances!
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a
tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many
coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term
coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a
geometric axis.
46
 One advantage of coax over other types of radio transmission line is that in
an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only
in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial
cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the
power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable
also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic
interference.
Applications of Coaxial cables
1. Coaxial cables can be installed for transmission and distribution of
cable television signals.
2. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency
signals.
3. They are applied in feed lines connecting radio transmitters and
receivers with their antennas.
4. They are also used Computer network (Internet) connections, and

Coaxial lines confine the electromagnetic wave to area inside the cable,
between the centre conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in
the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the
conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits)
without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports
without inducing unwanted currents in them and though. The most common
use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of
multiple megahertz. Although in most homes, new technologies (such as the
ITU-T G.hn standard) open the possibility of using home coaxial cable for
high-speed home networking applications (Ethernet over coax). In the 20th
century they are used carried long distance telephone connections.
Patch Cable A patch cable is an electrical or optical cable used to connect one electronic
or optical device to another for signal routing. Devices of different types (e.g.
a switch connected to a computer, or a switch connected to a router) are
connected with patch cords. It is a very fast connection speed. Patch cords
are usually produced in many different colours so as to be easily
distinguishable, and are relatively short, perhaps no longer than two metres.
Ethernet An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect
Crossover Cable computing devices together directly where they would normally be
connected via a network switch, hub or router, such as directly connecting
two personal computers via their network adapters. Some newer Ethernet
devices support the use of cross-over cables in the place of patch cables.
Power Lines Although power wires are not designed for networking applications, new
technologies like Power line communication allows these wires to also be
used to interconnect home computers, peripherals or other networked
consumer products. The ITU-T adopted Recommendation G.hn/G.9960 as
the first worldwide standard for high-speed power line communications. G.hn
also specifies communications over phone lines and coaxial wiring.
47
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network Topology
A network topology describes the arrangement of systems on a computer network. It defines how the
computers, or nodes, within the network are arranged and connected to each other. Some common
network topologies include star, ring, line, bus, and tree configurations. These topologies are defined
below:
1. Star - One central note is connected to each of the other nodes on a network. Similar to a
hub connected to the spokes in a wheel.
2. Ring - Each node is connected to exactly two other nodes, forming a ring. Can be visualized
as a circular configuration. Requires at least three nodes.
3. Line - Nodes are arranged in a line, where most nodes are connected to two other nodes.
However, the first and last nodes are not connected like they are in a ring.
4. Bus - Each node is connected to a central bus that runs along the entire network. All
information transmitted across the bus can be received by any system in the network.
5. Tree - One "root" node connects to other nodes, which in turn connect to other nodes,
forming a tree structure. Information from the root node may have to pass through other
nodes to reach the end nodes.
It is helpful for a network administrator to know the pros and cons of different network topologies
when putting together a network. By weighing the benefits of each type, the administrator can
choose the configuration that is most efficient for the network's intended purpose.

What is network topology?

A network topology is the physical or logical layout of the interconnections of the nodes of a
computer network. Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.)
of a computer network. Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various
components, including device location and cable installation, while logical topology shows how
data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their
topologies may be identical. A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the
LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network.
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of various elements (links, nodes,
etc.) of a computer in a computer network design.
Network topology can also refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and
other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network professionals
use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term "topology," you will find
several other terms that are used to define a network's design:
1. Physical layout
2. Design
3. Diagram
4. Map
A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have an
impact on the:
1. Type of equipment the network needs.
2. Capabilities of the equipment.
48
 3. Growth of the network.
4. Way the network is managed.
Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they must be
connected. Most networks use cable to connect one computer to another.
NOTE
Wireless networks connect computers without using cable. However, it is not as simple as just
plugging a computer into a cable connecting other computers. Different types of cable—combined
with different network cards, network operating systems, and other components—require different
types of arrangements.
To work well, a network topology takes planning. For example, a particular topology can determine
not only the type of cable used but also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls.
Topology can also determine how computers communicate on the network. Different topologies
require different communication methods, and these methods have a great influence on the network.
Types of Network Topology
BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single common,
shared cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable. A signal from the source
travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended
recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine
ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is accepted.
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a
straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. It consists of a
single cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of the computers in

the network in a single line.

Figure 1.15 Bus topology network
Communication on the Bus
Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer
and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how computers
communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with three concepts: Sending the signal, Signal
bounce and Terminator.
Sending Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on the
the Signal network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of
49
 computers attached to the bus will affect network performance. The more computers
there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and,
consequently, the slower the network will be. There is no standard way to measure
the impact of a given number of computers on the speed of any given network. The
effect on performance is not related solely to the number of computers. The
following is a list of factors that—in addition to the number of networked
computers—will affect the performance of a network:
1. Hardware capabilities of computers on the network
2. Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
3. Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example) being
run on the network
4. Types of cable used on the network
5. Distances between computers on the network
Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or listen
for data from other computers on the network. They are not responsible for moving
data from one computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not
affect the rest of the network.
Signal Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
Bounce one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted,
it will keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers
from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance
to reach the proper destination address.
Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that
other computers can send data. Both ends of each cable segment on the network
must be plugged into something. For example, a cable end can be plugged into a
computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends not
plugged into something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.
Disrupting Network Communication
A break in the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two pieces or if at least one
end of the cable becomes disconnected. In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not have
a terminator, the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of several
possible reasons why a network will go "down." And the network will not work because it now has
un-terminated cables.
The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone computers; however, as
long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to communicate with each other or otherwise
access shared resources. The computers on the down segment will attempt to establish a
connection; while they do so, workstation performance will be slower.
Network Expansion
As the physical size of the site grows, the network will need to grow as well. Cable in the bus
topology can be extended by one of the two following methods:
1. A component called a barrel connector can connect two pieces of cable together to make a
longer piece of cable (see Figure 1.19). However, connectors weaken the signal and should
50
 be used sparingly. One continuous cable is preferable to connecting several smaller ones
with connectors. Using too many connectors can prevent the signal from being correctly
received.
Figure 1.19 Barrel connectors can be used to combine cable segments
2. A device called a repeater can be used to connect two cables. A repeater actually boosts the
signal before it sends the signal on its way. Figure 1.20 shows a repeater boosting a
weakened signal. A repeater is better than a connector or a longer piece of cable because it
allows a signal to travel farther and still be correctly received.

Figure 1.20 Repeaters connect cables and amplify the signal

Advantages of Bus topology
1. It is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies.
2. Easy to install
3. Well-suited for temporary or small networks not requiring speeds (quick setup), resulting on
faster networks.
4. It is cost effective because it requires only a single cable for connection.
5. There is easy identification of cable faults.
6. Reduced weight due to fewer wires.
7. It is easy to implement and extend.
Disadvantages of Bus Network Topology
1. Only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure
2. If the network cable is terminated on both ends and when without termination data transfer
stop and when cable breaks, the entire network will be down.
3. the high cost of managing the network
4. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network breaks down.
5. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
6. It has always a slower data transfer rate as compared to other topologies
7. It works best with limited number of nodes
8. Only one packet can remain on the bus during one clock pulse
9. Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic (the shared
bandwidth)
10. Limited cable length and number of stations.

Distributed Bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common
transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the
main section of the transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly

51
the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission
medium).
STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY
In this type of topology, each node of the network is connected to
a central node, which is known as hub. The data that is transmitted
between the network nodes passes a cross the central hub. A
distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more
individual star networks. Data on the star network passes through
the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The network switch, hub manages and controls all the
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for data flow.
The star topology is common with twisted pair cables (both STP
and UTP cables). However, it can also be used with coaxial cable or optical fibre cables.
In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralized component
called a hub. Figure 1.21 shows four computers and a hub connected in a star topology. Signals are
transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the network.

Figure 1.21 Simple Star Networks

Advantages of Star Network Topology
1. The star network offers the advantage of centralized resources and management.
2. Because each computer is connected to a central point, If one computer—or the cable that
connects it to the hub—fails on a star network, only the failed computer will not be able to
send or receive network data. The rest of the network continues to function normally.
3. If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other computers
can continue to communicate
4. Error detection and correction is very easy to implement.
5. It has a better performance; whereby it prevents the passing of data packets through an
excessive number of nodes.
6. It is very easy to extend the size of the network.
7. The star topology reduces the chances of network failure by connecting all of the systems to
a central node.
8. There are disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
9. The star network prevents any non-centralised failure from affecting the entire network.
10. The centralised management allows inspection of traffic on the network. This facilitates
analysis of the traffic and detection of undesirable behaviours.
52
Disadvantages of Star Network Topology
1. This topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation.
2. If the central Hub or switch point fails, the entire network goes down. Therefore, it will be
inaccessible.
3. If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to communicate. If a hub is linked
to other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.
4. The performance and scalability of the network depends on the capabilities of the hub or
Ethernet switch.
5. The network transmission is largely dependent on the central hub.
6. Network installation can be very expensive.
7. Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub.
RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there are
no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. The
failure of one computer can have an impact on the entire network.
NOTE: A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's logical topology is the way it
carries signals on the wire.
Token Passing
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series of
bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is passed
from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. Figure 1.23 shows a
token ring topology with the token. The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic

address on the data, and sends it around the ring.

Figure 1.23 A computer grabs the token and passes it around the ring
The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the address on
the data.
The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been
received. After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the
network. The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send data.

53
Advantages of Ring Network Topology
1. The ring topology does not require a central server to mange connectivity between the nodes
2. It facilitates an orderly network operations, where any network client can access information
with others
3. No need to switch on all computers to work with the network
4. Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
5. It has a very orderly network where every devices has access to the token an the opportunity
to transmit
Disadvantages of Ring Network Topology
1. The failure of a single station in the network can render the entire network inoperable.
2. Changes and moves in the stations forming the network affect the network operation.
3. It is much slower as compared to other topologies
4. The network adapter cards are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs
5. One bad port can create problems for the entire network
MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are connected
with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from other nodes. It
is commonly used in wireless networks.
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each
computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling.
This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails,
another will take over the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite
pluses, these networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh
topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Figure 1.24 In a mesh topology, all computers are connected to each other by separate cables
Advantages of Mesh network topology
1. Mesh networks are self and fault tolerant, if a node goes down the data takes another path.
2. Easy extension and modification can be performed in this topology without disrupting other
nodes.
3. It is reliable, because if any of the components fails, there is always another alternative
available. Therefore, data transfer does not get affected.
4. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously.
5. It is capable of withstanding high network traffic.
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 6. This topology is relatively inexpensive to cover large area.
7. Mesh topology is capable of connecting many nodes with ease.
Advantages of Mesh network topology
1. Mesh topology is very expensive as there are redundant connections, therefore is rarely used
in computer networks.
2. It is very expensive to install and implant. Because the overall cost is very high as compared
to other network topologies.
3. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the connections.
4. Routing network traffic can be difficult because of all the different possible routes available
between the nodes.
5. There is no central management and control because the network relies on peer-to-peer
connections.
6. There is high configuration management and control
Network Devices
Hubs
One network component that has become standard equipment in networks is the hub. Figure 1.25
shows a hub as the central component in a star topology.
Active Hubs
Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the same way as a repeater
does. Because hubs usually have eight to twelve ports for network computers to connect to, they are
sometimes called multiport repeaters. Active hubs require electrical power to run.
Passive Hubs
Some types of hubs are passive; examples include wiring panels or punch-down blocks. They act as
connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the signal passes through the hub.
Passive hubs do not require electrical power to run.
Hybrid Hubs
Advanced hubs that will accommodate several different types of cables are called hybrid hubs.
Hub Considerations
Hub-based systems are versatile and offer several advantages over systems that do not use hubs. In
the standard linear-bus topology, a break in the cable will take the network down. With hubs,
however, a break in any of the cables attached to the hub affects only a limited segment of the
network
Hub-based topologies include the following benefits:
1. Wiring systems can be changed or expanded as needed.
2. Different ports can be used to accommodate a variety of cabling types.
3. Monitoring of network activity and traffic can be centralized.
NOTE: Many active hubs have diagnostic capabilities that can indicate whether or not a connection
is working.

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Peer-to-Peer
Many small offices use a peer-to-peer network as described earlier in this chapter in Lesson 2:
Network Configuration. Such a network can be configured as either a physical star or a bus
topology. However, because all computers on the network are equal (each can be both client and
server), the logical topology looks somewhat different. Figure 1.30 shows the logical topology of a
peer-to-peer network.

Point-to-point
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point
topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-to-point
network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand
point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has
been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
Permanent (dedicated)
Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point
communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two
endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is one example of a physical dedicated channel.
Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit.
One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring
only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of
running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be
released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the
studio.
Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up
dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional
telephony.
Basic Hardware Components
Apart from the physical communications media themselves as described above, networks comprise
additional basic hardware building blocks interconnecting their terminals, such as network interface
cards (NICs), hubs, bridges, switches, and routers.
Network A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of
interface computer hardware designed to allow computers to physically access a networking
cards medium. It provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC addresses.
Each Ethernet network interface has a unique MAC address which is usually stored in
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 a small memory device on the card, allowing any device to connect to the network
without creating an address conflict. Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six
octets.
Repeaters A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary
and hubs noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of
an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In
most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs
longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters
work on the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of
time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect
network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network
architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet's
5-4-3 rule). Today, repeaters and hubs have been made mostly obsolete by switches.
Bridges A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2)
of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the
broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all
ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific
ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that
address to that port only.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address
of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source
address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that
port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge
will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
Local bridges: Directly connect LANs
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between
LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks,
largely have been replaced with routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.
Switches A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams between
ports based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in
that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather
than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as
a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of
MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for
devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing
based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer
switches. The term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices
including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic on load or
by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
Routers A router is an Internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by
processing information found in the datagram or packet (The Internet protocol
information from layer 3). In many situations, this information is processed in
conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use
routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the
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 "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however,
no further processing is done for said data).
Firewalls A firewall is an important aspect of a network with respect to security. It typically
rejects access requests from unsafe sources while allowing actions from recognized
ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of stealing/corrupting data, planting
viruses, etc.
Network performance
Network performance refers to the service quality of a telecommunications product as seen by the
customer. It should not be seen merely as an attempt to get "more through" the network. The
Network Performance measures for a circuit-switched network and one type of packet-switched
network, viz. ATM:
1. Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is synonymous
with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network
is performing under heavy traffic loads. Other types of performance measures can include
noise, echo and so on.
2. ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance can be measured by
line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology,
modulation technique and modem enhancements.
There are many different ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is
different in nature and design. Performance can also be modelled instead of measured; one example
of this is using state transition diagrams to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched
network. These diagrams allow the network planner to analyze how the network will perform in
each state, ensuring that the network will be optimally designed.
Factors Affecting Network Performance
Not all networks are the same. As data is broken into component parts (often known frames,
packets, or segments) for transmission, several factors can affect their delivery.
1. Delay: It can take a long time for a packet to be delivered across intervening networks. In
reliable protocols where a receiver acknowledges delivery of each chunk of data, it is
possible to measure this as round-trip time.
2. Packet loss: In some cases, intermediate devices in a network will lose packets. This may be
due to errors, to overloading of the intermediate network, or to intentional discarding of
traffic in order to enforce a particular service level.
3. Retransmission: When packets are lost in a reliable network, they are retransmitted. This
incurs two delays: First, the delay from re-sending the data; and second, the delay resulting
from waiting until the data is received in the correct order before forwarding it up the
protocol stack.
4. Throughput: The amount of traffic a network can carry is measured as throughput, usually in
terms such as kilobits per second. Throughput is analogous to the number of lanes on a
highway, whereas latency is analogous to its speed limit.
These factors, and others (such as the performance of the network signalling on the end nodes,
compression, encryption, concurrency, and so on) all affect the effective performance of a network.

58
In some cases, the network may not work at all; in others, it may be slow or unusable. And because
applications run over these networks, application performance suffers. Various intelligent solutions
are available to ensure that traffic over the network is effectively managed to optimize performance
for all users.
Network Security
In the field of networking, the area of network security consists of the provisions and policies
adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse,
modification, or denial of the computer network and network-accessible resources. Network security
is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator.
Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and programs within
their authority. Network Security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private that
are used in everyday jobs conducting transactions and communications among businesses,
government agencies and individuals.
Network resilience
In computer networking: “Resilience is the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of
service in the face of faults and challenges to normal operation.”
Advantages of Computer Networks
Views of networks
Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share
printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic
location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that
network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area,
and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly
also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies.
Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical
perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers,
bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect the physical media. Logical networks,
called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more physical media. For example, a
common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear
to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology.
Both users and administrators will be aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics
of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest
under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users
(e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited
connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users
outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).
Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and
consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. Especially when money or sensitive information is
exchanged, the communications are apt to be secured by some form of communications security
mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any
access by general The Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN)
technology.

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Forms of Data Transmission
There are two forms of data transmission they include the following; digital data transmission and
analog data transmission
Analog Data transmission
Analog data transmission is the transmission of data in continuous wave form as shown in the figure
below. The telephone system is designed for analog data transmission.
Waves are measured using one or more of the following three characteristics:
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Amplitude
Amplitude of a wave is the signal strength compared to some reference value
Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a
digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of
such channels are copper wires, optical fibres, wireless communication channels, and storage
media. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage,
radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.
While analog transmission is the transfer of a continuously varying analog signal, digital
communications is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are either represented by a
sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission), or by a limited set of
continuously varying wave forms (passband transmission), using a digital modulation method. The
passband modulation and corresponding demodulation (also known as detection) is carried out by
modem equipment. According to the most common definition of digital signal, both baseband and
passband signals representing bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative
definition only considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as
a form of digital-to-analog conversion.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a computer or
a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a phone call or a video signal, digitized into a
bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM) or more advanced source coding
(analog-to-digital conversion and data compression) schemes. This source coding and decoding is
carried out by codec equipment.
Baseband or Passband transmission
The physically transmitted signal may be one of the following:
1. A baseband signal ("digital-over-digital" transmission): A sequence of electrical pulses or light
pulses produced by means of a line coding scheme such as Manchester coding. This is
typically used in serial cables, wired local area networks such as Ethernet, and in optical
fibre communication. It results in a pulse amplitude modulated signal, also known as a pulse
train.
2. A Passband Signal ("digital-over-analog" transmission): A modulated sine wave signal
representing a digital bit-stream. Note that this is in some textbooks considered as analog
transmission, but in most books as digital transmission. The signal is produced by means of a
digital modulation method. The modulation and demodulation is carried out by modem

60
 equipment. This is used in wireless communication, and over telephone network local-loop
and cable-TV networks.
Serial and parallel transmission
Serial transmission
In telecommunications, serial transmission is the sequential transmission of signal elements of a
group representing a character or other entity of data. Digital serial transmissions are bits sent over a
single wire, frequency or optical path sequentially. Because it requires less signal processing and
fewer chances for error than parallel transmission, the transfer rate of each individual path may be
faster. This can be used over longer distances as a check digit or parity bit can be sent along it
easily.
Parallel Transmission
In telecommunications, parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of the signal elements
of a character or other entity of data. In digital communications, parallel transmission is the
simultaneous transmission of related signal elements over two or more separate paths. Multiple
electrical wires are used which can transmit multiple bits simultaneously, which allows for higher
data transfer rates than can be achieved with serial transmission. This method is used internally
within the computer, for example the internal buses, and sometimes externally for such things as
printers, The major issue with this is "skewing" because the wires in parallel data transmission have
slightly different properties (not intentionally) so some bits may arrive before others, which may
corrupt the message. A parity bit can help to reduce this. However, electrical wire parallel data
transmission is therefore less reliable for long distances because corrupt transmissions are far more
likely.
Types of communication channels
 Data transmission circuit
 Simplex
 Half-duplex
 Full-duplex
 Point-to-point
 Multi-drop:
o Bus network
o Ring network
o Star network
o Mesh network
o Wireless network

Asynchronous and synchronous data transmission

Asynchronous transmission
Asynchronous transmission uses start and stop bits to signify the beginning bit ASCII character would
actually be transmitted using 10 bits. For example, "0100 0001" would become "1 0100 0001 0".
The extra one (or zero, depending on parity bit) at the start and end of the transmission tells the
receiver first that a character is coming and secondly that the character has ended. This method of
transmission is used when data are sent intermittently as opposed to in a solid stream. The start and
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stop bits must be of opposite polarity. This allows the receiver to recognize when the second packet
of information is being sent.
Synchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission uses no start and stop bits, but instead synchronizes transmission speeds
at both the receiving and sending end of the transmission using clock signal(s) built into each
component. A continual stream of data is then sent between the two nodes. Due to there being no
start and stop bits the data transfer rate is quicker although more errors will occur, as the clocks will
eventually get out of sync, and the receiving device would have the wrong time that had been
agreed in the protocol for sending/receiving data, so some bytes could become corrupted (by losing
bits). Ways to get around this problem include re-synchronization of the clocks and use of check
digits to ensure the byte is correctly interpreted and received
NETWORK SETUP AND CONFIGURATION
Setup and configure a Small Office/Home network (SOHO)
What you need to set up a home network
The variety of options for home networking can make buying decisions difficult. Before you decide
what hardware to get, you should decide what type of network technology (the way computers in a
network connect to or communicate with one another) to use.
Network Technologies
The most common types of network technology are wireless, Ethernet, HomePNA, and Powerline.
When choosing a network technology, consider the location of your computers and the desired
speed of your network. The costs of these technologies are similar.
Wireless
Wireless networks use radio waves to send information between computers. The three most
common wireless network standards are 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11a. A new standard,
802.11n, is expected to grow in popularity.
Speed 1. 802.11b: transfers data at a maximum rate of 11 megabits per second (Mbps).
Downloading a 10 megabyte (MB) photo from the Internet under optimal conditions
takes about 7 seconds.
2. 802.11g: transfers data at a maximum rate of 54 Mbps. Downloading a 10 megabyte
(MB) photo from the Internet under optimal conditions takes about 1.5 seconds.
3. 802.11a: transfers data at a maximum rate of 54 Mbps. Downloading a 10 megabyte
(MB) photo from the Internet under optimal conditions takes about 1.5 seconds.
4. 802.11n: depending upon the number of data streams the hardware supports,
802.11n can theoretically transmit data at up to 150 Mbps, 300 Mbps, 450 Mbps, or
600 Mbps.
Note: The transfer times listed are under ideal conditions. They aren't necessarily
achievable under normal circumstances because of differences in hardware, web
servers, network traffic conditions, and so on.
Pros 1. It's easy to move computers around because there are no cables.
2. Wireless networks are usually easier to install than Ethernet.

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 Cons 1. Wireless is often slower than the other three technologies.
2. Wireless can be affected by interference from things such as walls, large metal
objects, and pipes. Also, many cordless phones and microwave ovens can interfere
with wireless networks when they're in use.
3. Wireless networks are typically about half as fast as their rated speed under all but
ideal conditions.
Ethernet
Ethernet networks use Ethernet cables to send information between computers.
Speed Ethernet transfers data at up to 10, 100, or 1000 Mbps, depending on the type of cables
used. Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest, with a transfer rate of up to 1 gigabit per second (or
1000 Mbps).
For example, downloading a 10 megabyte (MB) photo from the Internet under optimal
conditions can take about 8 seconds on a 10 Mbps network, about 1 second on a 100
Mbps network, and less than a second on a 1000 Mbps network.
Pros Ethernet networks are inexpensive and fast.
Cons Ethernet cables must be run between each computer and a hub, switch, or router, which
can be time-consuming and difficult when the computers are in different rooms.
HomePNA
HomePNA networks use existing home telephone wires to send information between computers.
Speed HomePNA 2.0 transfers data at up to 10 Mbps. HomePNA 3.0 transfers data at up to 128
Mbps.
For example, downloading a 10 megabyte (MB) photo from the Internet under optimal
conditions can take about 8 seconds on a HomePNA 2.0 network and about 1 second on
a HomePNA 3.0 network.
Pros 1. HomePNA uses the existing telephone wiring in your home.
2. You don't need hubs or switches to connect more than two computers in a
HomePNA network.
Cons You need a phone jack in each room where you want to have a computer, and all jacks
must be on the same phone line.
Powerline
Powerline networks use existing home electrical wiring to send information between computers.
Speed A Powerline network can transfer data at up to 200 Mbps.
For example, downloading a 10 megabyte (MB) photo from the Internet under optimal
conditions can take less than a second on a Powerline network.
Pros 1. Powerline uses the existing electrical wiring in your home.
2. You don't need hubs or switches to connect more than two computers in a Powerline
network.
Cons 1. You need an electrical outlet in each room where you want to have a computer.
2. Powerline networks can be affected by interference and "noise" on the line.
Hardware requirements
There are several kinds of hardware used in home networks:
Network Device Description

63
 Network adapters These adapters (also called network interface cards or NICs) connect
computers to a network so that they can communicate. A network adapter
can be connected to the USB or Ethernet port on your computer or installed
inside your computer in an available Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) expansion slot.
Network hubs and Hubs and switches connect two or more computers to an Ethernet network.
switches A switch costs a little more than a hub, but it's faster.
Routers and Routers connect computers and networks to each other (for example, a router
access points can connect your home network to the The Internet). Routers also enable you
to share a single The Internet connection among several computers. Routers
can be wired or wireless. You don't need to use a router for a wired network
but we recommend it if you want to share an The Internet connection. If you
want to share an The Internet connection over a wireless network, you will
need a wireless router. Access points allow computers and devices to
connect to a wireless network.
Modems Computers use modems to send and receive information over telephone or
cable lines. You will need a modem if you want to connect to the The
Internet. Some cable providers supply a cable modem—either free or for
purchase—when you order cable The Internet service. Modem-and-router
combination devices are also available.
Network cables Network cables connect computers to each other and to other related
(Ethernet, hardware, such as hubs, routers, and external network adapters. HomePNA
HomePNA, and and Powerline adapters are often external and connect to a computer with
Powerline) either Ethernet cables or USB cables, depending on the type of adapter.
This table shows the hardware that you need for each type of network technology.
Technology Hardware How many
Wireless Wireless network adapter One for each computer on your network
(laptops almost always have these built
in)
Wireless access point or router One
(recommended)
Ethernet Ethernet network adapter One for each computer on your network
(desktop computers almost always have
these built in)
Ethernet hub or switch (only needed if One (a 10/100/1000 hub or switch is
you want to connect more than two best and should have enough ports to
computers but not share an The Internet accommodate all computers on your
connection) network)
Ethernet router (only needed if you want One (you might need an additional hub
to connect more than two computers or switch if your router doesn’t have
and share an The Internet connection) enough ports for all of your computers)
Ethernet cables One for each computer connected to the
network hub or switch (10/100/1000 Cat
6 cables are best.

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 Crossover cable (only needed if you One
want to connect two computers directly
to each other and not use a hub, switch,
or router)
HomePNA Home phoneline network adapter One for each computer on your network
(HomePNA)
Ethernet router One, if you want to share an The Internet
connection
Telephone cables One for each computer on your network
(use a standard telephone cable to plug
each computer into a phone jack)
Powerline Powerline network adapter One for each computer on your network
Ethernet router One, if you want to share an The Internet
connection
Electrical wiring in the home One electrical outlet for each computer
on your network
It's a good idea to find out what kind of network adapters your computers have, if any. You might
decide to go with a certain technology because you already have most of the hardware, or you
might decide to upgrade your hardware. A combination of technologies might work best for your
environment. For example, many people use a wireless router, which accommodates both wired
Ethernet connections for desktop computers and wireless connections for laptops.
Setting Up a Home Network
Before you start: To decide what type of network to set up or to find out what hardware and cables
you need, Once you know what type of network you want, and you have the necessary hardware,
there are four steps you might need to take:
1. Install any necessary hardware.
2. Set up an Internet connection (optional).
3. Connect the computers.
4. Run the Set Up a Network wizard (for wireless networks only).
Start by setting up just one computer to make sure the network is working before you try to add
additional computers or devices.
Note: This information is for a broadband connection—usually DSL, cable, or Fiber Optic Service
(FiOS)—to the Internet rather than a dial-up connection. However, you don't need an Internet
connection to set up a network.
Install the Hardware
Install network adapters in any computers that need them, or connect them to the computers.
(Follow the installation instructions in the information that came with each adapter.)
Set up or verify an The Internet connection (optional)
You don't need an Internet connection to set up a network, although most people want to use their
network to share an Internet connection. To set up an Internet connection, you need a cable or DSL
modem and an account with an Internet service provider (ISP).

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If you already have an The Internet connection, you just need to verify that the connection is
working. To do that, open your web browser and go to a website that you don't usually visit. (If you
go to a website that you visit often, some of its WebPages might be stored on your computer and
will display correctly even if your connection is faulty.) If the website opens and you don't get any
error messages, your connection is working.
To Share an Internet Connection
You can share one The Internet connection among two or more network computers. To do that, you
can either use an intermediary device, which is a device located between the Internet connection
and your computer, or set up The Internet Connection Sharing (ICS). Your ISP might charge a fee for
multiple The Internet connections. Ask your ISP for information about this. Use an intermediary
device. You can use a router or a combined router and modem to share an Internet connection. If
you use a router, connect it to both the modem and the computer with the Internet connection, and
then verify your The Internet connection again. If you use a combined router and modem, plug it
into any computer. Check the information that came with the device for more detailed connection
instructions.
Note: The router and modem must be turned on to use the Internet connection from any of the
computers on your network.
Set up ICS. If you want to share an Internet connection without using a router, you can set up ICS
on the computer that's connected to the modem. That computer will need two network adapters:
one to connect to the modem and one to connect to the other computer.
Connect the computers
There are several ways to connect computers—the configuration depends on the type of network
adapters, modem, and The Internet connection that you have. It also depends on whether you want
to share an Internet connection among all the computers on the network.
Ethernet networks
You need a hub, switch, or router to connect computers using an Ethernet connection. To share an
Internet connection, you need to use a router. Connect the router to the computer that's connected
to the modem (if you haven't already done this).
If your home or office is wired for Ethernet connections, set up the computers in rooms that have
Ethernet jacks, and then plug them directly into the Ethernet jacks.
Wireless Networks
For wireless networks, run the Set Up a Network wizard (see below) on the computer attached to
the router. The wizard will walk you through the process of adding other computers and devices to
the network.
Home-PNA networks
For Home-PNA networks, you need a Home-PNA network adapter (usually external) for each
computer and a phone jack in each room where there is a computer. Follow the instructions
provided with the Home-PNA adapters.

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Powerline networks
For Powerline networks, you need a Powerline network adapter (usually external) for each computer
and an electrical outlet in each room where there is a computer. Follow the instructions provided
with the Powerline adapters.
Turn on all computers or devices, such as printers, that you want to be part of your network. If your
network is wired, (Ethernet, HomePNA, or Powerline) it should be set up and ready to use. You
should test your network to make sure that all computers and devices are connected correctly.
Run the Set Up a Network wizard
If your network is wired, you will be connected immediately when you plug in the Ethernet cables.
If your network is wireless, run the Set Up a Network wizard on the computer attached to the
router.
The wizard will walk you through the process of adding other computers and devices to the
network.
Enable sharing on your network
If you want to share files and printers on your network, make sure your network location type is set
to Home or Work and that network discovery and file sharing are turned on.
Test your network
It's a good idea to test your network to make sure that all of the computers and devices are
connected and working properly. To test your network, do the following on each network computer:
Click the Start button, click your user name, and then, in the left pane, click Network.
You should be able to see icons for the computer you are on and all of the other computers and
shared printers on the network.
Note: If you don't see icons in the Network folder, then network discovery and file sharing might be
turned off. It might take several minutes for computers running earlier versions of Windows to
appear in the Network folder.
How do hubs, switches, routers, and access points differ?
Hubs, switches, routers, and access points are all used to connect computers together on a network,
but each of them has different capabilities.
Hubs
Hubs enable computers on a network to communicate. Each computer plugs into the hub with an
Ethernet cable, and information sent from one computer to another passes through the hub. A hub
can't identify the source or intended destination of the information it receives, so it sends the
information to all of the computers connected to it, including the one that sent it. A hub can send or
receive information, but it can't do both at the same time. This makes hubs slower than switches.
Hubs are the least complex and the least expensive of these devices.
Switches
Switches work the same way as hubs, but they can identify the intended destination of the
information that they receive, so they send that information to only the computers that are supposed
to receive it. Switches can send and receive information at the same time, so they can send
information faster than hubs can. If your home network has four or more computers or you want to
use your network for activities that require passing a lot of information between computers (such as
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playing network games or sharing music), you should probably use a switch instead of a hub.
Switches cost a little more than hubs.
Routers
Routers enable computers to communicate and they can pass information between two networks—
such as between your home network and the Internet. This capability to direct network traffic is
what gives the router its name. Routers can be wired (using Ethernet cables) or wireless. If you just
want to connect your computers, hubs and switches work well; however, if you want to give all of
your computers access to the Internet using one modem, use a router or a modem with a built-in
router. Routers also typically provide built-in security, such as a firewall. Routers are more expensive
than hubs and switches.
Access points
Access points (also called base stations) provide wireless access to a wired Ethernet network. An
access point plugs into a hub, switch, or wired router and sends out wireless signals. This enables
computers and devices to connect to a wired network wirelessly. Access points act a lot like cellular
phone towers: you can move from one location to another and continue to have wireless access to a
network. When you connect to the Internet wirelessly using a public wireless network in an airport,
coffee shop, or hotel, you are usually connecting through an access point. If you want to connect
your computers wirelessly and you have a router that provides wireless capability, you don't need
an access point. Access points don't have built-in technology for sharing The Internet connections.
To share an Internet connection, you must plug an access point into a router or a modem with a
built-in router.
Network Operating System
Network Operating System refers to software that implements an operating system of some kind
that is oriented to computer networking. For example, one that runs on a server and enables the
server to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The
network operating system is designed to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), and private network or to other
networks.
Use in routers
Network Operating Systems can be embedded in a router or hardware firewall that operates the
functions in the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model.
Examples:
o JUNOS, used in routers and switches from Juniper Networks,
o Cisco IOS (formerly "Cisco Internetwork Operating System").
o TiMOS, used in routers from Alcatel-Lucent
o VRP (Versatile Routing Platform), used in routers from Huawei
o RouterOS, software which turns a PC or MikroTik hardware into a dedicated router
o ZyNOS, used in network devices made by ZyXEL.
o ExtremeXOS, used in network devices made by Extreme Networks. Also called EXOS.
Peer-to-Peer

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In a peer-to-peer network operating system users are allowed to share resources and files located on
their computers and access shared resources from others. This system is not based with having a file
server or centralized management source. A peer-to-peer network sets all connected computers
equal; they all share the same abilities to use resources available on the network.
 Examples:
o AppleShare used for networking connecting Apple products.
o Windows for Workgroups used for networking peer-to-peer windows computers.
Advantages
 Ease of setup
 Less hardware needed, no server needs to be purchased.
Disadvantages
 No central location for storage.
 Lack of security that a client/server type offers.

Client/Server
Network Operating Systems can be based on a client/server architecture in which a server enables
multiple clients to share resources. Client/server network operating systems allow the network to
centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The server is the centre
of the system, allowing access to resources and instituting security. The network operating system
provides the mechanism to integrate all the components on a network to allow multiple users to
simultaneously share the same resources regardless of physical location.
 Examples:
o Novell Netware
o Windows Server
Advantages
 Centralized servers are more stable.
 Security is provided through the server.
 New technology and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Servers are able to be accessed remotely from different locations and types of systems.
Disadvantages
 Cost of buying and running a server are high.
 Dependence on a central location for operation.
 Requires regular maintenance and updates.
 Security Issues Involved in using a Client/Server Network
 In a client/server network security issues may evolve at three different locations: the client,
the network, and the server. All three points need to be monitored for unauthorized activity
and need to be secured against hackers or eavesdroppers.
The Client
The client is the end user of the network and needs to be secured the most. The client end usually
exposes data through the screen of the computer. Client connections to server should be secured
through passwords and upon leaving their workstations clients should make sure that their
connection to the server is securely cut off in order to make sure that no hackers or intruders are
able to reach the server data. Not only securing the workstations connection to the server is
important but also securing the files on the workstation (client) is important as it ensures that no
hackers are able to reach the system. Another possibility is that of introducing a virus or running
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unauthorized software on the client workstation thus threatening the entire information bank at the
server.
The users themselves could also be a security threat if they purposely leave their IDs logged in or
use easy IDs and passwords to enable hacking. Users may also be sharing their passwords in order
to give the hackers access to confidential data. This can be overcome by giving passwords to each
client and regularly asking clients to change their passwords. Also passwords should be checked for
guess-ability and for their strength and uniqueness.
The Network
The network allows transmission of data from the clients to the server. There are several points on
the network where a hacker could eavesdrop or steal important packets of information. These
packets may contain important confidential data such as passwords or company details. It is
important that these networks are secured properly to keep unauthorized professionals away from all
the data stored on the server. This can be done by;
1. Encrypting important data being sent on the network, however, encryption may not be the
only possible way of protecting networks as hackers can work their way around encryption.
2. Another method could be conducting security audits regularly and ensuring identification and
authorisation of individuals at all points along the network. This should discourage potential
hackers.
3. Making the entire environment difficult to impersonate also makes sure that the clients are
reaching the true files and applications on the server and that the server is providing
information to authorized personnel only.
The Server
The server can be secured by placing all the data in a secure, centralized location that is protected
through permitting access to authorized personnel only. Virus protection should also be available on
server computers as vast amounts of data can be infected. Regular upgrades should be provided to
the servers as the software and the applications need to be updated. Even the entire body of data on
a server could be encrypted in order to make sure that reaching the data would require excessive
time and effort.
THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB
Introduction to the Internet
What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide and to link them into a common global
information society. It is a vast network of networks that consists of millions of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive
range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the
World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.
Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are being
reshaped or redefined by the Internet giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print publishing
are adapting to Web technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has

70
enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, The Internet
forums, and social networking (such as Facebook and Twitter). Online shopping has boomed both
for major retail outlets and small and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the
Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.
The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for
access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions
of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the
Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer organization, called the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core
protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit
organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by
contributing technical expertise.
The Internet Service Terminologies
Web Page A web page is a web document or other web resource that is suitable for
the World Wide Web and can be accessed through a web browser and
displayed on a screen of computer or mobile device. This information is
usually in HTML(Hypertext mark-up language) or XHTML (Extended
hypertext mark-up language) format, and may provide navigation to other
web pages via hypertext links.
Website A website or simply site is a set of related web pages served from a single
web domain. A website is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via
a network such as the Internet or a private local area network through an
Internet/web address known as a Uniform Resource Locator. All publicly
accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web. The
internet comprises millions of different websites which contain vast
information.
Examples of websites include many business sites, parts of news websites,
academic journal websites, gaming websites, file-sharing websites, message
boards, web-based email, social networking websites, websites providing
real-time stock market data, and websites providing various other services
(e.g., websites offering storing and/or sharing of images, files and so forth).
Wiki A wiki is a website which allows its users to add, modify, or delete its
content via a web browser usually using a simplified mark-up language or
a rich-text editor. Wikis are powered by wiki software and created
collaboratively.
Wikis serve many different purposes, such as knowledge management and
note-taking. Wikis can be community websites and intranets. Some permit
control over different functions (levels of access). For example, editing
rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may
permit access without enforcing access control. Other rules may also be
imposed for organizing content. Wikipedia is one of the largest wikis
available.
Videoconferencing Videoconferencing is the conduct of a videoconference (also known as a
video conference or video teleconference) by a set of telecommunication
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 technologies which allow two or more locations to communicate by
simultaneous two-way video and audio transmissions. It has also been
called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware. Videoconferencing
differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference or
multiple locations rather than individuals.
Download In computer networks, to download means to receive data to a local
system from a remote system or to initiate such a data transfer that can be
stored on your hard disk. Downloaded files are available to your local
computer even when disconnected from a remote system on a network or
the Internet.
Examples of a remote system from which a download might be performed
include a web server, FTP server, email server, or other similar systems. A
download can mean either any file that is offered for downloading or that
has been downloaded, or the process of receiving such a file.
In this context, download implies specifically "receive and save" instead of
simply "receive". However, downloading is not the same as "transferring"
(i.e., sending/receiving data between two storage devices would be a
transferral of data, but receiving data from the Internet would be considered
a download).
Upload In computer networks, to upload, can refer to the sending of data from a
local system to a remote system such as a server or another client with the
intent that the remote system should store a copy of the data being
transferred.
Uploaded files will be available to the remote even when disconnected
from the your system.
Remote upload
When there is a transfer of data from a remote system to another remote
system, the process is called "remote uploading". This is used by some
online file hosting services.
Remote uploading is also used in situations where the computers that need
to share data are located on a distant high-speed LAN, and the remote
control is being performed using a comparatively slow dial-up modem
connection.
Without remote uploading functionality, the user would be required to
download the file first to their local host and then upload it to the remote
file hosting server.
Streaming Streaming refers to receiving of data that is used near immediately as it is
received, while the transmission is still in progress and which may not be
stored long-term, whereas in a process described using the term
downloading, this would imply that the data is only usable when it has
been received in its entirety. Increasingly, websites that offer streaming
media or media displayed in-browser, such as YouTube, and which place
restrictions on the ability of users to save these materials to their computers
after they have been received, say that downloading is not permitted.
Uniform Resource A uniform resource locator, abbreviated URL, also known as web address,
Locator (URL) is a specific character string that constitutes a reference to a resource. In
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 most web browsers, the URL of a web page is displayed on top inside an
address bar. An example of a typical URL would be
"http://en.example.org/wiki/Main_Page". A URL is technically a type of
uniform resource identifier (URI).
Every URL consists of the following: the scheme name (commonly called
protocol), followed by a colon, two slashes, then, depending on scheme, a
server name (exp. ftp., www., smtp., etc.) followed by a dot (.) then a
domain name (alternatively, IP address), a port number, the path of the
resource to be fetched or the program to be run.
Teleconference A teleconference or teleseminar is the live exchange and mass articulation
of information among several persons and machines remote from one
another but linked by a telecommunications system. Terms such as audio
conferencing, telephone conferencing and phone conferencing are also
sometimes used to refer to teleconferencing.
The telecommunications system may support the teleconference by
providing one or more of the following: audio, video, and/or data services
by one or more means, such as telephone, computer, telegraph,
teletypewriter, radio, and television.
The Internet teleconferencing
The Internet teleconferencing includes the Internet telephone conferencing,
videoconferencing, web conferencing, and Augmented Reality
conferencing.
The Internet telephony involves conducting a teleconference over the
Internet. One key technology in this area is Voice over The Internet
Protocol (VOIP). Popular software for personal use includes Skype, Google
Talk, Windows Live Messenger and Yahoo! Messenger.
Social Networking A social networking service is an online service, platform, or site that
Service focuses on facilitating the building of social networks or social relations
among people who, for example, share interests, activities, backgrounds, or
real-life connections. A social network service consists of a representation
of each user (often a profile), his/her social links, and a variety of additional
services. Most social network services are web-based and provide means
for users to interact over the Internet, such as e-mail and instant
messaging. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, activities,
events, and interests within their individual networks.
The main types of social networking services are those that contain
category places (such as former school year or classmates), means to
connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a
recommendation system linked to trust. Popular methods now combine
many of these with American-based services such as Facebook, Google+,
and Twitter widely used worldwide.
Network Packet In computer networking, a packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a
packet mode computer network. Computer communications links that do
not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunications
links, simply transmit data as a series of bytes, characters, or bits alone.
When data is formatted into packets, the bitrate of the communication
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 medium can be better shared among users than if the network were circuit
switched.
Hypertext Hypertext is text displayed on a computer screen or other electronic device
with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately
access usually by a mouse click, key press sequence or by touching the
screen. Apart from text, hypertext is sometimes used to describe tables,
images and other presentational content forms with hyperlinks. It enables
an easy-to-use and flexible connection and sharing of information over the
Internet.
Hyperlink In computing, a hyperlink (or link) is a reference to data that the reader can
directly follow, or that is followed automatically. A hyperlink points to a
whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is
text with hyperlinks. A software system for viewing and creating hypertext
is a hypertext system. Hyperlink refers to connections between files or
within files that enable direct movement from one position to another. A
user following hyperlinks is said to navigate or browse the hypertext.
Hypermedia Hypermedia is used as a logical extension of the term hypertext in which
graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks intertwine to create a
generally non-linear medium of information. The World Wide Web is a
classic example of hypermedia. Whereas a non-interactive cinema
presentation is an example of standard multimedia due to the absence of
hyperlinks.
File Transfer File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer
Protocol files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the
Internet.
FTP is built on client-server architecture and uses separate control and data
connections between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate
themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a
username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is
configured to allow it. For secure transmission that hides (encrypts) the
username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured
with SSL/TLS ("FTPS"). SSH File Transfer Protocol ("SFTP") is sometimes also
used instead, but is technologically different.
Login
FTP login utilizes a normal usernames and password scheme for granting
access. The username is sent to the server using the USER command, and
the password is sent using the PASS command. If the information provided
by the client is accepted by the server, the server will send a greeting to
the client and the session will commence. If the server supports it, users
may log in without providing login credentials, but the same server may
authorize only limited access for such sessions.
Webmaster The webmaster is the person in charge of maintaining a Web site. The jobs
of a webmaster include writing HTML for Web pages, organizing the Web
site's structure, responding to e-mails about the Web site, and keeping the
site up-to-date. On some Web sites you might see a phrase that says, "send
dead links and other Web site problems to [email protected]."
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 At times, being a webmaster can be a rather arduous job. I received some
dead links in the mail one time, and let me tell you, it wasn't pretty.
Bandwidth Bandwidth refers to how much data you can send through a network or
modem connection. It is usually measured in bits per second, or "bps." You
can think of bandwidth as a highway with cars travelling on it. The
highway is the network connection and the cars are the data. The wider the
highway, the more cars can travel on it at one time. Therefore more cars
can get to their destinations faster. The same principle applies to computer
data; the more bandwidth, the more information that can be transferred
within a given amount of time.
CAPTCHA A captcha is a challenge-response test that determines whether a user is
human or an automated robot. A typical captcha includes an image of
distorted text and a form field for the user to enter the text. Captchas are
commonly found at the end of website forms, and must be filled out in
order for the form to be submitted. By requiring users to decipher and enter
the captcha text, webmasters can prevent automated programs from
sending spam or other unwanted data through online forms. They are also
very common when creating (Sign Up) an email account for example in
Gmail, Yahoo! Hotmail. Example: "Online forms may include captchas to
prevent automated programs from submitting data."
Client In the computer world, servers have clients. The "client-server" architecture
is common in both local and wide area networks. For example, if an office
has a server that stores the company's database on it, the other computers
in the office that can access the database are "clients" of the server. On a
larger scale, when you access your e-mail from a mail server on the
Internet, your computer acts as the client that connects to the mail server.
The term "client software" is used to refer to the software that acts as the
interface between the client computer and the server. For example, if you
use Microsoft Outlook to check your e-mail, Outlook is your "e-mail client
software" that allows you to send and receive messages from the server.
Isn't exciting how it all works?
Firewall The term "firewall" originally referred to fireproof walls that were designed
to prevent the spread of fire from one room or building to the next. They
were typically made of brick, steel, or another type of inflammable material
that would effectively limit the spread of the fire. In the IT world, firewalls
do not involve any fire or pyrotechnics, but they serve a similar purpose. A
computer firewall limits the data that can pass through it and protects a
networked server or client machine from damage by unauthorized users.
Firewalls can be either hardware or software-based. A router is a good
example of a hardware device that has a built-in firewall. Most routers can
be configured to limit traffic from certain IP addresses or block requests
based on other criteria. Software programs that monitor and restrict external
access to a computer or network can also serve as firewalls. A network
firewall only allows authorized traffic from the Internet to flow in and out
of the network.
Google Drive Google Drive is a service offered by Google that allows you to store and
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 share files online and provides 5 GB of free storage. Additional storage can
be purchased for a monthly fee.
1. The goal of Google Drive is to provide a central place to store your
files online so that you can access them from anywhere. The service
also provides a web-based interface that allows you to organize
your files and search for documents by filename or content.
2. Besides online file storage, Google Drive provides tools for sharing
files and collaborating on projects with other users over the Web.
For example, instead of emailing large attachments, you can send
links to the files from your Google Drive to one or more users. You
can also use the web-based Google Docs applications to create or
edit documents online. When you share a document with other
Google Drive users, everyone can view and edit the document at
the same time.
3. Google Drive allows you to view over 30 file types directly in your
web browser. These include Google's proprietary formats, as well as
other popular file types, such as Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator
documents.
Web Server A computer running that software, assigned an IP address, and connected
to the Internet so that it can provide documents via the World Wide Web.
Also called HOST computer. Web servers are the closest equivalent to
what in the print world is called the "publisher" of a print document.
Localhost "Localhost" refers to the local computer that a program is running on. For
example, if you are running a Web browser on your computer, your
computer is considered to be the "localhost." In the example above, the
two non-local computers must be defined by their IP addresses. The local
machine is defined as "localhost," which gives it an IP address of
127.0.0.1. This is considered a "loopback" address because the information
sent to it is routed back to the local machine. Localhost is often used in
Web scripting languages like PHP and ASP when defining what server the
code should run from or where a database is located.
Newsgroup A newsgroup is an Internet-based discussion about a particular topic. These
topics range from sports, cars, investing, teen problems, and some stuff you
probably don't want to know about. Users post messages to a news server
which then sends them to a bunch of other participating servers. Then
other users can access the newsgroup and read the postings. To participate
in a newsgroup, you must subscribe to it. It typically doesn't cost anything,
but some groups can be hard to get into unless you know people in the
group. Nearly all newsgroups are found on Usenet.
Usenet This is a forum in which people share information and ideas on a defined
topic through large electronic bulletin boards where anyone can post
messages that others can see and to which they can respond.
Web Host In order to publish a website online, you need a Web host. The Web host
stores all the pages of your website and makes them available to computers
connected to the Internet. The domain name, such as "sony.com," is
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 actually linked to an IP address that points to a specific computer. When
somebody enters your domain name into their browser's address field, the
IP address is located and Web site is loaded from your Web host.
A Web host can have anywhere from one to several thousand computers
that run Web hosting software, such as Apache, OS X Server, or Windows
Server. Most websites you see on the Web are accessed from a "shared
host," which is a single computer that can host several hundred Web sites.
Larger websites often use a "dedicated host," which is a single machine that
hosts only one website. Sites with extremely high amounts of traffic, such
as apple.com or microsoft.com, use several computers to host one site.
If you want to publish your own website, you'll need to sign up for a "Web
hosting service. You'll usually have to pay a monthly or yearly fee that
varies depending on how much disk space and bandwidth your site will
use.
ADSL (Asymmetric Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line is a technology for transmitting digital
Digital Subscriber information at a high bandwidth on existing phone lines to homes and
Line) businesses. ADSL is asymmetric in the sense that it uses most of the
channel to transmit downstream to the user and only a small part to receive
information from the user. This means, high download rates and slower
upload rates. Generally if you see 2Mb ADSL broadband, it refers to
2Mbit/s Max d/load rate. The upload rate will probably be about 256Kbit/s
Max.
Dial-up A method of connection to the Internet using existing phone lines using a
modem on the client's end to send information at a slow speed. This
technology uses the voice spectrum of the telephone lines to transmit data
using a system of sounds that only the receiving modem or ISP understand.
HTML Hypertext Mark-up Language is coding language used to create hypertext
documents for the World Wide Web. In HTML, a block of text can be
surrounded with tags that indicate how it should appear (for example, in
bold face or italics). Also, in HTML a word, a block of text, or an image
can be linked to another file on the Web. HTML files are viewed with a
Web browser. HTLML is used to create websites.
Phishing The act of attempting to obtain private or sensitive information such as user
names, passwords and credit card information through the use of fake
emails from trustworthy sites.
Spamming The act of sending unsolicited email or posting many useless messages in a
forum website.
YouTube YouTube is a video-sharing website, on which users can upload, view and
share videos. YouTube uses Adobe Flash Video and HTML5 technology to
display a wide variety of user-generated video content, including movie
clips, TV clips, and music videos, as well as amateur content such as video
blogging, short original videos, and educational videos. Most of the content
on YouTube has been uploaded by individuals. However, media many
corporations and other organizations offer some of their material via the
site, as part of the YouTube partnership program. Unregistered users can
watch videos, while registered users can upload an unlimited number of
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 videos. Videos considered to contain potentially offensive content are
available only to registered users at least 18 years old.
Twitter Twitter is an online social networking service and microblogging service
that enables its users to send and read text-based messages of up to 140
characters, known as "tweets".
Twitter has become one of the ten most visited websites on the Internet,
and has been described as "the SMS of the Internet." Unregistered users
can read tweets, while registered users can post tweets through the website
interface, SMS, or a range of apps for mobile devices. You can follow any
programme on the Internet based company on Twitter by posting any
message/twitting
Facebook Facebook is an online social networking service/website that was originally
designed for college students to know each other, but is now open to
anyone 13 years of age or older. Facebook Users must register before using
the site, after which they may create and customise their own personal
profiles with photos, videos, and information about themselves, add other
users as friends, and exchange messages, including automatic notifications
when they update their profile. Additionally, users may join common-
interest user groups, organized by workplace, school or college, or other
characteristics, and categorize their friends into lists such as "People From
Work" or "Close Friends".
Friends can browse the profiles of other friends and write messages on their
pages.
Each Facebook profile has a "wall," where friends can post comments.
Since the wall is viewable by all the user's friends, wall postings are
basically a public conversation. Therefore, it is usually best not to write
personal messages on your friends' walls. Instead, you can send a person a
private message, which will show up in his or her private Inbox, similar to
an e-mail message.
1. Facebook allows each user to set privacy settings, which by default
are pretty strict. For example, if you have not added a certain person
as a friend, that person will not be able to view your profile.
However, you can adjust the privacy settings to allow users within
your network (such as your college or the area you live) to view part
or all of your profile. You can also create a "limited profile," which
allows you to hide certain parts of your profile from a list of users
that you select. If you don't want certain friends to be able to view
your full profile, you can add them to your "limited profile" list.
2. Another feature of Facebook has the ability to add applications to
your profile. Facebook applications are small programs developed
specifically for Facebook profiles. Some examples include FunWall
(which builds on the basic "wall" feature). Other applications are
informational, such as news feeds and weather forecasts. There are
also hundreds of video game applications that allow users to play
small video games, such as Jetman or Tetris within their profiles.

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 Since most game applications save high scores, friends can compete
against each other or against millions of other Facebook users.
3. Facebook provides an easy way for friends to keep in touch and for
individuals to have a presence on the Web without needing to build
a website. Since Facebook makes it easy to upload pictures and
videos, nearly anyone can publish a multimedia profile.
Blog A blog (web log) is a discussion or informational site published on the
World Wide Web and consisting of discrete entries ("posts") typically
displayed in reverse chronological order (the most recent post appears first).
Blogs were usually the work of a single individual, occasionally of a small
group, and often covered a single subject. More recently "multi-author
blogs" (MABs) have developed with posts written by large numbers of
authors and professionally edited.
A majority are interactive; allowing visitors to leave comments and even
message each other via GUI widgets on the blogs, and it is this interactivity
that distinguishes them from other static websites. In that sense, blogging
can be seen as a form of social networking. Indeed, bloggers do not only
produce content to post on their blogs, but also build social relations with
their readers and other bloggers.
Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject; others function as
more personal online diaries; others function more as online brand
advertising of a particular individual or company. A typical blog combines
text, images, and links to other blogs, Web pages and other media related
to its topic. The ability of readers to leave comments in an interactive
format is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs. Most
blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (art blogs),
photographs (photoblogs), videos (video blogs or "vlogs"), music (MP3
blogs), and audio (podcasts). Microblogging is another type of blogging,
featuring very short posts.
Cybercrime Cyber Crimes are defined as: "Offences that are committed against
individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally
harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the
victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks
such as The Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and
mobile phones (SMS/MMS)".
There are crimes that are only committed while being on the Internet and
are created exclusively because of the World Wide Web.
Such new crimes devoted to the Internet are email “phishing”, hijacking
domain names, virus imitation, and cyber vandalism. A couple of these
crimes are activities that have been exposed and introduced into the world.
People have been trying to solve virus problems by installing virus
protection software and other software that can protect their computers.
Other crimes such as email “phishing” are not as known to the public until
an individual receives one of these fraudulent emails. These emails are
cover faced by the illusion that the email is from your bank or another
bank. When a person reads the email he/she is informed of a problem with
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 he/she personal account or another individual wants to send the person
some of their money and deposit it directly into their account. The email
asks for your personal account information and when a person gives this
information away, they are financing the work of a criminal.
Cyber Crime focused on the dangers facing computer users. Some of the
topics covered on Cyber Crime include: travel dangers, the dangers of
dating online, bad online medicine, child pornography, spam, fake IDs,
and the Zodiac murders.
Cyber-bully A bully who harasses his or her victims online through various means such
as spamming, defaming or negative impersonation of the victim.
The Internet fraud The Internet fraud is the use of The Internet services or software with The
Internet access to defraud victims or to otherwise take advantage of them,
for example by stealing personal information, which can even lead to
identity theft. A very common form of The Internet fraud is the distribution
of rogue security software. The Internet services can be used to present
fraudulent solicitations to prospective victims, to conduct fraudulent
transactions, or to transmit the proceeds of fraud to financial institutions or
to others connected with the scheme.
The Internet fraud can occur in chat rooms, email, message boards, or on
websites.
Chatting Chatting allows two or more people who are simultaneously connected to
the Internet to hold live, interactive conversations. Most of the chats are
held by Many teenagers
Telnet Telnet allows someone to be on one computer system while doing work on
another. Telnet is a protocol that establishes an error-free, rapid link
between the two computers, allowing you for example to log on to your
business computer from a remote computer you are on the road or working
from your home.
History of the Internet
The history of the Internet began with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. The
public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was
sent over the ARPANet from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University
of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), after the second piece of network equipment was installed at
Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Packet switched networks such as ARPANET and Telnet, were
developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in
particular led to the development of protocols for the Internetworking, in which multiple separate
networks could be joined together into a network of networks.
In 1982, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, and consequently, the concept of a
world-wide network of interconnected TCP/IP networks, called the Internet, was introduced. Access
to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the
Computer Science Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access to
supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial
The Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The
ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET

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was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial
traffic.
Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce,
including the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) "phone calls", two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web
with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and
education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's very high
speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), The Internet2, and National Lambda Rail. Increasing
amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at
1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover over the global communication landscape was
almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-
way telecommunications networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of
the telecommunicated information by 2007. Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever
greater amounts of online information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking.
From Gopher to the WWW
As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the increasing need
to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as Archie, Gopher, WAIS, and
the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. In the early 1990s,
Gopher, invented by Mark P. McCahill offered a viable alternative to the World Wide Web.
However, by the mid 1990s it became clear that Gopher and the other projects fell short in being
able to accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow without bottlenecks.
Packet Packet switching is a rapid store and forward networking design that divides
Switching messages up into arbitrary packets, with routing decisions made per-packet.
Early networks used message switched systems that required rigid routing
structures prone to single point of failure.
The Gopher The Gopher protocol is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for
distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet. Strongly
oriented towards a menu-document design, the Gopher protocol presented an
alternative to the World Wide Web in its early stages, but ultimately HTTP
became the dominant protocol. The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the
effective predecessor of the World Wide Web.
Invented by a team led by Mark P. McCahill at the University of Minnesota,
the protocol offers some features not natively supported by the Web and
imposes a much stronger hierarchy on information stored on it. Its text menu
interface is easy to use,[1] and well-suited to computing environments that rely
heavily on remote text-oriented computer terminals, which were still common
at the time of its creation in 1991, and the simplicity of its protocol facilitated
a wide variety of client implementations. More [1]recent Gopher revisions and
graphical clients added support for multimedia. Gopher was preferred by
many network administrators for using fewer network resources than Web
services.[2]
With its hierarchical structure, Gopher provided a useful platform for the first
large-scale electronic library connections. Gopher users remember the system
as being "faster and more efficient and so much more organised" than today's
Web services. Although largely supplanted by the Web in the years following,
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 the Gopher protocol is still in use by enthusiasts, and a small population of
actively maintained servers remains.
Veronica Veronica is a search engine system for the Gopher protocol, developed in
(search engine) 1992 by Steven Foster and Fred Barrie at the University of Nevada, Reno.
Veronica is a constantly updated database of the names of almost every menu
item on thousands of Gopher servers. The Veronica database can be searched
from most major Gopher menus.
The name, although officially an acronym for "Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-
wide Index to Computer Archives", was chosen to match that of the FTP search
service known as Archie — Veronica Lodge being the name of another
character from the Archie Comics.
APRANET The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was one of the
world's first operational packet switching networks, the first network to
implement TCP/IP, and the progenitor of what was to become the global The
Internet. The network was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) within the U.S. Department of Defense for use by
its projects at universities and research laboratories in the US. The packet
switching of the ARPANET, together with TCP/IP, would form the backbone of
how the Internet works. The TCP/IP set of communication protocols were
developed for ARPANET by computer scientists Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf.
Telnet Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to
provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet
control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The term telnet may also refer to the
software that implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet: This is a
program that allows you log in to a Unix computer via a text-based interface. If
you have an account on a Telnet server, you can access certain resources on
the system such your home directory, your e-mail account, FTP files, etc. The
downside of Telnet is that, to use it, you need to use Unix commands, which
can be a challenge.
Uses of the Internet
Speedy, inexpensive The Internet provides a speedy, inexpensive and convenient means of
communication communication via its electronic mail (email) facility. Email allows us to
keep in touch with friends and business contacts worldwide. Messages
can be sent and received 24/7. It is also possible to attach files, reports,
and other programs and then send them by email.
Speedy communication The Internet communication in instantaneous. The speed at which your
email is sent is dependent on the slowest link, which is determined by
the speed of your modem. The speed of communication on the Internet
is very fast.
Inexpensive The communication on the Internet is very cheap. Users can easily and
communication cheaply send emails from their accounts to other accounts. They can
also make voice and video calls very cheaply.
Convenient Unlike other communication systems like telephone, email messages
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communication can be sent even when the addressee/recipients are absent. The
recipients can open and read their mails any their convenient tome. By
contrast to send a fax, the receiving fax machine must be turned on and
paper loaded. The documents already in digital form e.g. word
processor documents; there is still need to print them before faxing
(unnecessary wastage of papers). But with emails you can simply send
them as attachments to multiple recipients.
Communication The Internet offers a wide range of communications services, they
Services include Email, chat, conferencing
Email: Email (Electronic mail) is a quick, convenient, efficient and
cheap way to communication both individuals and groups. It is the
popular and most pervasive the Internet service.
Chat: Real-time one to one or group conversation, with discussion in
typed form. You need to be connected to the Internet and join a
channel to be able to chat. Therefore, users can easily communicate
with other distant users efficiently and effectively.
Conferencing: The Internet facilitates audio and video-conferencing
where a user or a group of users can join live/ online group
communication
Commerce and The Internet
Industry
Health
Job opportunities The Internet can help you find your ideal job. Employers use the
Internet to advertise vacancies. Job seekers can easily post their
curriculum vitae to potential employees. And May people can be
employed online; they can simply use their internet connected
computer to perform their job duties.
Education services The Internet facilitates education; scholars and learners and search and
(E-Learning or virtual research for study materials (e-books) on any topic from any subject of
learning) interest from the Internet.
It also enables students to join various virtual universities/schools to
further their academic studies. Distance learning (distance education)
students can easily log in to the Internet and attend their lectures.
Software downloading There is a large variety of software on the Internet that users can
download and use. Most of the software available for downloading is
public domain (it free) software. This is useful for students and learning
institutions that cannot afford expensive software. It also makes it
possible for anyone, anywhere in the world to have access to new
software that may not be locally available. Software updates for
example, computer antivirus updates, music videos can be downloaded
from the Internet.
Newsgroups Newsgroups are electronic discussion groups that allow people to have
online discussions and exchange information on vast array of topics.
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 Discussion groups can range from social, political to health, scientific
and research. There are also news websites (for example, Al Jazeera,
BBC, CNN, Euro news, Sky news among others) that allow different
people to join discussions by posting their views and comments.
Online banking Online banking (or The Internet banking or E-banking) allows customers
(Internet banking) of a financial institution to conduct financial transactions on a secure
website operated by the institution, which can be a retail or virtual
bank, credit union or building society.
To access a financial institution's online banking facility, a customer
having personal The Internet access must register with the institution for
the service, and set up some password (under various names) for
customer verification. The password for online banking is normally not
the same as for telephone banking. Financial institutions now routinely
allocate customer numbers (also under various names), whether or not
customers intend to access their online banking facility. Customer
numbers are normally not the same as account numbers, because a
number of accounts can be linked to the one customer number. The
customer will link to the customer number any of those accounts which
the customer controls, which may be cheque, savings, loan, credit card
and other accounts. Customer numbers will also not be the same as
any debit or credit card issued by the financial institution to the
customer.
To access online banking, the customer would go to the financial
institution's website, and enter the online banking facility using the
customer number and password. Some financial institutions have set up
additional security steps for access, but there is no consistency to the
approach adopted.
Online travel The Internet allows you to book holidays, hotels and flights from your
arrangements home. You can check out the latest travel news and confirm train and
ferry times before you set out.
Online shopping The Internet allows you to select and buy items online, without ever
leaving your home! You can use the web shopping malls to take
advantage of everything from online grocery shopping to back to school
shopping for example, you can visit websites for various companies and
order for their latest products and pay online NOKIA.com, HP.com,
Toyota, Dell.com,
Social Networking Service
A social networking service is an online service, platform, or site that focuses on facilitating the
building of social networks or social relations among people who, for example, share interests,
activities, backgrounds, or real-life connections. For instance registered users can join their friends
on Facebook and follow others on Twitter.
Finding people and You can easily find people of your interest on various The Internet
organisations communication services available for example, users can use Facebook
to search and find their colleagues. You can also various search engines
such as Google Search, Yahoo! Search, Bing and others to find any
organisation of your interest.
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 Linking to traditional Through the Internet you can access traditional media:
Communication Media Telephone: it is possible to transmit voice over the Internet. You can
therefore, carryout a telephone conversion, including an international
call at local charges, through the Internet. For example, with Google
talk, Yahoo! messenger, Skype, you can easily and cheaply
communicate with colleagues, friends and family in live talk.
Short message service (SMS): You can easily and cheaply (sometimes
free) send free messages to mobile users through the Internet to any
network globally, unlike where the local networks can only reach a
limited number of networks. For example, with websites such as
smsmedia.com, globfone.com you can send free message and even
make free locals and international calls to any network.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Internet
The Internet has been perhaps the most outstanding innovation in the field of communication in the
history of mankind. As with every single innovation, the Internet has its own advantages and
disadvantages. But usually, greater magnitude of advantages outweighs its disadvantages.
Today, the Internet has become the most powerful communication tool for people throughout the
world. With the advent of the Internet, our earth has virtually reduced and has attained the form of a
global village.
The Internet can be defined as a network of computers, designed to receive and send data in the
form of e-mails, media, blogs and webcasts, etc.
The Internet has now become the best business tool in the modern scenario. Today, it has brought
the world in one single room. Right from getting news across the corner of the world to accessing
knowledge resources to shopping, everything is at your fingertips. The Internet has tremendous
potential and a lot to offer in terms of services. However, like every single innovation in science and
technology, the Internet has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
Faster Communication
The foremost target of The Internet has always been speedy communication and it has excelled way
beyond the expectations. Newer innovations are only going to make it faster and more reliable.
Now, you can communicate in a fraction of second with a person who is sitting in the other part of
the world. For more personal and interactive communication, you can avail the facilities of chat
services, video conferencing and so on. Besides, there are plenty of messenger services in offering.
With the help of such services, it has become very easy to establish a kind of global friendship
where you can share your thoughts and explore other cultures.
Information Resources
Information is probably the biggest advantage that The Internet offers. The Internet is a virtual
treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is available on the
Internet. The search engines like Google, Yahoo are at your service on the Internet. There is a huge
amount of information available on the Internet for just about every subject known to man, ranging
from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market information, new ideas and
technical support, the list is simply endless.

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Research Tool
Students and children are among the top users who surf the Internet for research. Today, it is almost
required that students should use it for research or the purpose of gathering resources. Even teachers
have started giving assignments that require extensive research on the Internet. Besides, you can
have an access to latest researches in the field of medicine, technology and so on. Numerous web
sites such as America's Doctor also allow you to talk to the doctors online.
Entertainment
Entertainment is another popular raison why many people prefer to surf the Internet. In fact, the
Internet has become quite successful in trapping the multifaceted entertainment industry.
Downloading games or just surfing the celebrity websites are some of the uses people have
discovered. Even celebrities are using the Internet effectively for promotional campaigns. Besides,
there are numerous games that can be downloaded for free. The industry of online gaming has
tasted dramatic and phenomenal attention by game lovers.
Social Networking
One cannot imagine an online life without Facebook or Twitter. Social networking has become so
popular amongst youth that it might one day replace physical networking. It has evolved as a great
medium to connect with millions of people with similar interests. Apart from finding long-lost
friends, you can also look for job, business opportunities on forums, communities etc. Besides, there
are chat rooms where users can meet new and interesting people. Some of them may even end up
finding their life partners.
Online Services
The Internet has made life very convenient. With numerous online services you can now perform all
your transactions online. You can book tickets for a movie, transfer funds, pay utility bills, taxes etc.,
and right from your home. Some travel websites even plan an Itinerary as per your preferences and
take care of airline tickets, hotel reservations etc.
E-Commerce
The concept of E-Commerce is used for any type of commercial management or business deals that
involves the transfer of information across the globe via the Internet. It has become a phenomenon
associated with any kind of shopping, business deal etc. You name a service, and e-commerce with
its giant tentacles engulfing every single product and service will make it available at your doorstep.
Websites such as eBay allow you to even bid for homes, buy, sell or auction stuff online.
Disadvantages
Theft of Personal Information
If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a theft
to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc. Unscrupulous people
can access this information through unsecured connections or by planting software and then use
your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this may land you in serious trouble.
Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly
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obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as it makes your The
Internet slower and less reliable.
Virus Threat
The Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers connected
to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. The Internet allows you to access
and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted
access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play havoc in marital and
social lives of adults.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are getting
engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children prefer to play
online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This may hamper a healthy social
development in children.
Thus, the Internet has the potential to make your life simple and convenient, as well as wreak havoc
in your life. Its influence is mostly dictated by the choices you make while you are online. With
clever use, you can manage to harness its unlimited potential.
THE INTERNET ACCESS
The Internet access is the means by which individual terminals, computers, mobile devices, and
local area networks are connected to the global The Internet. It is a source through which users can
get connection to access The Internet services. The Internet access is usually sold by The Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) that use many different technologies offering a wide range of data rates to
the end user.
Availability
In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace The Internet access may be available
from public places such as libraries and The Internet cafes, where computers with The Internet
connections are available. Some libraries provide stations for connecting users' laptops to local area
networks (LANs).
Wireless The Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, restaurants,
in some cases just for brief use while standing. Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues
increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to as hotspots, for users who bring
their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free
to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole
campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless
community networks. Additionally, Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital
devices to connect to the Internet from any location from which a mobile phone call can be made
subject to the capabilities of that mobile network.
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The Internet Access Technologies
The Internet Access technologies generally use a modem, which converts digital data to analog for
transmission over analog networks such as the telephone and cable networks. Connectivity speed
is measured in bits per second (bps). A thousand bits per second is referred to as kilobits per
seconds (Kbps) and million bit per second as megabits per second (Mbps).
Connection Description
Type
Local Area Local area networks (LANs) provide The Internet access to computers and other
Networks devices in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or
office building, usually at relatively high data rates that typically range from 10
to 1000 Mbit/s. There are wired and wireless LANs. Ethernet over twisted pair
cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies used to build LANs
today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other technologies were
used in the past.
Most The Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with
just one or two devices attached. The technologies described below are used to
make these connections.
Dial-up access
Dial up connections access the Internet on per use basis and uses a modem and a phone call
placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems
operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer's digital signal into an analog signal that
travels over a phone line's local loop until it reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or
central office where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the
remote end of the connection. Users gain The Internet access when they contact an ISP, and the
ISP transfers them to the Internet. When users finish, they disconnect from the ISP. The speed with
which you can access the Internet is determined primary by the speed of your modem.
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the
slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of The Internet access
available in rural areas as it requires no new infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone
network, to connect to the Internet. Their speed of connection is somehow slow.
Broadband access
The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate
access to the Internet. These technologies use wires or fiber optic cables in contrast to wireless
broadband.
Multilink dial- Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by bonding two or more dial-
up up connections together and treating them as a single data channel. It requires
two or more modems, phone lines, and dial-up accounts, as well as an ISP that
supports multilinking - and of course any line and data charges are also
doubled. This inverse multiplexing option was briefly popular with some high-
end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available.
Diamond and other vendors created special modems to support multilinking.
Integrated Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), is a switched telephone service
Services Digital capable of transporting voice and digital data, is one of the oldest The Internet
Network access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and
(ISDN) broadband data applications.
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Leased Lines Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other
large enterprises to connect LANs and campus networks to the Internet using
the existing infrastructure of the public telephone network or other providers.
Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are used to provide
The Internet access directly as well as the building blocks from which several
other forms of The Internet access are created.
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, in the rest of the world) are the standard
multiplexing protocols used to carry high data rate digital bit streams over
optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). At lower transmission rates data can also be transferred via an electrical
interface. The 1, 10, 40, and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10GbE, 40GbE, and
100GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital data to be delivered over copper
wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km.
Cable Internet Cable Internet or cable modem access provides Internet access via Hybrid Fiber
access Coaxial wiring originally developed to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic
(Cable Modem) or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a
connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all
nodes for cable subscribers in a neighbourhood connect to a cable company's
central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then connects to
the Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital
satellite and microwave transmissions. Like DSL, broadband cable provides a
continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as
400 Mbit/s for business connections, and 100 Mbit/s for residential service in
some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s
to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business
customers because existing television cable networks tend to service residential
buildings and commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial
cable networks.
Digital Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service
subscriber line provides a connection to the Internet
(DSL, ADSL, through the telephone network. Unlike
SDSL, and dial-up, DSL can operate using a single
VDSL) phone line without preventing normal
use of the telephone line for voice phone
calls. DSL uses the high frequencies,
while the low (audible) frequencies of
the line are left free for regular telephone
communication. These frequency bands
are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's premises.
The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s
to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL
technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In ADSL, the
data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service
provider) is lower than that in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer),
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 hence the designation of asymmetric. With a symmetric digital subscriber line
(SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.
DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL
technology over existing copper telephone wires to provide data rates of up to
400 Mbit/s.
Fiber to the Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that
home includes Fiber-to-the-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP),
Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node
(FTTN). These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers.
All of these delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems
used to provide cable The Internet access.
The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer
distances. Most high-capacity The Internet and cable television backbones
already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies
(DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.
Power-Line Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries
Internet Internet data on a conductor that is also used for electric power transmission.
Because of the extensive power line infrastructure already in place, this
technology can provide people in rural and low population areas access the
Internet with little cost in terms of new transmission equipment, cables, or
wires. Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other
over-the-air communication services, interference between the services is a
limiting factor in the introduction of power-line Internet systems.
ATM and Frame Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide area networking
Relay standards that can be used to provide The Internet access directly or as building
blocks of other access technologies. For example many DSL implementations
use an ATM layer over the low-level bit stream layer to enable a number of
different technologies over the same link. Customer LANs are typically
connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased lines at a
wide range of data rates.
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS,
VPNs and broadband services such as cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame
Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did.
Wireless broadband access
Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile The Internet access. Broadband
offers fast unlimited the Internet connection suitable for large the Internet users.
Wi-Fi Wi-Fi is the popular name for a "wireless local area network" that uses one of
the IEEE 802.11 standards. Individual homes and businesses often use Wi-Fi to
connect laptops and smart phones to the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found
in coffee shops and various other public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create
campus-wide and city-wide wireless networks.
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called Access
Points. "Ad hoc" computer to computer Wi-Fi" networks are also possible. The
Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet using DSL, cable modem, and
other Internet access technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600 Mbit/s. Wi-Fi
service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 meters or from 65 to 820 feet.
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 Both data rate and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol,
location, frequency, building construction, and interference from other devices.
Using directional antennas and with careful engineering Wi-Fi can be extended
to operate over distances of up to several kilometres.
Wireless ISP Wireless ISPs typically employ low-cost 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up
remote locations over great distances, but may use other higher-power radio
communications systems as well.
By focusing the radio signal using a directional antenna 802.11b can operate
reliably over a distance of many kilometres, although the technology's line-of-
sight requirements hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or heavily foliated
terrain. In addition, compared to hard-wired connectivity, there are security
risks (unless robust security protocols are enabled); data rates are significantly
slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less stable, due to
interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight
problems.
Rural Wireless-ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and are
instead a patchwork of systems built up by hobbyists mounting antennas on
radio masts and towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or whatever
other tall objects are available. There are currently a number of companies that
provide this service.
Motorola Canopy and other proprietary technologies offer wireless access to
rural and other markets that are hard to reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
WiMAX WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a set of
interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-network
standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last
mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". WiMAX
offers a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30
miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a conventional
Wi-Fi local area network. WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls much
more effectively than Wi-Fi. WiMAX has the potential to the broadband Internet
connection and access. It provides universal Internet access just about
anywhere you go.
Satellite Satellites can provide fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. It is among
broadband the most expensive forms of broadband The Internet access, but may be the
Satellite The only choice available in remote areas. Data rates range from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s
Internet access downstream and from 2kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s upstream. Satellite communication
via VSAT typically requires a clear line of sight, will not work well through trees and
other vegetation, is adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as
rain fade), and may require a fairly large, carefully aimed, directional antenna.
Mobile Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless The Internet access
broadband delivered through mobile phone towers to computers, mobile phones or cell
phones, and other digital devices using portable modems. Some mobile services
allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single
cellular connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built
into laptop computers, tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to
some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or
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 separate wireless modems can be used.
Roughly every ten years new mobile phone technology and infrastructure
involving a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-
compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency
bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These
transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data services became
available during the second generation (2G).
Second generation (2G) from 1991: GSM CSD, GSM GPRS (2.5G), GSM EDGE
(2.75G),
Third generation (3G) from 2001: UMTS W-CDMA, UMTS HSPA, UMTS TDD,
CDMA2000 1xRTT, CDMA2000 EV-DO, GSM EDGE-Evolution
Fourth generation (4G) from 2006: HSPA+, Mobile WiMAX (802.16)
The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above
are peak or maximum rates and end users will typically experience lower data
rates.
Today many mobile users use dial-up connection (using mobile dial-up
modems by simply plugging their USB Modems to desktop computers or
laptops and get connected to and access the Internet services anywhere and
everywhere.
Local Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access
Multipoint technology that uses microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and
Distribution 29 GHz. Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it is
Service conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in
the last mile. Data rates range from 64kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s. Distance is typically
limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the
base station are possible in some circumstances.
Pricing and spending
The Internet access is limited by the relation between pricing and available resources to spend. Dial-
up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly
subscription fee, and may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect
time limits by their ISP. Though less common today than in the past, some dial-up access is offered
for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of the dial-up service. Users can subscribe to any
Internet bundle that best suit them.
Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited" or flat rate pricing model, with
price determined by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or
traffic based charge. Per minute and traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile
broadband Internet access.
With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer
file sharing, demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing
model may become unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80-90% of the
cost of providing broadband service, the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. To ensure
these high-bandwidth users do not slow down the network for everyone, some ISPs are considering,
are experimenting with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or
"peak" and "off peak" pricing, and bandwidth or traffic caps.
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Digital Divide
Despite its tremendous growth, Internet access is not distributed equally within or between
countries.
The digital divide refers to “the gap between people with effective access to information and
communications technology (ICT), and those with very limited or no access”. The gap between
people with Internet access and those without is one of many aspects of the digital divide. Whether
someone has access to the Internet can depend greatly on financial status, geographical location as
well as government policies. “Low-income, rural, and minority populations have received special
scrutiny as the technological "have-nots."
Government policies play a tremendous role in bringing Internet access to or limiting access for
underserved groups, regions, and countries.
Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in
developing countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in
developed countries the figures were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet
access.
The Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral
part of peoples economic, political, and social lives. Providing Internet access to more people in the
world allow will them to take advantage of the “political, social, economic, educational, and career
opportunities” available over the Internet. Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit
on the Information Society convened by the United Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the
digital divide. To promote economic development and a reduction of the digital divide, national
broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the availability of affordable high-
speed Internet access throughout the world.
Rural access
One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is
to provide service to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers,
ranchers, and small towns. In cities where the population density is high, it is easier for a service
provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural customer may require expensive equipment to
get connected. Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) is rapidly becoming a popular broadband
option for rural areas. The technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some
areas with hilly and heavily foliated terrain.
Access as a Human Right
Several countries have adopted laws that make Internet access a right by requiring the state to work
to ensure that Internet access is broadly available and/or preventing states from unreasonably
restricting an individual's access to information and the Internet.
The UN declared that Internet access itself is or should become a fundamental human right.
Natural Disasters and Access
Natural disasters disrupt the Internet access in profound ways. This is important—not only for
telecommunication companies who own the networks and the businesses who use them, but for
emergency crew and displaced citizens as well. The situation is worsened when hospitals or other
buildings necessary to disaster response lose their connection. Knowledge gained from studying past
the Internet disruptions by natural disasters could be put to use in planning or recovery.
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Additionally, because of both natural and man-made disasters, studies in network resiliency are now
being conducted to prevent large-scale outages.
One way natural disasters impact the Internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks
(subnets), making them unreachable. A second way natural disasters destroy the Internet connectivity
is by severing submarine cables—fiber-optic cables placed on the ocean floor that provide
international the Internet connection.
THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER
An The Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides various individuals, businesses
and other users with access to the The Internet through dial-up connections as well as broadband
services.
The Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-
owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Online Service Provider
An online service provider can for example be an the Internet service provider, email provider, news
provider (press), entertainment provider (music, movies), search, e-shopping site (online stores), e-
finance or e-banking site, e-health site, e-government site, Wikipedia, Usenet. In its original more
limited definition, it referred only to a commercial computer communication service in which paid
members could dial via a computer modem the service's private computer network and access
various services and information resources such a bulletin boards, downloadable files and programs,
news articles, chat rooms, and electronic mail services.
Classification of ISPs
Access providers
Access ISPs directly connect clients to the Internet using copper wires, wireless or fiber-optic
connections. ISPs employ a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network.
If users and small businesses, traditional options include: dial-up, DSL (typically Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable modem, fiber to the premises (FTTH), and
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface).
For customers with more demanding requirements, such as medium-to-large businesses, or other
ISPs, DSL (often Single-Pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line or ADSL), Ethernet, Metropolitan
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Frame Relay, ISDN (B.R.I. or P.R.I.), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
and upload satellite The Internet access. Sync-optical cabling (SONET) is more likely to be used.
Many access providers also provide hosting and email services.
Mailbox providers
A mailbox provider is a department or organization that provides email mailbox hosting services. It
provides email servers to send, receive, accept, and store email for other organizations and/or end
users, on their behalf and upon their explicit mandate.
Many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others aren't (e.g., Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail,
Gmail, AOL Mail, Pobox). This covers email hosting services, as well as the relevant department of
companies, universities, organizations, groups, and individuals that manage their mail servers
themselves. The task is typically accomplished by implementing Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

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(SMTP) and possibly providing access to messages through The Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP), the Post Office Protocol, Webmail, or a proprietary protocol.
Hosting ISPs
Hosting ISPs are a kind of collocation centre that leases server space to smaller businesses and other
people. Hosting ISPs routinely provide email, FTP, and web-hosting services. Other services include
virtual machines, clouds, or entire physical servers where customers can run their own custom
software.
Transit ISPs
Transit ISPs provide large amounts of bandwidth for connecting hosting ISPs to access ISPs.
Just as their customers pay them for The Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for The
Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP and/or is able
to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no
access to.
In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit
data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often
cascaded multiple times until reaching a Tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often more
complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an
upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have
connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence.
Virtual ISPs
A Virtual ISP (VISP) is an operation which purchases services from another ISP (sometimes called a
"wholesale ISP" in this context) which allows the VISP's customers to access the Internet using
services and infrastructure owned and operated by the wholesale ISP.
Free ISPs
Free ISPs are The Internet Service Providers (ISPs) which provide service free of charge. Many free
ISPs display advertisements while the user is connected; like commercial television, in a sense they
are selling the users' attention to the advertiser. Other free ISPs, often called free-nets, are run on a
non-profit basis, usually with volunteer staff.
Peering
ISPs may engage in peering, where multiple ISPs interconnect at peering points or Internet exchange
points (IXs), allowing routing of data between each network, without charging one another for the
data transmitted—data that would otherwise have passed through a third upstream ISP, incurring
charges from the upstream ISP.
ISPs requiring no upstream and having only customers (end customers and/or peer ISPs) are called
Tier 1 ISPs.
Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as the expertise of network management
personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream
connections work reliably. A trade-off between cost and efficiency is possible.
Factors to Consider When Choosing an the Internet Service Provider (ISP)

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Although choosing an Internet Service Provider (ISP) might sound easy, there are many important yet
often overlooked factors to consider in order for you to find your ideal ISP match.
Determine your needs
With the abundance of ISPs today, it may be tempting to just go with the quickest or cheapest
option. While that could save you money in the short term, doing so could wind up causing you a
lot more headaches—and lost productivity—over the long term.
When choosing an Internet service provider (ISP), you should consider the following:
1. Ease of use: do they provide you a simple-to-install set of software that will get you online
with no hassle?
2. Support: if you are not a computer guru, will they provide you the help you need? Do they
offer 24-hour customer support, or do they only offer service only during business hours?
1. Price: Price is important, however, it should not be the single determining factor.
2. Connection options: A dial-up connection is no longer your only option. There are many
different speeds to choose from to meet your connection requirements, such as ISDN, cable,
DSL and satellite.
3. Features: Just like other vendors, ISPs vary in the options their packages include. For
example, some ISPs offer static IP addresses, while others use only DHCP-assigned ones.
4. Customer/technical support: Even the best connections experience problems, and chances
are you will have a question or problem you need to address, which is why it is vital to have
a professionally trained and dedicated staff capable of solving any problem at any time.
BroadbandReports.com is a good place to go to find out about an ISP’s reputation for
support, as well as performance.
5. Performance: Whether you’re paying for a high-speed connection or just using dial-up, you
should check the ISP’s track record for such things as uptime and overall throughput. For
example, even when using 56-Kbps dial-up modems, you can often only connect at 28.8
Kbps or 33.3 Kbps because of the modems used at the ISP. Likewise, one ISP may provide
three e-mail addresses for a single account, while another may offer five.
6. Local access numbers: In most major cities, you won’t have a problem finding local dial-up
numbers for an ISP. However, if you travel or if your remote office is located in a rural
location, you may face long-distance charges.
7. Viability: When selecting your ISP, do some checking to see how long the company has
been around, their track record, and whether or not they received any awards. You might
find a good ISP now, only to have it go out of business, forcing you to not only restart your
search but modify configurations and transfer your Website and/or domain name.
8. PC and MAC compatibility: It goes without saying that everything is PC compatible, but not
all services are compatible with the Mac OS. If you know how to configure your remote
access (dialer), you can make any of these services work, but few offer the accelerated
service for Macs. If you are a Mac user, look for a service that gives good instructions on
how to set-up your Mac for using their service.
9. Email or Web Browser Advertising: Does the service include advertising at the bottom of
your e-mails? Does the ISP insert any advertising or solicitation material on your web
browser? Services that require you to download their software (other than a dialer
configuration) will often alter your browser to be able to serve ads to you as you surf.

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 10. Cancellation Policy: We seldom think of how to cancel when signing up for a new service,
but it is something you should consider. Do they tell you on their web site how to cancel? Is
there a penalty for early cancellation? Do they offer a 30 day money back guarantee? Some
services are set as 12 month contracts and there is an early cancellation penalty. Make sure
you know the policy and also the procedure to cancel before you sign up.
Make a list of all of your requirements and prioritize them. Then, compare those requirements with
several ISPs that can meet those needs. Keep the list simple—don’t overwhelm yourself with too
many choices and you’ll be sure to find the ISP that meets all of your unique requirements.
How to Choose an ISP
Customer Service
Setting up your computer for a new The Internet Service Provider can range from straightforward to
daunting, depending on your level of expertise. If you're new to the Internet, you should definitely
look for an ISP that will be there to help you get things working. Many offer free software that will
automatically configure your computer to work with their service.
Customer service doesn't end once you're up and running. The Internet is much more reliable than
it was in the past, but problems do still occur. Does your ISP have a 24-hour support line that you
can call? Do they have the answers to your questions when you call?
Remember; don't feel bad because you can't figure out all of the details of connecting to the
Internet. The system was never designed with consumers in mind, and it is the ISP's job to bridge
that gap. That's what you're paying them for -- access to the Internet.
Size
ISPs vary in size from small one- or two-person operations to giant corporations providing service
across the country or all over the world. Most ISPs however are quite small.
The ISPs with the most aggressive pricing are usually small ISPs. Some small ISPs also offer
excellent service and very personal support, but that is not uniformly the case. On the other hand,
small ISPs may experience significant growing pains, and are much more likely to go out of
business than a larger ISP.
Large ISPs are generally more stable and better able to manage their growth. They usually have
highly experienced personnel designing and building their network infrastructure. On the other
hand, their prices may be somewhat higher and they may be less responsive to your particular
needs. Of course, if you travel frequently and need to access your e-mail while on the road, a large
national ISP is probably best for you.
Reliability
There is nothing more annoying than dialling your ISP and continually receiving a busy signal. Or
you may connect but be unable to do any useful work because of interminable delays. These
problems usually do not persist for long, but they are definitely more common at some ISPs than at
others. Unfortunately, this kind of reliability is hard to measure.
Performance
The actual speed you experience when using the Internet depends on many factors. The ISP may
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have insufficient The Internet bandwidth to support all of the users who log on (this is like an
airline overbooking an aircraft -- good for them, bad for you). The Web server (or e-mail server)
that you are connecting to may be unable to handle the volume of traffic that it is experiencing
(often true at popular sites). Or the problem may lie in the path between you and the server
through the Internet (round-trip times can vary from a few hundredths of a second to several
seconds).
Many of these problems are beyond the ISP's control, but you will still find that some ISPs
generally offer better performance than others.
Price
in general the bottom line price is obviously an important factor when choosing an Internet Service
Provider. It is also easy to compare. But the lowest price isn't always the best deal. If the price
seems to be significantly below the going rate, then something about the service is probably below
the industry average also.
If the thought of choosing an Internet service provider (ISP) or of switching to a new one fills you
with dread, don't worry--you aren't alone. As more and more ISPs crop up and the options gets
increasingly complicated, not to mention competitive, the supposedly simple task of getting on the
Internet takes on a new dimension. Follow this guide to avoid any pitfalls and to find out what you
need. Arm yourself with these basic questions and information on national ISPs, designed to set
you firmly on the path to successful surfing.
Locally we have two types of subscriptions:
 Volume-base subscription: Here the user may pay monthly subscription that cover some free
hours then pay per usage an amount fro each extra hour used.
 Open subscription: Here the user pay fixed amount per month regardless of the usage.
Note: this does not include the cost for the telephone connection which is paid to the STC per
usage.
Quality of service
Quality of service depends on many factors, such as:
 The ratio between number of modem ports to the number of subscribers
 The total bandwidth to the Internet
 How easily and quickly to get connected to the ISP network
 How frequent a user get disconnected from the ISP network
 How good ISP's communications and services devices

Technical support
Quality of service depends on many factors, such as:
 Working hours
 Number of telephone lines
 Type of communications (by email, telephone, dial-free telephone, fax, web, …)
 Availability of user manuals and FAQs
 Solving problems online
Availability of competent technical staff

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Price and performance
You should reasonably expect to make a trade-off between price and performance, and can expect
to pay more for faster the Internet performance.
How much do I have to pay to access the Internet?
There is a vast range of pricing options available. When choosing an ISP, make sure you check:
• Any usage limits that apply to individual sessions, such as data transfer, download, upload or time
limits;
• The period of any contract you may sign;
• Any minimum charges you may agree to pay over the period of a contract; and
• Any charges that apply if you terminate a contract before it expires.
You may also want to check what information the ISP provides about availability restrictions,
billing arrangements, ancillary services and access for users with a disability.
Which technology should I choose?
The Internet services are provided by either dial-up connection or broadband. Broadband services
can be delivered via:
• Cable broadband;
• Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL); or
• Satellite broadband.

Performance measures
When choosing an ISP, ask for an indication of the level of performance you will receive.
Finding a simple, understandable measure of performance is not an easy task. A typical
consumer should know:
• The user's experience in getting online. In other words, what is the likelihood that you will
get connected the first time when you dial-up your ISP and not receive an engaged signal
because their modems or access servers are full?
• Once you are online, what data speed can you expect to receive? In other words, how long
should it take you to download a particular file or page?
What is the risk of your connection to your ISP being disconnected or 'dropping out' as a result
of an ISP's management of customer traffic in its systems?
Sometimes the answers to the second and third questions can be hard to obtain as performance in
these areas is not always within the control of your ISP. This is due to:
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The Factors such as the time of day and traffic on the Internet causing variations in the Internet's
performance; variations in the performance of the location, equipment and communications
devices of different users and variations within the performance of the ISP's equipment.
However, your ISP should be able to give you information about connection speed and drop-outs.
Ask your friends and colleagues about their experiences.
Help and installation
For some users, installing and setting up an Internet connection may well be the most daunting part
of getting online. Many people highly value support in dealing with problems. If these matters are
important to you, you can ask your ISP for information about the assistance they offer in setting up
your connection and the type and availability of ongoing help.
Communication
There are many ways that your ISP will communicate with you and vice versa. You may want to ask
your potential ISP to identify all the communication options available, for example, post, email or
free call 1800 numbers.
Security of Service
It is important that you have realistic expectations about what your ISP can do to help recover any
lost data. You should not expect that ISPs will be able to recover an email that you delete. However,
ISPs may be able to provide information about how you can back up your data and what steps they
take to recover your data if things go wrong at their end. If this is important to you, you should ask
your ISP to provide information about security services offered and how the customer is able to
control use of their account by other parties.
The Internet Assistance Program
Users of the Internet are encouraged to use the Internet Assistance Program (IAP), a joint initiative
between Telstra and the Commonwealth Government, to help solve problems that are beyond the
immediate influence of the ISP. The IAP offers a help service to provide practical information to
the Internet users and a technical support service to solve more difficult problems.
Industry codes of practice
ISPs have responsibilities and obligations under existing legislation and industry codes of
practice. These responsibilities are documented in:
For those who are considering their first Internet access or upgrading from dial-up to broadband
Internet access, choosing a broadband ISP can be confusing and overwhelming.
 Should you go with DSL or cable The Internet access?
 Which ISP is better?
You may want to avoid spending hours or days visiting individual ISP websites on the Internet,
reading detailed service plans, or checking for service availability in your area. Here are some things
to consider when choosing an ISP that is right for you:
 Find out about service availability. You can locate available ISPs in your area by simply
using ISP search websites and entering your phone number or home address. Remember

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 learning about the search website called myISPfinder.org in an earlier lesson? Another
resource for you is http://broadbandmap.gov/. Go to this site and enter your address to find
out which ISPs are available in your area.
 Think about price. Should you pick the ISP with the lowest price? Before you can make any
final decision, determine what you will do most using the Internet.
 Consider connection speed. If you like to play real time online games or you need to
download video clips, music files, movies and software, bandwidth or connection speed
should be your biggest concern. Remember earlier in this lesson learning about the amount
of time it takes to download information?
 Decide if you will use a shared connection. For a family with more than one personal
computer at home, the ability to share the Internet connection may be important. The more
family members you have on the Internet at the same time, the more broadband speed you
will need.
 For family with children, parental control can be a useful feature.
 Almost all broadband ISPs provide free The Internet security features, such as virus
protection, pop-up blockers and anti-spam software. You will learn more about these
potential problems in later lessons.
 Read the terms and conditions of service carefully.
 Do you need to sign a one-year contract?
 Does the ISP provide a money-back guarantee?
 Is there a fee for cancellation?
 Is there customer service and 24-hour technical support?
You can ask your friends which ISP they currently use. However, remember that The Internet
connection speed can be affected by many factors.
Usually, you will get a better idea of actual performance by getting feedback from your neighbors
than from friends living in other areas.
To sum things up, although price is an important factor in choosing an ISP, you should also consider
your personal needs, family demand, features and terms of the service plan, and the reputation of
the Internet Service Provider.
Do your research and most importantly, ask questions!
Requirements for accessing the Internet
1. Below are the minimum requirements for accessing the Internet on your home computer.
You will need an The Internet-enabled device such as a personal computer with a suitable
operating system such Microsoft Windows 8, Windows 7 Windows XP among others,
2. The Internet modem
3. Suitable web browser such as Mozilla Firefox, The Internet Explorer, Netscape navigator,
Opera among others
4. The Internet Service Provider (valid subscription form your ISP) such as Orange, MTN
Uganda, Uganda Telecom. Airtel /Warid among others.
5. NIC Network Interface Card
On your iPod Touch, you need to be in a WiFi hotspot. If your home setup includes a WiFi modem
or router, you can use that anytime you are at home. When you are away from home you will
need to go to a WiFi hotspot in order to get on the Internet. Use the built-in Safari browser, and
you may need to log in (accept the restaurant's terms and conditions) before the browser will work.

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THE WORLD WIDE WEB
Introduction to the World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3, commonly known as the Web), is a system of
interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web
pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia, and navigate between them via
hyperlinks. The worldwide web contains a collection web pages of millions of vast amount
information organised into websites. The websites available can range from but not limited to
Business, education, health, sports, news, entertainment, government, individual or general
information among others.
The terms The Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much
distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not the same. The Internet is a
global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the Web is one of the services that
run on the Internet. It is a collection of text documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks
and URLs, usually accessed by web browsers from web servers. In short, the Web can be thought of
as an application "running" on the Internet.
Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page
into a web browser or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then
initiates a series of communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it.
Linking
Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source
documents, definitions and other web resources. Such a collection of useful related resources
interconnected via hypertext links is dubbed a web of information. The hyperlink structure of the
WWW is described by the web graph: the nodes of the web graph correspond to the web pages (or
URLs) the directed edges between them to the hyperlinks.
WWW prefix
Many domain names used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing
practice of naming The Internet hosts (servers) according to the services they provide. The hostname
for a web server is often www, in the same way that it may be ftp for an FTP server, and news or
nntp for a USENET news server. These host names appear as Domain Name System or [domain
name server] (DNS) subdomain names, as in www.example.com. Many established websites still use
'www', or they invent other sub-domain names such as 'www2', 'secure', etc. Many such web
servers are set up so that both the domain root (e.g., example.com) and the www sub-domain (e.g.,
www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may map to
different web sites.
When a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address bar input field,
some web browsers automatically try adding the prefix "www" to the beginning of it and possibly
".com", ".org" and ".net" ".ac" at the end, depending on what might be missing. For example,
entering 'alislam' may be transformed to http://www.alislam.org/ and 'humanityfirst' to
http://www.humanityfirst.org.
Scheme specifiers: http and https
The scheme specifier http:// or https:// at the start of a Web URI refers to Hypertext Transfer Protocol
or HTTP Secure respectively. Unlike www, which has no specific purpose, these specify the
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communication protocol to be used for the request and response. The HTTP protocol is fundamental
to the operation of the World Wide Web and the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when
confidential information such as passwords or banking information are to be exchanged over the
public The Internet. Web browsers usually prepend http:// to addresses too, if omitted.
Web Servers
The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request to clients. This means
delivery of HTML documents and any additional content that may be included by a document such
as images, style sheets and scripts.
Internet Privacy
Every time a web page is requested from a web server the server can identify, and usually it logs,
the IP address from which the request arrived. Equally, unless set not to do so, most web browsers
record the web pages that have been requested and viewed in a history feature, and usually cache
much of the content locally. Unless HTTPS encryption is used, web requests and responses travel in
plain text across the internet and they can be viewed, recorded and cached by intermediate systems.
When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information such as their
real name, address, e-mail address, etc., then a connection can be made between the current web
traffic and that individual. If the website uses HTTP cookies, username and password authentication,
or other tracking techniques, then it will be able to relate other web visits, before and after, to the
identifiable information provided. In this way it is possible for a web-based organisation to develop
and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be able to build a record
for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping interests, their
profession, and other aspects of their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential
interest to marketers, advertisers and others. Depending on the website's terms and conditions and
the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other
organisations without the user being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more
than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box, or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future
web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a
deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement, counter terrorism
and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals based on what appear to be
their interests or proclivities on the web.
Social networking sites make a point of trying to get the user to truthfully expose their real names,
interests and locations. This makes the social networking experience more realistic and therefore
engaging for all their users. On the other hand, photographs uploaded and unguarded statements
made will be identified to the individual, who may regret some decisions to publish these data.
Employers, schools, parents and other relatives may be influenced by aspects of social networking
profiles that the posting individual did not intend for these audiences. On-line bullies may make use
of personal information to harass or stalk users. Modern social networking websites allow fine
grained control of the privacy settings for each individual posting, but these can be complex and not
easy to find or use, especially for beginners.
Photographs and videos posted onto websites have caused particular problems, as they can add a
person's face to an on-line profile. With modern and potential facial recognition technology, it may
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then be possible to relate that face with other, previously anonymous, images, events and scenarios
that have been imaged elsewhere. Because of image caching, mirroring and copying, it is difficult to
remove an image from the World Wide Web.
Web Accessibility
There are methods available for accessing the web in alternative mediums and formats, so as to
enable use by individuals with disabilities. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical,
speech related, cognitive, neurological, or some combination therein. Accessibility features also help
others with temporary disabilities like a broken arm or the aging population as their abilities change.
The Web is used for receiving information as well as providing information and interacting with
society
Intellectual Property
The intellectual property rights for any creative work initially rest with its creator. Web users who
want to publish their work onto the World Wide Web, however, need to be aware of the details of
the way they do it. If artwork, photographs, writings, poems, or technical innovations are published
by their creator onto a privately owned web server, then they may choose the copyright and other
conditions freely themselves. This is unusual though; more commonly work is uploaded to web sites
and servers that are owned by other organizations. It depends upon the terms and conditions of the
site or service provider to what extent the original owner automatically signs over rights to their
work by the choice of destination and by the act of uploading.
Many users of the web erroneously assume that everything they may find on line is freely available
to them as if it was in the public domain. This is almost never the case, unless the web site
publishing the work clearly states that it is. On the other hand, content owners are aware of this
widespread belief, and expect that sooner or later almost everything that is published will probably
be used in some capacity somewhere without their permission. Many publishers therefore embed
visible or invisible digital watermarks in their media files, sometimes charging users to receive
unmarked copies for legitimate use. Digital rights management includes forms of access control
technology that further limit the use of digital content even after it has been bought or downloaded.
Security
The Web has become criminals' preferred pathway for spreading malware. Cyber crime carried out
on the Web can include identity theft, fraud, espionage/spying and intelligence gathering. Web-
based vulnerabilities now outnumber traditional computer security concerns, and as measured by
Google, about one in ten web pages may contain malicious code. The most common of all malware
threats is SQL injection attacks against websites.
Standards
Many formal standards and other technical specifications and software define the operation of
different aspects of the World Wide Web, the Internet and computer information exchange. Many of
the documents are the work of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), but some are produced by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and other organizations.
Caching (Web Cache)
If a user revisits a Web page after only a short interval, the page data may not need to be re-
obtained from the source Web server. Almost all web browsers cache recently obtained data,
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usually on the local hard drive. HTTP requests sent by a browser will usually ask only for data that
has changed since the last download. If the locally cached data are still current, they will be reused.
Caching helps reduce the amount of Web traffic on the Internet. There are other components of the
Internet that can cache Web content. Corporate and academic firewalls often cache Web resources
requested by one user for the benefit of all. Some search engines also store cached content from
websites. Apart from the facilities built into Web servers that can determine when files have been
updated and so need to be re-sent, designers of dynamically generated Web pages can control the
HTTP headers sent back to requesting users, so that transient or sensitive pages are not cached. The
Internet banking and news sites frequently use this facility.
Web Portal
A web portal is a website that brings information together from diverse sources in a uniform way.
Usually, each information source gets its dedicated area on the page for displaying information (a
portlet); often, the user can configure which ones to display.
Apart from the standard search engines feature, web portals offer other services such as e-mail,
news, stock prices, information, databases and entertainment. Portals provide a way for enterprises
to provide a consistent look and feel with access control and procedures for multiple applications
and databases, which otherwise would have been different entities altogether.
Examples of public web portals are AOL, Excite, iGoogle, MSN, and Yahoo!
Classification
Web portals are sometimes classified as horizontal or vertical. A horizontal portal is used as a
platform to several companies in the same economic sector or to the same type of manufacturers or
distributors. A vertical portal (also known as a "vortal") is a specialized entry point to a specific
market or industry niche, subject area, or interest. Some vertical portals are known as "vertical
information portals" (VIPs). VIPs provide news, editorial content, digital publications, and e-
commerce capabilities. In contrast to traditional vertical portals, VIPs also provide dynamic
multimedia applications including social networking, video posting, and blogging.
Types of Web Portals
Personal Portals A personal portal is a site on the World Wide Web that typically provides
personalized capabilities to its visitors, providing a pathway to other content. It
is designed to use distributed applications, different numbers and types of
middleware and hardware to provide services from a number of different
sources. Personal portals can be related to any specific topic such as providing
friend information on a social network or providing links to outside content
that may help others beyond your reach of services. Portals are not limited to
simply providing links. Information or content that is placed on the web may
create a portal in the sense of a path to new knowledge and capabilities.
Business Portals Business portals are designed for sharing and collaboration in workplaces. A
further business-driven requirement of portals is that the content be able to
work on multiple platforms such as personal computers, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), and cell phones/mobile phones. Information, news, and
updates are examples of content that would be delivered through such a
portal.
News Portals The traditional media rooms all around the world are fast adapting to the new
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 age technologies. This marks the beginning of news portals by media houses
across the globe. This new media channels give them the opportunity to reach
the viewers in a shorter span of time than their print media counterparts.
Government At the end of the dot-com boom in the 1990s, many governments had already
Web Portals committed to creating portal sites for their citizens. These included primary
portals to the governments as well as portals developed for specific audiences.
Cultural Portals Cultural portal aggregate digitised cultural collections of galleries, libraries,
archives and museums. This type of portals provides a point of access to
invisible web cultural content that may not be indexed by standard search
engines. Digitised collections can include books, artworks, photography,
journals, newspapers, music, sound recordings, film, maps, diaries and letters,
and archived websites as well as the descriptive metadata associated with each
type of cultural work. These portals are usually based around specific national
or regional groupings of institutions.
Corporate Web Corporate Portals offer customers & employees self-service opportunities.
Portals
Stock Portals Also known as stock-share portals, stock market portals or stock exchange
portals are Web-based applications that facilitates the process of informing the
share-holders with substantial online data such as the latest price, ask/bids, the
latest News, reports and announcements. Some stock portals use online
gateways through a central depository system (CDS) for the visitors (ram) to
buy or sell their shares or manage their portfolio.
Search Portals Search portals aggregate results from several search engines into one page.
Tender's Portals Tender's portals stands for a gateway to search/modify/submit/archive data on
tenders and professional processing of continuous online tenders.
With a tender portal the complete tendering process—submitting of proposals,
assessment, administration—are done on the web. Electronic or online
tendering is just carrying out the same traditional tendering process in an
electronic form, using the The Internet.
Using online tendering, bidders can do any of the following:
1. Receive notification of the tenders.
2. Receive tender documents online.
3. Fill out the forms online.
4. Submit proposals and documents.
5. Submit bids online
Hosted Web Hosted web portals gained popularity a number of companies began offering
Portals them as a hosted service. The hosted portal market fundamentally changed the
composition of portals. As hosted web portals have risen in popularity their
feature set has grown to include hosted databases, document management,
email, discussion forums and more. Hosted portals automatically personalize
the content generated from their modules to provide a personalized experience
to their users. In this regard they have remained true to the original goals of
the earlier corporate web portals. Emerging new classes of the Internet portals
called Cloud Portals are showcasing the power of API (Application
Programming Interface) rich software systems leveraging SOA (service oriented
architecture, web services, and custom data exchange) to accommodate
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 machine to machine interaction creating a more fluid user experience for
connecting users spanning multiple domains during a given "session".
Domain-Specific A number of portals have come about that are specific to the particular
Portals domain, offering access to related companies and services, a prime example of
this trend would be the growth in property portals that give access to services
such as estate agents, removal firm, and solicitors that offer conveyance. Along
the same lines, industry-specific news and information portals have appeared,
such as the clinical trials specific portal: IFPMA Clinical Trials Portal
What is Web 2.0?
'Web 2.0' (pronounced "web two-point-oh") is the (slightly annoying) name given to the recent
development of interactive websites that are quite different to the old, static websites.
Many websites on the Web today allow users to:
(a) Share information (e.g. notes and photos on Facebook)
(b) Interact (add comments, chat, etc.)
(c) Collaborate on content (e.g. creating pages on Wikipedia)
(d) Create their own content (e.g. videos on YouTube)
Web 2.0 is often called the 'Social Web' because of the way that users can interact and share. It's
also been called the 'Read-Write Web' because much of the content is now written by users (they're
not just reading)
SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION ON THE WEB
You can search for any type information on the web using web browsers.
Web Browser
A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information
resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource
Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present
in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources.
A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users
to access, retrieve and view web documents and other resources on the Internet.
Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to
access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems. A web
browser is an example of a user agent (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software
used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps and other software that
accesses, consumes or displays web content.
Examples/Types of Web Browsers
The major web browsers available include the following
Web Description
Browsber

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Mozilla Mozilla Firefox is a free and open source web browser developed for Windows,
OS X and Linux, with a mobile version for Android, by Mozilla Foundation and
its subsidiary, the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox uses the Gecko layout engine to
render web pages, which implements current and anticipated web standards.
As of October 2012, Firefox has approximately 20% to 24% of worldwide usage
share of web browsers, making it the third most used web browser, according to
Firefox different sources. According to Mozilla, Firefox counts over 450 million users
around the world.
Firefox implements many web standards. Firefox also implements standards
proposals created by the WHATWG such as client-side storage, and canvas
element. It is more one of the most commonly used web browsers on the
Internet.
The Internet The Internet Explorer (formerly Microsoft The Internet Explorer and Windows
Explorer The Internet Explorer, commonly abbreviated IE or MSIE) is a series of graphical
web browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft
Windows line of operating systems, starting in 1995. As of 2013, there are
eleven versions. The latest by The Internet Explorer 11.
The Internet Explorer is one of the most widely used web browsers, attaining a
peak of about 95% usage share. Its usage share has since declined with the
launch of Safari (2003), Firefox (2004), and Google Chrome (2008), each of
which now has significant market share. Since its first release, Microsoft has
added features and technologies to support advanced capabilities.) The latest
versions allow Web sites to have native-language addresses with non-Latin
characters.
Versions of The Internet Explorer for other operating systems have also been
produced, including an Xbox 360 version called The Internet Explorer for Xbox
and an embedded OEM version called Pocket The Internet Explorer, later re-
branded The Internet Explorer Mobile, which is currently based on The Internet
Explorer 9 and made for Windows Phone. The Internet Explorer has been
designed to view a broad range of web pages and provide certain features within
the operating system, including Microsoft Update.
Safari Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. and included with the Mac OS
X and iOS operating systems. It became Apple's default browser beginning with
Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther". Safari is also the native browser for iOS.
According to Net Applications, Safari accounted for 62.17 percent of mobile web
browsing traffic and 5.43 percent of desktop traffic in October 2011, giving a
combined market share of 8.72 percent.
Opera Opera is a web browser and Internet suite developed by Opera Software with
over 300 million users worldwide. The browser handles common Internet-related
tasks such as displaying web sites and interpreting HTML, sending and receiving
e-mail messages, managing contacts, chatting on IRC, downloading files, and
reading web feeds. Opera is offered free of charge for personal computers and
mobile phones.
Opera Mini, which is the third most popular mobile web browser has been
chosen as the default integrated web browser in several mobile handsets such as
Mobile phones, Tablets, Smartphones, PDAs, and Nintendo DS by their
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 respective manufacturers.
Features include tabbed browsing, page zooming, mouse gestures, and an
integrated download manager. Its security features include built-in phishing and
malware protection and the ability to delete private data such as HTTP cookies.
Opera runs on a variety of personal computer operating systems. Opera editions
are available for devices using the, Bada, BlackBerry, Symbian, Windows Mobile,
Android, and iOS operating systems, and Java ME. Approximately 120 million
mobile phones have been shipped with Opera. Opera is the only commercial
web browser available for the Nintendo DS and Wii gaming systems. Some
television set-top boxes as well as TV-set use Opera to render HTML-based
interactive content. Adobe Systems has licensed Opera technology for use in the
Adobe Creative Suite.
Opera includes built-in tabbed browsing, ad blocking, fraud protection, a
download manager and BitTorrent client, a search bar, and a web feed
aggregator. Opera also comes with an e-mail client called Opera Mail and an
IRC chat client built in.
Opera includes a "Speed Dial" feature, which allows the user to add an unlimited
number of pages shown in thumbnail form in a page displayed when a new tab
is opened. Thumbnails of the linked pages are automatically generated and used
for visual recognition on the Speed Dial page or can be modified using Opera
Image Dial Generator. Once set up, this feature allows the user to more easily
navigate to the selected web pages.
Opera is extensible in a third way via plug-ins, relatively small programs that add
specific functions to the browser as of Opera 11. However, Opera limits what
plug-ins can do. Additionally, "User JavaScript" may be used to add custom
JavaScript to web pages.
Netscape Netscape Navigator was a proprietary web browser. It was the flagship product
Navigator of the Netscape Communications Corporation and was the dominant web
browser in terms of usage share in the 1990s.
The business demise of Netscape was a central premise of Microsoft's antitrust
trial, wherein the Court ruled that Microsoft Corporation's bundling of The
Internet Explorer with the Windows operating system was a monopolistic and
illegal business practice. The decision came too late for Netscape however, as
The Internet Explorer had by then become the dominant web browser in
Windows. The Netscape Navigator web browser was succeeded by Netscape
Communicator. AOL stopped development of Netscape Navigator on December
28, 2007. AOL allows downloading of archived versions of the Netscape
Navigator web browser family. AOL maintains the Netscape website as an
Internet portal.
Google Google Chrome is a freeware web browser developed by Google that uses the
Chrome WebKit layout engine as of its latest stable release. It was released as a beta
version for Microsoft Windows Google Chrome has a 39% worldwide usage
share of web browsers making it the most widely used web browser in the world.
Net Applications, however, indicates that Chrome is only third when it comes to
the size of its user base, behind The Internet Explorer and Firefox. Google
Chrome aims to be secure, fast, simple, and stable. One of Chrome's strengths is
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 its application performance and JavaScript processing speed, both of which were
independently verified by multiple websites to be the swiftest among the major
browsers of its time. Many of Chrome's unique features had been previously
announced by other browser developers, but Google was the first to implement
and publicly release them. For example, a prominent graphical user interface
(GUI) innovation, the merging of the address bar and search bar (the Omnibox).
Wyzo Wyzo is a web browser based on Mozilla Firefox by Radical Software Ltd. The
authors claim it is intended to download and manage all types of media, and
they are naming it a Media Browser, Instead of a web browser. It is currently in
Beta development stage and supports Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X but not
Linux.
Functions of Web Browsers
1. The primary purpose of a web browser is to bring information resources to the user
("retrieval" or "fetching"), allow them to view the information ("display", "rendering"), and then
access other information ("navigation", "following links").
2. This process begins when the user inputs a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), for example
http://en.wikipedia.org/, into the browser. The prefix of the URL, the Uniform Resource
Identifier or URI, determines how the URL will be interpreted. The most commonly used kind
of URI starts with http: and identifies a resource to be Retrieved over the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP). Many browsers also support a variety of other prefixes, such as https: for
HTTPS, ftp: for the File Transfer Protocol, and file: for local files. Prefixes that the web
browser cannot directly handle are often handed off to another application entirely. For
example, mailto: URIs are usually passed to the user's default e-mail application, and news:
URIs are passed to the user's default newsgroup reader.
3. In the case of http, https, file, and others, once the resource has been retrieved the web
browser will display it. HTML and associated content (image files, formatting information
such as CSS, etc.) is passed to the browser's layout engine to be transformed from markup to
an interactive document, a process known as "rendering". Aside from HTML, web browsers
can generally display any kind of content that can be part of a web page. Most browsers can
display images, audio, video, and XML files, and often have plug-ins to support Flash
applications and Java applets. Upon encountering a file of an unsupported type or a file that
is set up to be downloaded rather than displayed, the browser prompts the user to save the
file to disk.
4. Information resources may contain hyperlinks to other information resources. Each link
contains the URI of a resource to go to. When a link is clicked, the browser navigates to the
resource indicated by the link's target URI, and the process of bringing content to the user
begins again.
Features of Web Browsers
1. Available web browsers range in features from minimal, text-based user interfaces with bare-
bones support for HTML to rich user interfaces supporting a wide variety of file formats and
protocols. Browsers which include additional components to support e-mail, Usenet news,
and The Internet Relay Chat (IRC), are sometimes referred to as "The Internet suites" rather
than merely "web browsers".
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 2. All major web browsers allow the user to open multiple information resources at the same
time, either in different browser windows or in different tabs of the same window. Major
browsers also include pop-up blockers to prevent unwanted windows from "popping up"
without the user's consent.
3. Most web browsers can display a list of web pages that the user has bookmarked so that the
user can quickly return to them. Bookmarks are also called "Favorites" in The Internet
Explorer. In addition, all major web browsers have some form of built-in web feed
aggregator. In Firefox, web feeds are formatted as "live bookmarks" and behave like a folder
of bookmarks corresponding to recent entries in the feed. In Opera, a more traditional feed
reader is included which stores and displays the contents of the feed.
4. Furthermore, most browsers can be extended via plug-ins, downloadable components that
provide additional features.
5. Major browsers also possess incremental find features to search within a web page.
6. Privacy and security: Most browsers support HTTP Secure and offer quick and easy ways to
delete the web cache, cookies, and browsing history.
7. Standards support: Early web browsers supported only a very simple version of HTML. The
rapid development of proprietary web browsers led to the development of non-standard
dialects of HTML, leading to problems with interoperability. Modern web browsers support a
combination of standards-based and de facto HTML and XHTML, which should be rendered
in the same way by all browsers.
8. Extensibility: A browser extension is a computer program that extends the functionality of a
web browser. Every major web browser supports the development of browser extensions.
Web Browser User Interface
Feature On a Web Description
Browser
Back and Forward buttons Back and forward buttons to go back to the previous resource and
forward respectively.
Refresh or Reload button A refresh or reload button to reload the current resource.
Stop button A stop button to cancel loading the resource. In some browsers, the
stop button is merged with the reload button.
Home button A home button to return to the user's home page.
Address Bar An address bar to input the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) of the
desired resource and display it.
Search bar A search bar to input terms into a search engine. In some browsers,
the search bar is merged with the address bar.
Status bar A status bar to display progress in loading the resource and also the
URI of links when the cursor hovers over them, and page zooming
capability.
Web Search Engine
A web search engine is software code that is designed to search for information on the World Wide
Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine
results pages (SERP's). The information may be a specialist in web pages, images, information and
other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories.

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How Web Search Engines Work
A search engine operates in the following order:
1. Web crawling
2. Indexing
3. Searching
Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they retrieve from
the HTML itself. These pages are retrieved by a Web crawler (sometimes also known as a spider) —
an automated Web browser which follows every link on the site. Exclusions can be made by the use
of robots.txt. The contents of each page are then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed
(for example, words can be extracted from the titles, page content, headings, or special fields called
Meta tags). Data about web pages are stored in an index database for use in later queries. A query
can be a single word. The index helps find information as quickly as possible. Some search engines,
such as Google, store all or part of the source page (referred to as a cache) as well as information
about the web pages, whereas others, such as AltaVista, store every word of every page they find.
This cached page always holds the actual search text since it is the one that was actually indexed,
so it can be very useful when the content of the current page has been updated and the search
terms are no longer in it.
When a user enters a query into a search engine (typically by using keywords), the engine examines
its index and provides a listing of best-matching web pages according to its criteria, usually with a
short summary containing the document's title and sometimes parts of the text. The index is built
from the information stored with the data and the method by which the information is indexed. The
engine looks for the words or phrases exactly as entered. Natural language queries allow the user to
type a question in the same form one would ask it to a human. A site like this would be ask.com.
The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the result set it gives back. While
there may be millions of web pages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be
more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others. Most search engines employ methods to rank
the results to provide the "best" results first. How a search engine decides which pages are the best
matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies widely from one engine to another.
The methods also change over time as Internet usage changes and new techniques evolve. There are
two main types of search engine that have evolved: one is a system of predefined and hierarchically
ordered keywords that humans have programmed extensively. The other is a system that generates
an "inverted index" by analyzing texts it locates. This first form relies much more heavily on the
computer itself to do the bulk of the work.
Most Web search engines are commercial ventures supported by advertising revenue and, as a
result, some employ, the practice of allowing advertisers to pay money to have their listings ranked
higher in search results. Search engines that don't accept money for their search results make money
by running search related ads alongside the regular search engine results. The search engines make
money every time someone clicks on one of these ads.
To search for the information on the web using a search engine (Using Google Search)
You can web search engines to search for information on the web, most especially either when you
do not know the exact/specific website that has the information you are looking for or you want to
quickly find/located the information without directly opening the website that has it.

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 1. Open your web browser (for example you can open Mozilla Firefox or Internet Explorer)
2. Type www.google.co.ug in the address bar of your web browser
3. Type the keyword of the information you want to find, (for example, type Internet)
4. The browser will display a list of websites with the keyword “Internet”
5. Open any link you want to display the page.
Examples of Search Engine
Google, Baidu, Yandex, WebCrawler Lycos, AltaVista, Excite, Yahoo! Search, MSN Search, AOL
Search, Ask.com, Live Search, Bing are popular search engines available
Google Search Google Search (or Google Web Search) is a web search engine owned by
Google Inc. Google Search is the most-used search engine on the World
Wide Web, receiving several hundred million queries each day through its
various services.
The order of search results on Google's search-results pages is based, in
part, on a priority rank called a "PageRank". Google Search provides many
options for customized search, using Boolean operators such as: exclusion
("-xx"), alternatives ("xx OR yy"), and wildcards ("x * x").
The main purpose of Google Search is to hunt for text in publicly accessible
documents offered by web servers, as opposed to other data, such as with
Google Image Search. Google Search provides at least 22 special features
beyond the original word-search capability. These include synonyms,
weather forecasts, time zones, stock quotes, maps, earthquake data, movie
show-times, airports, home listings, and sports scores. There are special
features for dates, including ranges, prices, temperatures, money/unit
conversions, calculations, and package tracking, patents, area codes, and
language translation of displayed pages. Google introduced "Google Voice
Search" and "Search by Image" features for allowing the users to search
words by speaking and by giving images.
You can use Google Search to search a variety of features including web
pages, images, videos, and maps and also accessing mails using GMail.
Yahoo! Search Yahoo! Search is a web search engine, owned by Yahoo! Inc. the 2nd
largest search directory on the web by query volume, at 6.42%, after its
competitor Google at 85.35% and before Baidu at 3.67%, according to Net
Applications. Yahoo! Search, originally referred to as Yahoo! provided
Search interface, would send queries to a searchable index of pages
supplemented with its directory of sites.
Yahoo! Inc. is an American multinational Internet corporation. It is widely
known for its web portal, search engine Yahoo! Search, and related
services, including Yahoo! Directory, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! Messenger,
Yahoo! News, Yahoo! Finance, Yahoo! Groups, Yahoo! Answers,
advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports and its social
media website. It is one of the most popular sites in the United States.
MSN MSN (originally The Microsoft Network; stylized as msn) is a collection of
Internet sites and services provided by Microsoft. The Microsoft Network
debuted as an online service and Internet service provider . Microsoft used
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 Search the MSN brand name to promote numerous popular web-based services
most notably Hotmail and Microsoft Messenger service, before reorganizing
many of them under another brand name, Windows Live. MSN.com was
the 17th most visited domain name on the Internet.
MSN offers various services including mails (Hotmail, Windows Live) it is
also a search engine.
Bing Bing (known previously as Live Search, Windows Live Search, and MSN
Search) is a web search engine (advertised as a "decision engine") from
Microsoft.
It is capable of listing of search suggestions while queries are entered and a
list of related searches. Bing includes "Sidebar", a social feature that
searches users' social networks for information relevant to the search query.

Search engine bias How to use search engines for research

Although search engines are programmed to rank websites based on their popularity and relevancy,
empirical studies indicate various political, economic, and social biases in the information they
provide. These biases could be a direct result of economic and commercial processes (e.g.,
companies that advertise with a search engine can become also more popular in its organic search
results), and political processes (e.g., the removal of search results to comply with local laws).
Google Bombing is one example of an attempt to manipulate search results for political, social or
commercial reasons.
Customized results and filter bubbles
Many search engines such as Google and Bing provide customized results based on the user's
activity history. This leads to an effect that has been called a filter bubble. The term describes a
phenomenon in which websites use algorithms to selectively guess what information a user would
like to see, based on information about the user (such as location, past click behaviour and search
history). As a result, websites tend to show only information that agrees with the user's past
viewpoint, effectively isolating the user in a bubble that tends to exclude contrary information. Prime
examples are Google's personalized search results and Facebook's personalized news stream.
The Internet Codes
Domain name
A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority,
or control on the Internet. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain
Name System (DNS). Technically, any name registered in the DNS is a domain name.
Domain names are used in various networking contexts and application-specific naming and
addressing purposes. In general, a domain name represents an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such
as a personal computer used to access the Internet, a server computer hosting a web site, or the web
site itself or any other service communicated via the Internet.
Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (sub-domains) of the DNS root domain, which is
nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the
generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net and org, and the
country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are
the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users
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who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible The
Internet resources or run web sites. The registration of these domain names is usually administered
by domain name registrars who sell their services to the public.
A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name with no omitted parts, completely
specifying its hierarchy in the DNS. Although labels in the Domain Name System are case-
insensitive, domain names are usually written in lowercase.
Purpose
1. Domain names serve as humanly memorable names for The Internet participants, like
computers, networks, and services. A domain name represents an The Internet Protocol (IP)
resource. Individual The Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, or
host names. Host names are the leaf labels in the domain name system usually without
further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform
Resource Locators (URLs) for The Internet resources such as web sites (e.g., en.wikipedia.org).
2. Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control
of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol
(SIP), the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, and in many other
Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs).
3. An important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable
names to numerically addressed The Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource
to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally
or locally in an intranet. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource
and the corresponding translation of this IP address to and from its domain name.
4. Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a domain
name that corresponds to their name, helping The Internet users to reach them easily. For
instance IBM's web site is at ibm.com, and Microsoft is at microsoft.com.
5. Generic domain names increase popularity. A generic domain name may sometimes define
an entire category of business that a company is involved in, rather than being the name of
the company. Some examples of generic names include books.com, music.com, travel.com
and art.com. Companies have created successful brands based on a generic name, and such
generic domain names tend to be very valuable.
6. Domain names are often referred to simply as domains and domain name registrants are
frequently referred to as domain owners, although domain name registration with a registrar
does not confer any legal ownership of the domain name, only an exclusive right of use.
7. The use of domain names in commerce may subject them to trademark law.
Domain name space
Today, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) manages the top-level
development and architecture of the Internet domain name space. It authorizes domain name
registrars, through which domain names may be registered and reassigned. The domain name space
consists of a tree of domain names. Each node in the tree holds information associated with the
domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the DNS root zone.
Domain Name Syntax

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A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels that are conventionally
concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com
 The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name
www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com.
 The hierarchy of domains descends from the right to the left label in the name; each label to
the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the
label example specifies a node example.com as a subdomain of the com domain, and www
is a label to create www.example.com, a subdomain of example.com. This tree of labels may
consist of 127 levels. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The empty label is
reserved for the root node. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253
characters. In practice, some domain registries may have shorter limits.
 A hostname is a domain name that has at least one associated IP address. For example, the
domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas the com
domain is not. However, other top-level domains, particularly country code top-level
domains, may indeed have an IP address, and if so, they are also hostnames.
 Hostnames impose restrictions on the characters allowed in the corresponding domain name.
A valid hostname is also a valid domain name, but a valid domain name may not necessarily
be valid as a hostname.
Domain Name Administration
The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars who are accredited by the
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the organization charged with
overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level
domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization operating a
registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it
administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar
authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special
service, the whois protocol.
Registries and registrars usually charge an annual fee for the service of delegating a domain name to
a user and providing a default set of name servers. Often, this transaction is termed a sale or lease of
the domain name, and the registrant may sometimes be called an "owner", but no such legal
relationship is actually associated with the transaction, only the exclusive right to use the domain
name. More correctly, authorized users are known as "registrants" or as "domain holders".
Note: DNS names are not case-sensitive, and some names may be misinterpreted in certain uses
of capitalization.
Top-Level Domain
A top-level domain (TLD) such as .com and .net and .org is one of the domains at the highest level
in the hierarchical Domain Name System of the The Internet. For example, in the domain name
www.example.com, the top-level domain is .com (or .COM, as domain names are not case-
sensitive). Management of most top-level domains is delegated to responsible organizations by the
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which operates the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and is in charge of maintaining the DNS root zone. Every
domain name ends in a top-level or first-level domain label. the domains Gov[ernment],
Edu[cation], Com[mercial], Mil[itary], Org[anisations], Net[work], and Int[ernational].
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Types of Top-Level Domain
IANA today distinguishes the following groups of top-level domains:
Country-code top-level domains (ccTLD): Two letter domains established for countries or
territories. With some historical exceptions, the code for any territory is the same as its two-letter
ISO 3166 code.
Country code Country name
.uk United kingdom www.yahoo.co.uk, www.khuddam.org.uk,
.us United States
.de Deschtland or Germany www.dwtv.de
.au Australia
.za South Africa for example, www.multichoice.co.za,
.ug Uganda for example, www.newvision.co.ug, www.ntvuganda.co.ug,
www.google.co.ug,
.ke Kenya
.tz Tanzania
Second-level domain
In the Domain Name System (DNS) hierarchy, a second-level domain (SLD) is a domain that is
directly below a top-level domain (TLD). For example, in example.com, example is the second-level
domain of the .com TLD.
Second-level domains commonly refer to the organization that registered the domain name with a
domain name registrar. Some domain name registries introduce a second-level hierarchy to a TLD
that indicates the type of organization intended to register an SLD under it. For example, in the .uk
namespace a college or other academic institution would register under the .ac.uk ccSLD, while
companies would register under .co.uk.
Generic top-level domains (gTLD): Top-level domains with three or more characters. Unsponsored
top-level domains: domains that operate directly under policies established by ICANN processes for
the global The Internet community. Generic top-level domains (formerly Categories) initially
consisted of GOV, EDU, COM, MIL, ORG, and NET. More generic TLDs have been added, such as
info.
Generic top-level domains Description
.com Commercial or business organisations for example,
www.yahoo.com, www.supersport.com, www.arsenal.com,
.co Registered Companies for example www.mtn.co.ug,
www.google.co.ug, www.waridtel.co.ug, www.newvision.co.ug,
.go or .gov Government agency/departments for example, www.ncdc.go.ug,
.net Networking organisation/departments for example
www.realsoft.net,
.org Non government organisation or charitable trust organisations for
example, www.khuddam.org.uk, www.alislam.org,
www.loveforallhatredfornone.org, www.reviewofreligions.org,
www.humanityfirst.org, www.nssfug.org

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 .mil Military department
.tv Television broadcasting organisations for example, www.mta.tv,
.ac Academic institutions or higher institutions of learning. for
example universities, www.mak.ac.ug, www.uneb.ac.ug,
www.iuiu.ac.ug,
.edu Educational institution most especially primary and secondary
schools for example. www.winstoncollege.edu
Proposed Domains
Around late 2000 when ICANN discussed and finally introduced aero, biz, coop, info, museum,
name, and pro TLDs, site owners argued that a similar TLD should be made available for adult and
pornographic websites to settle the dispute of obscene content on the Internet and the responsibility
of US service providers under the US Communications Decency Act of 1996. Several options were
proposed including xxx, sex and adult. As of June 2010, the .xxx TLD has received initial approval
from the ICANN, based upon a proposal by the sponsoring agency for this TLD, a Florida-based
company called ICM Registry.
An older proposal consisted of seven new gTLDs: arts, firm, info, nom, rec, shop, and web. Later
biz, info, museum, and name covered most of these old proposals.
During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008, ICANN started a new
process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic
top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or already proposed
domains, as well a new application and implementation process. Observers believed that the new
rules could result in hundreds of new gTLDs to be registered. Proposed TLDs include free, music,
shop, berlin, wien and nyc.
Technical requirements and process
In the process of registering a domain name and maintaining authority over the new name space
created, registrars use several key pieces of information connected with a domain:
 Administrative contact. A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage
the domain name. The administrative contact usually has the highest level of control over a
domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include
management of all business information, such as name of record, postal address, and contact
information of the official registrant of the domain and the obligation to conform to the
requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name.
Furthermore the administrative contact installs additional contact information for technical
and billing functions.
 Technical contact. The technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The
functions of a technical contact include assuring conformance of the configurations of the
domain name with the requirements of the domain registry, maintaining the domain zone
records, and providing continuous functionality of the name servers (that leads to the
accessibility of the domain name).
 Billing contact. The party responsible for receiving billing invoices from the domain name
registrar and paying applicable fees.
 Name servers. Most registrars provide two or more name servers as part of the registration
service. However, a registrant may specify its own authoritative name servers to host a
domain's resource records. The registrar's policies govern the number of servers and the type
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 of server information required. Some providers require a hostname and the corresponding IP
address or just the hostname, which must be resolvable either in the new domain, or exist
elsewhere. Based on traditional requirements (RFC 1034), typically a minimum of two servers
is required.
Domain names may be formed from the set of alphanumeric ASCII characters (a-z, A-Z, 0-9), but
characters are case-insensitive. In addition the hyphen is permitted if it is surrounded by a characters
or digits, i.e. it is not the start or end of a label. Labels are always separated by the full stop (period)
character in the textual name representation.
Use in Web Site Hosting
The domain name is a component of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) used to access web sites,
for example:
 URL: http://www.example.net/index.html
 Top-level domain name: net
 Second-level domain name: example.net
 Host name: www.example.net
A domain name may point to multiple IP addresses in order to provide server redundancy for the
cybernetic services to be delivered; such multi-address capability is used to manage the traffic of
large, popular web sites. More commonly, however, one server computer, at a given IP address,
may also host web sites in different domains. Such address overloading enables virtual web hosting,
commonly used by large web hosting services to conserve IP address space. IP-address overloading
is possible through a feature in the HTTP version 1.1 protocols, but not in the HTTP version 1.0
protocol, which requires that a request identify the domain name being referred for connection.
Blogs and Blogging
A blog is a website where someone (usually a normal person - not a professional writer) writes
about a topic.
Blogs can be personal (someone writing about their own life, or their personal views), based on an
interest (e.g. football), or some businesses also use blogs to write about new products, etc.
A blog allows someone to be a writer and publisher on the Web with very little effort or cost. A
blog can be setup with just a few clicks, whereas a few years ago you'd need a lot of technical
knowledge to create your own website. Many blogs have systems that allow readers to leave
comments and begin discussions connected with the blog posts.
Blogging (the act of writing a blog) has become very popular over the past decade or so (there are
well over 200 million unique blogs). Some blogs are very popular and have hundreds of thousands
of readers, but many are only read by a tiny number of readers (probably just the writer's family and
friends!)
Blogs allow people to publish their views and opinions very easily, without anyone else checking
what they are writing. For this reason, it is very important that you do not take the viewpoints
expressed on blogs as facts - they are just one person's opinion and maybe factually very wrong.
The word 'blog' is an abbreviation of 'web log'.
A 'log' is a place where a list of information is written down, so a 'web log' is a place where people
write a list of things on the Web.

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Each entry on a blog is called a post.
One form of blogging, where people publish very short posts, is known as 'Micro-blogging'.
The most well-known micro-blog is Twitter. Many famous celebrities use Twitter to let the world
know what they are up to, e.g. Ashton Kutcher
Wikis
A wiki is a website that allows users to collaborate (work together) to create the content. The pages
of a wiki can be edited by everyone (or those who have the password) so that different people can
add to the page, edit things, fix errors, etc.
Wikis often automatically create automatic links between pages. E.g. if a wiki page exists called
'Camels' and you write the word 'camel', the word will become a link to the Camel page. This
feature means that wikis are very useful for creating sites containing lots of connected information.
Wikis are used for websites such as:
 Encyclopaedia (e.g. Wikipedia, Webopedia)
 Help sites (e.g. This site for Ubuntu Linux)
Because many people can edit pages on a wiki, you have to be aware that the information you read
may not be entirely accurate - sometimes people edit pages and write things that are wrong. Usually
the errors are noticed and fixed by other wiki users, but not always.
The most famous wiki is wikipedia - a user-
created encyclopaedia.
Many people do not trust Wikipedia because
anyone can edit the pages. However because
so many people check the pages so often,
errors are usually fixed within hours. Many
studies have found Wikipedia to be as accurate
and reliable as other (non-wiki) encyclopaedia
websites

Media Uploading Sites

There are many websites that allow users to create, upload and share their own media such as
photos, music or video. Usually other users can rate or comment on the media that is uploaded
leading to these sites often being referred to as 'Social Media' sites. All media upload sites have
rules about the type of media that you can upload - you have to either own the copyright to the
image / music / video yourself, or have permission from the copyright owner. The most famous
video upload site is YouTube.
Video upload sites are especially popular. However the videos that are uploaded can sometimes
contain offensive scenes (this is why YouTube is blocked in so many schools).
Some popular media upload sites: YouTube (video), Vimeo (video), Flickr (photos), PhotoBucket
(photos), MySpace (music), ccMixter (music)
Social Networks
A social network website is a site that allows user to connect with other users who are friends /
relatives, or who share similar interests. Connected users can then share information / pictures / files
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with each other, send messages, chat, etc. One of the biggest social networking websites is
Facebook.
For many people, social networking sites are the main method of communicating with friends
online.
In fact social networks have surpassed e-mail as the main communication link for non-business Web
users
Other examples of popular social networking sites: Bebo, Friendster, Habbo, LinkedIn, MySpace,
Orkut
EMAIL SERVICE (Electronic Mail)
Email
Electronic mail, most commonly referred to as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital
messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or
other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both
be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today's email systems are based on
a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver and store messages. Neither the
users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only briefly,
typically to an email server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
Email address
An email address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered. The local part of
an address (before the @ sign) is case-sensitive (with the exception of [email protected]).
The domain part (after the@ sign) is not case-sensitive. Most organizations treat uppercase and
lowercase letters in the local part as equivalent. The risk of delivery failures due to case differences
can be minimized by using only lower case characters when creating new addresses.
Creating an Email Account
Overview
The transmission of email over the Internet normally uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
defined in The Internet standards RFC 5321 and RFC 5322, and extensions like RFC 6531.
Mailboxes themselves are most often accessed using the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP), though the use of webmail(where the mailbox contents is rendered
in a client browser by HTML) is becoming more common.
The general format of an email address is [email protected]. It consists of two parts: the part
before the @ sign is the local-part of the address, often the username of the recipient (kakaismael),
and the part after the @ sign is a domain name to which the email message will be sent
(example.org).
The local-part of an email address has no significance to intermediate mail relay systems other than
the final mailbox host. Email programs and intermediate mail relay systems must not assume it to be
case-insensitive, since the final mailbox host may or may not treat it as such. The same mailbox can
be set up to receive emails from multiple email addresses. Conversely, a single email address may
be an alias and have a distribution function to many mailboxes. Email aliases, electronic mailing
lists, sub-addressing, and catch-all addresses, the latter being mailboxes that receive messages
regardless of the local part, are common patterns for achieving such results.
The addresses found in the header fields of an email message are not the ones used by SMTP servers
to deliver the message. Servers use the so-called message envelope to route mail. While envelope
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and header addresses may be equal, forged email addresses are often seen in spam, phishing, and
many other the Internet-based scams. This has led to several initiatives which aim to make such
forgeries easier to spot.
To indicate for whom the message is intended, a user can use the "display name" of the recipient
followed by the address specification surrounded by angled brackets, for example: Kaka
Ismael <[email protected]>.
Syntax
The format of email addresses is local-part@domain where the local-part may be up to 64 characters
long and the domain name may have a maximum of 253 characters – but the maximum 256
characters length of a forward or reverse path restricts the entire email address to be no more than
254 characters.
Local part
The local-part of the email address may use any of these ASCII characters.
A quoted string may exist as a dot separated entity within the local-part, or it may exist when the
outermost quotes are the outermost characters of the local-part (e.g. abc."defghi"[email protected]
or "abcdefghixyz"@example.com are allowed. Conversely, abc"defghi"[email protected] is not;
neither is abc\"def\"[email protected]). Quoted strings and characters however, are not commonly
used. RFC 5321 also warns that "a host that expects to receive mail SHOULD avoid defining
mailboxes where the Local-part requires (or uses) the Quoted-string form".
The local-part "postmaster" is treated specially – it is case-insensitive, and should be forwarded to
the server's administrator. Technically all other local-parts are case sensitive, therefore
[email protected] and [email protected] specify different mailboxes; however,
many organizations treat uppercase and lowercase letters as equivalent.
Most organizations do not allow use of the technically valid characters space, ? and ^.
Organizations are free to restrict the forms of their own email addresses as desired, e.g., Windows
Live Hotmail, for example, only allows creation of email addresses using alphanumeric, dot (.),
underscore (_) and hyphen (-).
Systems that send mail must be capable of handling outgoing mail for all valid addresses. Contrary
to the relevant standards, some defective systems treat certain legitimate addresses as invalid and fail
to handle mail to these addresses. Hotmail, for example, refuses to send mail to any address
containing any of the following standards-permissible characters: !#$%*/?^`{|}~
Domain part
The domain name part of an email address has to conform to strict guidelines: it must match the
requirements for a hostname, consisting of letters, digits, hyphens and dots. In addition, the domain
part may be an IP address literal, surrounded by square braces, such as kakaismael@[192.168.2.1],
although this is rarely seen except in email spam. Internationalized domain names (which are
encoded to comply with the requirements for a hostname) allow for presentation of non-ASCII
domain parts.
Comments are allowed in the domain part as well as in the local part. E.g.
"kaka.ismael@(comment)example.com" and "[email protected](comment)" are equivalent to
"[email protected]".
Local-part normalization
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Interpretation of the local-part of an email address is dependent on the conventions and policies
implemented in the mail server. For example, case-sensitivity may distinguish mailboxes differing
only in capitalization of characters of the local-part, although this is not very common. Gmail
ignores all dots in the local-part for the purposes of determining account identity. This prevents the
creation of user accounts your.user.name or yourusername when the account your.username already
exists.
Validation
Not only are email addresses used in a mail client or on a mail server, but also used in websites
where a user-supplied email address is often validated.
An email address is generally recognized as having two parts joined with an at-sign (@); this in itself
is a basic form of validation. However, the technical specification detailed in RFC 822 and
subsequent RFCs go far beyond this, offering very complex and strict restrictions.
This means that many mail servers adopt very relaxed validation that allows and handles email
addresses that are disallowed according to the RFC and instead verify the email address against
relevant systems such as DNS for the domain part or using callback verification to check if the
mailbox exists.
Conversely, many websites check email addresses much more strictly than the standard specifies,
rejecting addresses containing valid characters like + or / signs, or setting arbitrary length limitations
(e.g., 30 characters). RFC 3696 was written to give specific advice for validating the Internet
identifiers, including email addresses.
With many browsers now having implemented support for HTML5 forms, using the new 'email' state
of the input element allows email address validation to be handled by the browser.
Identity validation
Despite the growth of the World Wide Web as a primary interface for communication, email
addresses continue to remain the primary means (besides cell phone number validation, postal mail
validation, fax validation, etc.) of identity validation for website account activation. This is usually
accomplished by the website sending a temporary hyperlink to the inbox of the user-provided email
address in order to open, immediately activating the account. Email addresses are also useful as
means of forwarding messages from the website (i.e., user messages, user actions, etc.) to the email
inbox.
Operation overview
The diagram to the right shows a typical sequence of events that takes place when Alice composes a
message using her mail user agent (MUA). She enters the email address of her correspondent, and
hits the "send" button.
Her MUA formats the message in email format and uses the Submission Protocol (a profile of the
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), to send the message to the local mail submission agent
(MSA), in this case smtp.a.org, run by Alice's the Internet service provider (ISP).
The MSA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message
header), in this case [email protected]. An Internet email address is a string of the form
localpart@exampledomain. The part before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often the
username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name or a fully qualified
domain name. The MSA resolves a domain name to determine the fully qualified domain name of
the mail exchange server in the Domain Name System (DNS).
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The DNS server for the b.org domain, ns.b.org, responds with any MX records listing the mail
exchange servers for that domain, in this case mx.b.org, a message transfer agent (MTA) server run
by Bob's ISP.
smtp.a.org sends the message to mx.b.org using SMTP.
This server may need to forward the message to other MTAs before the message reaches the final
message delivery agent (MDA).
The MDA delivers it to the mailbox of the user bob.
Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using either the Post
Office Protocol (POP3) or the The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4).
Message format
The Internet email messages consist of two major sections:
Header – Structured into fields such as From, To, CC, Subject, Date, and other information about
the email.
Body – The basic content, as unstructured text; sometimes contains a signature block at the end.
This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter.
The header is separated from the body by a blank line.
Message header
Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name and a
value. RFC 5322 specifies the precise syntax.
Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate
field. The field name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character”
Header fields
Email header fields can be multi-line, and each line should be at most 78 characters long and in no
event more than 998 characters long. Such characters must only be used by servers that support
these extensions.
The message header must include at least the following fields:
From: The email address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many email clients not
changeable except through changing account settings
Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From: field, many email
clients fill this in automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the
format and time zone local to him/her.
The message header should include at least the following fields:
Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple deliveries and for
reference in In-Reply-To:
In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages
together. This field only applies for reply messages.
Common header fields for email include:
1. To: The email address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates
primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.
2. Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message. Certain abbreviations are commonly
used in the subject, including "RE:" and "FW:"

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 3. Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy; addresses added to the SMTP delivery list but not (usually) listed in
the message data, remaining invisible to other recipients.
4. Cc: Carbon copy; many email clients will mark email in your inbox differently depending on
whether you are in the To: or Cc: list.
5. Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.
6. Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated
"vacation" or "out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, e.g. to prevent
vacation notices from being sent to all other subscribers of a mailing list. Send mail uses this
header to affect prioritization of queued email, with "Precedence: special-delivery" messages
delivered sooner. With modern high-bandwidth networks delivery priority is less of an issue
than it once was. Microsoft Exchange respects a fine-grained automatic response suppression
mechanism, the X-Auto-Response-Suppress header.
7. References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the
message the previous reply was a reply to, etc.
8. Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message.
9. Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field
(secretary, list manager, etc.).
10. Archived-At: A direct link to the archived form of an individual email message.
Note that the To: field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered.
The actual delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may or may not
originally have been extracted from the header content. The "To:" field is similar to the addressing at
the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope.
In the same way, the "From:" field does not have to be the real sender of the email message. Some
mail servers apply email authentication systems to messages being relayed. Data pertaining to
server's activity is also part of the header, as defined below.
SMTP defines the trace information of a message, which is also saved in the header using the
following two fields:
Received: when an SMTP server accepts a message it inserts this trace record at the top of the
header (last to first).
Return-Path: when the delivery SMTP server makes the final delivery of a message, it inserts this
field at the top of the header.
Message body
Servers and client applications
Messages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with software
programs called mail transfer agents (MTAs); and delivered to a mail store by programs called mail
delivery agents (MDAs, also sometimes called local delivery agents, LDAs). Users can retrieve their
messages from servers using standard protocols such as POP or IMAP, or, as is more likely in a large
corporate environment, with a proprietary protocol specific to Novell Groupwise, Lotus Notes or
Microsoft Exchange Servers. Webmail interfaces allow users to access their mail with any standard
web browser, from any computer, rather than relying on an email client. Programs used by users for
retrieving, reading, and managing email are called mail user agents (MUAs).
Mail can be stored on the client, on the server side, or in both places. Standard formats for
mailboxes include Maildir and mbox. Several prominent email clients use their own proprietary
format and require conversion software to transfer email between them. Server-side storage is often
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in a proprietary format but since access is through a standard protocol such as IMAP, moving email
from one server to another can be done with any MUA supporting the protocol.
Accepting a message obliges an MTA to deliver it, and when a message cannot be delivered, that
MTA must send a bounce message back to the sender, indicating the problem.
Filename extensions
Upon reception of email messages, email client applications save messages in operating system files
in the file system. Some clients save individual messages as separate files, while others use various
database formats, often proprietary, for collective storage.
Eml: Used by many email clients including Microsoft Outlook Express, Lotus notes, Windows Mail,
Mozilla Thunderbird, and Postbox. The files are plain text in MIME format, containing the email
header as well as the message contents and attachments in one or more of several formats.
Emlx: Used by Apple Mail.
Msg: Used by Microsoft Office Outlook and OfficeLogic Groupware.
Mbx: Used by Opera Mail, KMail, and Apple Mail based on the mbox format.
Some applications (like Apple Mail) leave attachments encoded in messages for searching while also
saving separate copies of the attachments. Others separate attachments from messages and save
them in a specific directory.
Mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablet computers, commonly have the ability to relay e-
mail to end users, making it significantly easier for users to access e-mail on these portable devices
than through other methods, such as desktop computers or laptops.
Types of Email
Web-Based Email (Web mail)
This is the type of email that most users are familiar with. Many free email providers host their
serves as web-based email (e.g. Hotmail, Yahoo, Gmail, and AOL). This allows users to log into the
email account by using an Internet browser to send and receive their email. Its main disadvantage
is the need to be connected to the Internet while using it. Other software tools exist which integrate
parts of the web mail functionality into the OS (e.g. creating messages directly from third party
applications via MAPI).
POP3 Email Services
POP3 is the acronym for Post Office Protocol 3. It is a leading email account type on the Internet.
In a POP3 email account, email messages are downloaded to the client device (i.e. a computer) and
then they are deleted from the mail server. It is difficult to save and view messages on multiple
devices. Also, the messages sent from the computer are not copied to the Sent Items folder on the
devices. The messages are deleted from the server to make room for more incoming messages. POP
supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes (termed maildrop
in the POP RFC's). Although most POP clients have an option to leave messages on the server after
downloading a copy of them, most e-mail clients using POP3 simply connect, retrieve all messages,
store them on the client device as new messages, delete them from the server, and then disconnect.
Other protocols, notably IMAP, (Internet Message Access Protocol) provide more complete and
complex remote access to typical mailbox operations.
IMAP email servers

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IMAP refers to Internet Message Access Protocol. It is an alternative to the POP3 email. With an
IMAP account, a user's account has access to mail folders on the mail server and can use any
compatible device to read messages, as long as such a device can access the server. It shows the
headers of messages, the sender and the subject and the device needs to request to download
specific messages. Usually mail is saved on a mail server, therefore it is safer and it is backed up on
an email server.
MAPI email servers: Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) is a messaging
architecture and a Component Object Model based API for Microsoft Windows.
Flaming:
Flaming occurs when a person sends a message with angry or antagonistic content. The term is
derived from the use of the word Incendiary to describe particularly heated email discussions.
Flaming is assumed to be more common today because of the ease and impersonality of email
communications: confrontations in person or via telephone require direct interaction, where social
norms encourage civility, whereas typing a message to another person is an indirect interaction, so
civility may be forgotten.
Email bankruptcy
Also known as "email fatigue", email bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of email
messages after falling behind in reading and answering them. The reason for falling behind is often
due to information overload and a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible
to read it all. As a solution, people occasionally send a boilerplate message explaining that the email
inbox is being cleared out.
In business
Email was widely accepted by the business community as the first broad electronic communication
medium and was the first 'e-revolution' in business communication. Email is very simple to
understand and like postal mail, email solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and
synchronization.
LAN based email is also an emerging form of usage for business. It not only allows the business user
to download mail when offline, it also allows the small business user to have multiple users' email
IDs with just one email connection.
Pros (Advantages of Using Email)
1. The problem of logistics: Much of the business world relies upon communications between
people who are not physically in the same building, area or even country; setting up and
attending an in-person meeting, telephone call, or conference call can be inconvenient, time-
consuming, and costly. Email provides a way to exchange information between two or more
people with no set-up costs and that is generally far less expensive than physical meetings or
phone calls.
2. The problem of synchronisation: With real time communication by meetings or phone calls,
participants have to work on the same schedule, and each participant must spend the same
amount of time in the meeting or call. Email allows asynchrony: each participant may control
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 3. You can easily and cheaply send email message to many recipients at the same time
Cons (Disadvantages of Using Email)
Most business workers today spend from one to two hours of their working day on email: reading,
ordering, sorting, and re-contextualizing' fragmented information, and writing email. The use of
email is increasing due to increasing levels of globalisation – labour division and outsourcing
amongst other things. Email can lead to some well-known problems:
1. Loss of context: which means that the context is lost forever; there is no way to get the text
back. Information in context (as in a newspaper) is much easier and faster to understand than
unedited and sometimes unrelated fragments of information. Communicating in context can
only be achieved when both parties have a full understanding of the context and issue in
question.
2. Information overload: Email is a push technology – the sender controls who receives the
information. Convenient availability of mailing lists and use of "copy all" can lead to people
receiving unwanted or irrelevant information of no use to them.
3. Inconsistency: Email can duplicate information. This can be a problem when a large team is
working on documents and information while not in constant contact with the other
members of their team.
4. Liability. Statements made in an email can be deemed legally binding and be used against a
party in a court of law.
Despite these disadvantages, email has become the most widely used medium of communication
within the business world.
Attachment Size Limitation
Email messages may have one or more attachments. Attachments serve the purpose of delivering
binary or text files of unspecified size. In principle there is no technical intrinsic restriction in the
SMTP protocol limiting the size or number of attachments. In practice, however, email service
providers implement various limitations on the permissible size of files or the size of an entire
message.
Furthermore, due to technical reasons, often a small attachment can increase in size when sent,
which can be confusing to senders when trying to assess whether they can or cannot send a file by
email, and this can result in their message being rejected.
As larger and larger file sizes are being created and traded, many users are either forced to upload
and download their files using an FTP server, or more popularly, use online file sharing facilities or
services, usually over web-friendly HTTP, in order to send and receive them.
Spamming and Computer Viruses
The usefulness of email is being threatened by four phenomena: email bombardment, spamming,
phishing, and email worms.
Spamming is unsolicited commercial (or bulk) email. Because of the minuscule cost of sending
email, spammers can send hundreds of millions of email messages each day over an inexpensive
The Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in
information overload for many computer users who receive voluminous unsolicited email each day.

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Email worms use email as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. The
combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk email,
which reduces the usefulness of email as a practical tool.
Email Spoofing
Email spoofing occurs when the header information of an email is altered to make the message
appear to come from a known or trusted source. It is often used as a ruse to collect personal
information.
Email Bombing
Email bombing is the intentional sending of large volumes of messages to a target address. The
overloading of the target email address can render it unusable and can even cause the mail server to
crash.
Privacy Concerns
Today it can be important to distinguish between The Internet and internal email systems. The
Internet email may travel and be stored on networks and computers without the sender's or the
recipient's control. During the transit time it is possible that third parties read or even modify the
content. Internal mail systems, in which the information never leaves the organizational network,
may be more secure, although information technology personnel and others whose function may
involve monitoring or managing may be accessing the email of other employees.
Email privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because:
1. Email messages are generally not encrypted.
2. Email messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination,
meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages.
3. Many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of email messages on their mail servers
before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain for up to several months on their
server, despite deletion from the mailbox.
4. The "Received:"-fields and other information in the email can often identify the sender,
preventing anonymous communication.
Additionally, many mail user agents do not protect logins and passwords, making them easy to
intercept by an attacker. Encrypted authentication schemes such as SASL prevent this.
Finally, attached files share many of the same hazards as those found in peer-to-peer file sharing.
Attached files may contain Trojans or viruses.
Tracking of Sent Mail
The original SMTP mail service provides limited mechanisms for tracking a transmitted message, and
none for verifying that it has been delivered or read. It requires that each mail server must either
deliver it onward or return a failure notice (bounce message), but both software bugs and system
failures can cause messages to be lost. Many ISPs now deliberately disable non-delivery reports
(NDRs) and delivery receipts due to the activities of spammers:
1. Delivery Reports can be used to verify whether an address exists and so is available to be
spammed
2. If the spammer uses a forged sender email address (email spoofing), then the innocent email
address that was used can be flooded with NDRs from the many invalid email addresses the
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 spammer may have attempted to mail. These NDRs then constitute spam from the ISP to the
innocent user
There are a number of systems that allow the sender to see if messages have been opened. The
receiver could also let the sender know that t he emails have been opened through an "Okay"
button. A check sign can appear in the sender's screen when the receiver's "Okay" button is pressed.
Email Description
application
Yahoo! Yahoo! Messenger (sometimes abbreviated Y!M or YM) is an advertisement-
Messenger supported instant messaging client and associated protocol provided by Yahoo!.
Yahoo! Messenger is provided free of charge and can be downloaded and used
with a generic "Yahoo! ID" which also allows access to other Yahoo! services,
such as Yahoo! Mail, where users can be automatically notified when they
receive new email. Yahoo! also offers PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC
service, file transfers, webcam hosting, text messaging service, and chat rooms
in various categories.
Features
Voicemail and file sharing
Yahoo! added voicemail and file sending capabilities to anyone. File-sharing of
sizes up to 2GB was added to Yahoo Messenger.
Plug-ins
As of 8.0, Yahoo! Messenger has added the ability for users to create plug-ins
(via the use of the freely available Yahoo! Messenger Plug-in SDK), which are
then hosted and showcased on the Yahoo! Plug-in gallery.
Yahoo! Music Radio
Yahoo! Messenger users can listen to free and paid The Internet radio services,
using the official Yahoo! Music Radio plug-in from within the messenger
window. The plug-in also player functionality, such as play, pause, skip and
rate this song.
Webcam
Yahoo's software now allows users with the most current updated versions
(messenger 8 through 10) to utilize its webcam service. This option enables
users from distances all over the world to view others who have installed a
webcam on their end. The service is free with provided speeds averaging from
a range in between 1 to 2 frames per second. The resolution of the images can
be seen starting at 320 x 240 pixels or 160 x 120.
URI scheme
Yahoo! Messenger's installation process automatically installs an extra URI
scheme ("protocol") handler into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning
"ymsgr:" can open a new Yahoo! Messenger window with specified parameters.
This is similar in function to the mailto: URI scheme, which creates a new e-
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 mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web
page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a
window for sending a message to the YIM user notarealuser:
Yahoo! Messenger allows users to connect with their Facebook friends through
the messenger.
Google Talk Google Talk is an instant messaging service that provides both text and voice
communication. The instant messaging service is colloquially known as "gchat"
to its users.
Google Talk is also the name of the client applications offered by Google to
access the service.
Because the Google Talk servers communicate with clients using an open
protocol, Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol XMPP, the service can
also be accessed using any other client that supports XMPP. Google Talk uses
extensions to XMPP for voice/video signalling and peer-to-peer communication.
Features of Google Talk
Interoperability
Google has announced that a major goal of the Google Talk service is
interoperability. Google Talk used XMPP to provide real-time extensible
messaging and presence events, including offline messaging and voice mailing.
Product integration
Google Talk was integrated into Gmail. Users can send instant messages to
other Gmail users. As it works within a browser, the Google Talk client does
not need to be downloaded to send instant messages to Gmail users.
Conversation logs are automatically saved to a Chats area in the user's Gmail
account. This allows users to search their chat logs and have them centrally
stored in their Gmail accounts.
Google+ is integrated into Google Talk. In the standalone client and the
Google Talk widget embedded into Gmail and Google+, Google+ contacts
appear in the contacts list; their respective circles are shown in Google+'s
iteration of the widget.
Voice and Video
It is possible to place and receive phone calls from within gmail by using
Google Talk. In order to receive calls, however, the user must upgrade to a full
Google Voice account. Google Talk allows users to leave a voicemail for a
contact whether or not they are signed into Google Talk. Messages can be up
to 10 minutes long and are sent to the recipient's email. Messages can be sent
with or without first ringing the recipient's phone number.
Google also provides a Voice and Video Chat browser plugin that supports
voice and video chat between Gmail users. The plugin must be downloaded
and installed, but otherwise seamlessly integrates into the Gmail interface.
Encryption
The connection between the Google Talk client and the Google Talk server is
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 encrypted, except when using Gmail's chat over HTTP, a federated network
that doesn't support encryption, or when using a proxy like IMLogic. End-to-
end messages are unencrypted. Google plans to add support for chat and call
encryption in a future release. Some XMPP clients natively support encryption
with Google Talk's servers. It is possible to have end-to-end encryption over
the Google Talk network using OTR (off-the-record) encryption using other chat
clients like Adium (for Mac) or Pidgin (for Linux).
Google's version of "Off the Record" is not OTR (off-the-record) encryption.
Enabling "Off the record" inside Gmail's Chat turns off logging of messages, but
does not enable encryption.
Offline messaging
On October 31, 2006, Google introduced offline messaging to Google Talk.
This allows users to send messages to their contacts, even if they are not signed
in. They will receive the messages when they next go online even if the user
who has sent it is offline. This only works between gmail-accounts though, and
doesn't work between Google Talk servers and other XMPP servers.
Mobile device compatibility
Nokia released new software for their Nokia 770 The Internet Tablet, which
included Google Talk as one of the compatible VoIP clients, because of the
XMPP-based software. Another Google Talk-compatible device is Sony's mylo.
A Google Talk client is also available for Blackberry devices from the
Blackberry site. Google Talk support is also integrated in Google Android
devices.
Text formatting
Google Talk does not provide the user with a menu for text formatting.
Nevertheless Google talk does support some text formatting features like
making text bold and italic. To write message in bold, a user should type the
required text between two asterisks (*), for example *this text would be bold in
Google Talk*. Similarly for making text italic, one should put text between
underscores (_) and for strike-through in text content one should put text in
between dashes (-).
Skype Skype is a proprietary voice-over-IP service and software application. Skype has
663 million registered users.
The service allows users to communicate with peers by voice using a
microphone, video by using a webcam, and instant messaging over the
Internet. Phone calls may be placed to recipients on the traditional telephone
networks. Calls to other users within the Skype service are free of charge, while
calls to landline telephones and mobile phones are charged via a debit-based
user account system. Skype has also become popular for its additional features,
including file transfer, and videoconferencing. Competitors include Google
Voice.
Unlike most other VoIP services, Skype is a hybrid peer-to-peer and client–
server system. It makes use of background processing on computers running
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 Skype software. Skype's original proposed name (Sky Peer-to-Peer) reflects this
fact. Some network administrators have banned Skype on corporate,
government, home, and education networks, citing reasons such as
inappropriate usage of resources, excessive bandwidth usage, and security
concerns.
Features of Skype
Registered users of Skype are identified by a unique Skype Name, and may be
listed in the Skype directory. Skype allows these registered users to
communicate through both instant messaging and voice chat. Voice chat
allows telephone calls between pairs of users and conference calling, and uses
a proprietary audio codec. Skype's text chat client allows group chats,
emoticons, storing chat history and editing of previous messages. Offline
messages were implemented in a beta of version 5, but removed after a few
weeks without notification. The usual features familiar to instant messaging
users — user profiles, online status indicators, and so on — are also included.
The Online Number, a.k.a. SkypeIn, service allows Skype users to receive calls
on their computers dialled by conventional phone subscribers to a local Skype
phone number.
A Skype user can have local numbers in any of these countries, with calls to
the number charged at the same rate as calls to fixed lines in the country. The
countries on this growing list are referred to collectively as the SkypeIn
Countries.
Skype supports conference calls up to 25 people at a time. Skype also supports
video chat between two people for free. Screen sharing and group video
calling is available for Premium subscribers between a maximum of 10 people.
In 2011 Skype partnered with Comcast to bring its video chat service to
Comcast subscribers via their HDTV sets.
Message Switching
In telecommunications, message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages
were routed in their entirety, one hop at a time. Message switching systems are nowadays mostly
implemented over packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. Each message is treated as a
separate entity. Each message contains addressing information, and at each switch this information is
read and the transfer path to the next switch is decided. Depending on network conditions, a
conversation of several messages may not be transferred over the same path. Each message is stored
(usually on hard drive due to RAM limitations) before being transmitted to the next switch. Because
of this it is also known as a 'store-and-forward' network. Email is a common application for Message
Switching. A delay in delivering email is allowed unlike real time data transfer between two
computers.
Examples
Hop-by-hop Telex forwarding and UUCP are examples of message switching systems.
When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance in between sender
and receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first

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switching office (i.e. router) then forwarded later at one hop at a time. Each block is received in its
entity form, inspected for errors and then forwarded or re-transmitted.
A form of store-and-forward network. Data is transmitted into the network and stored in a switch.
The network transfers the data from switch to switch when it is convenient to do so, as such the
data is not transferred in real-time. Blocking can not occur, however, long delays can happen. The
source and destination terminal need not be compatible, since conversions are done by the message
switching networks.
A message switch is “transactional”. It can store data or change its format and bit rate, then convert
the data back to their original form or an entirely different form at the receive end. Message
switching multiplexes data from different sources onto a common facility. A message switch is a one
of the switching technology.
In message switching, when a message consists of a block of data to be sent, it is stored in the first
switching office (i.e. router) and then forwarded later, one hop at a time. Each block is received in
its entirety, inspected and later retransmitted. A network using this technique is referred to as a store-
and-forward network.
Store and forward delays
Since message switching stores each message at intermediate nodes in its entirety before forwarding,
messages experience an end to end delay which is dependent on the message length, and the
number of intermediate nodes. Each additional intermediate node introduces a delay which is at
minimum the value of the minimum transmission delay into or out of the node. Note that nodes
could have different transmission delays for incoming messages and outgoing messages due to
different technology used on the links. The transmission delays are in addition to any propagation
delays which will be experienced along the message path.
In a message-switching centre an incoming message is not lost when the required outgoing route is
busy. It is stored in a queue with any other messages for the same route and retransmitted when the
required circuit becomes free. Message switching is thus an example of a delay system or a queuing
system. Message switching is still used for telegraph traffic and a modified form of it, known as
packet switching, is used extensively for data communications.
Advantages
The advantages to Message Switching are:
 Data channels are shared among communication devices improving the use of bandwidth.
 Messages can be stored temporarily at message switches, when network congestion becomes
a problem.
 Priorities may be used to manage network traffic.
 Broadcast addressing uses bandwidth more efficiently because messages are delivered to
multiple destinations.
The Internet Time
The Internet time was a common catchphrase that originated during the late-1990s The Internet
boom. In this period, people who worked with the Internet had come to believe that "everything
moved faster on the 'net", because the Internet made the dissemination of information far easier and

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cheaper. In layman’s terms, “The Internet Time” involves efficiencies inherent to digital transactions
that are produced by the virtual reality of one product, one product type, or one service provided to
consumers from one virtual cash register residing on one server. The amount of time required to
conduct simultaneous transactions is reduced to irrelevance, as everything is occurring at one
compressed—albeit virtual—location.
Fast-moving developments were therefore said to run "on The Internet time." For example:
 Companies released new (usually unstable and buggy) revisions of their software as free
downloads, counting on feedback from customers to provide quality assurance. This
development strategy, called "release early, release often", was perhaps epitomized in the
development of the Netscape Navigator Web browser. The resulting pressure to release new
features quickly and grab "mindshare" before one's competitors had disastrous effects on
software quality, but resulted in an unprecedented rapid pace of innovation.
 A meme could travel the world, in the form of forwarded email, in a week or frequently less.
Early instances of such memes included the infamous make money fast spam.
 Worms, viruses, and other malware could infect large portions of the Internet in a matter of
days or hours, crippling systems worldwide with speed that was shocking to system
administrators accustomed to a less networked era.
The Internet Privacy
The Internet privacy involves the right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the storing,
repurposing, providing to third-parties, and displaying of information pertaining to oneself via the
Internet. Privacy can entail either Personally Identifying Information (PII) or non-PII information such
as a site visitor's behaviour on a website. PII refers to any information that can be used to identify
an individual. For example, age and physical address alone could identify who an individual is
without explicitly disclosing their name, as these two factors are unique enough to typically identify
a specific person.
The Internet privacy forms a subset of computer privacy. A number of experts within the field of The
Internet security and privacy believe that privacy doesn't exist; "Privacy is dead – get over it". In fact,
it has been suggested that the "appeal of online services is to broadcast personal information on
purpose." "Privacy protects us from abuses by those in power, even if we're doing nothing wrong at
the time of surveillance." Privacy concerns have been articulated from the beginnings of large scale
computer sharing.
The Internet pornography
The Internet pornography is pornography that is accessible over the Internet, primarily via websites,
peer-to-peer file sharing, or Usenet newsgroups. While pornography had been available over the
Internet since the 1980s, it was the availability of widespread public access to the World Wide Web
in 1991 that led to an expansion of The Internet pornography.
The Internet enables people to access pornography more or less anonymously and to view it in the
comfort and privacy of their homes. It also allows access to pornography by people whose access is
otherwise restricted for legal or social reasons, such as children.
Web filters and blocking software

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A variety of content-control, parental control and filtering software is available to block pornography
and other classifications of material from particular computers or (usually company-owned)
networks.
Child pornography
The Internet has radically changed how child pornography is reproduced and disseminated, and,
according to the United States Department of Justice, resulted in a massive increase in the
"availability, accessibility, and volume of child pornography." The production of child pornography
has become very profitable, bringing in several billion dollars a year, and is no longer limited to
pedophiles. Philip Jenkins notes that there is "overwhelming evidence that [child pornography] is all
but impossible to obtain through nonelectronic means."
Communications Protocols
A communications protocol is a system of digital message formats and rules for exchanging those
messages in or between computing systems and in telecommunications. A protocol may have a
formal description. Protocols may include signalling, authentication and error detection and
correction capabilities.
A protocol definition defines the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication; the
specified behaviour is typically independent of how it is to be implemented. A protocol can
therefore be implemented as hardware or software or both. Communications protocols have to be
agreed upon by the parties involved. To reach agreement a protocol may be developed into a
technical standard. There are various communication protocols available, they include; The Internet
Protocol Suite, Transmission control protocol/The Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), File Transfer protocol
(FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Simple Network Management protocol (SNMP) etc.
THE INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE
The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar
networks, and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide area networks. It is commonly
known as TCP/IP, because of its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
The Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in this standard.
TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. It has four abstraction layers which are used to
sort all The Internet protocols according to the scope of networking involved. From lowest to
highest, the layers are:
1. The link layer contains communication technologies for a local network.
2. The Internet layer (IP) connects local networks, thus establishing the Internetworking.
3. The transport layer handles host-to-host communication.
4. The application layer contains all protocols for specific data communications services on a
process-to-process level. For example, HTTP specifies the web browser communication with
a web server.
THE INTERNET PROTOCOL
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for
relaying datagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables the Internetworking, and
essentially establishes the Internet.

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IP, as the primary protocol in the Internet layer of the Internet protocol suite, has the task of
delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses. For
this purpose, IP defines datagram structures that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines
addressing methods that are used to label the datagram with source and destination information.
Functions of the Internet Protocol
The Internet Protocol is responsible for addressing hosts and for routing datagrams (packets) from a
source host to a destination host across one or more IP networks. For this purpose, the Internet
Protocol defines the format of packets and provides an addressing system that has two functions:
identifying hosts and providing a logical location service.
IP addressing and routing
IP addressing entails the assignment of IP addresses and associated parameters to host interfaces. The
address space is divided into networks and subnetworks, involving the designation of network or
routing prefixes. IP routing is performed by all hosts, but most importantly by routers, which
transport packets across network boundaries. Routers communicate with one another via specially
designed routing protocols, either interior gateway protocols or exterior gateway protocols, as
needed for the topology of the network.
IP routing is also common in local networks. For example, many Ethernet switches support IP
multicast operations. These switches use IP addresses and The Internet Group Management Protocol
to control multicast routing but use MAC addresses for the actual routing.
Reliability
The Internet Protocol uses the end-to-end principle in its design. Under this design, the network
infrastructure is assumed to be inherently unreliable at any single network element or transmission
medium and assumed to be dynamic in terms of availability of links and nodes. No central
monitoring or performance measurement facility exists that tracks or maintains the state of the
network. For the benefit of reducing network complexity, the error-correction intelligence in the
network is mostly located in the end nodes of each data transmission. Routers in the transmission
path forward packets to the next known, directly reachable gateway matching the routing prefix for
the destination address.
As a consequence of this design, the Internet Protocol only provides best effort delivery and its
service is characterized as unreliable. In network architectural language, it is a connectionless
protocol, in contrast to so-called connection-oriented modes of transmission. Various error
conditions may occur, such as data corruption, packet loss, duplication and out-of-order delivery.
Because routing is dynamic, meaning every packet is treated independently, and because the
network maintains no state based on the path of prior packets, it is possible that some packets are
routed on a different path to their destination, resulting in improper sequencing at the receiver node.
The Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) provides safeguards to ensure that the IP packet header is
error-free. A routing node calculates a checksum for a packet. If the checksum is bad, the routing
node discards the packet. The routing node does not have to notify either end node, although the
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) allows such notification. By contrast, in order to increase
performance, and since current link layer technology is assumed to provide sufficient error
detection, the IPv6 header has no checksum to protect it.
All error conditions in the network must be detected and compensated by the end nodes of a
transmission. The upper layer protocols of the Internet protocol suite are responsible for resolving
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reliability issues. For example, a host may cache network data to ensure correct ordering, before the
data is delivered to an application.
Link capacity and capability
The dynamic nature of the Internet and the diversity of its components provide no guarantee that
any particular path is actually capable of, or suitable for, performing the data transmission requested,
even if the path is available and reliable. One of the technical constraints is the size of data packets
allowed on a given link. An application must assure that it uses proper transmission characteristics.
Some of this responsibility lies also in the upper layer protocols. Facilities exist to examine the
maximum transmission unit (MTU) size of the local link and Path MTU Discovery can be used for
the entire projected path to the destination. The IPv4 the Internetworking layer has the capability to
automatically fragment the original datagram into smaller units for transmission. In this case, IP
provides re-ordering of fragments delivered out of order.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a protocol that adjusts its segment size to
be smaller than the MTU. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) disregard MTU size, thereby forcing IP to fragment oversized datagrams.
IP Address
An The Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.,
computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification
and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek.
An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."
The designers of the Internet Protocol defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system,
known as The Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous
growth of the Internet and the predicted depletion of available addresses, a new version of IP
(IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995. IPv6 was standardized as RFC 2460
in 1998, and its deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are binary numbers, but they are usually stored in text files and displayed in human-
readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 (for IPv6).
IP Versions
Two versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) are in use: IP Version 4 and IP Version 6. Each version
defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still
refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6
resulted from the assignment of number 5 to the experimental The Internet Stream Protocol in 1979,
which however was never referred to as IPv5.
Classes of IP Address
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-
grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were
defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast
addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary
segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network
identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The
following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.
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 Historical classful network architecture
Class Leading bits in Range of first Network Host ID Number of Number of
address-binary octet-decimal ID format format networks addresses
per network
7
A 0 0–127 a b.c.d 2 = 128 224= 16777216
B 10 128–191 a.b c.d 214 = 16384 216 = 65536
C 110 192–223 a.b.c d 221= 2097152 28 = 256
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with
each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses
for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and
thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network
address translation (NAT).
IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges
Start End No. of addresses
24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16777216
20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1048576
16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65536
Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block
into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).
IP Subnetworks
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address
is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier, or
interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is
divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and
notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for
the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask
may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and
subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
IP Address Assignment
The Internet Protocol addresses are assigned to a host either a new at the time of booting, or
permanently by fixed configuration of its hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also
known as using a Static IP Address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is
assigned newly each time, this is known as using a Dynamic IP Address.
Methods
What are Static IP Addresses?
Static IP addresses are IP addresses that are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator.
They are permanently assigned and fixed to a specific network device (computer).
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Dynamic IP addresses are IP addresses which are assigned automatically either by the computer
interface or host software as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP). These IP addresses can automatically change every time a computer boots.
Therefore, they not configured by a network administrator.
The configuration and exact procedures vary according to platform. Even though IP addresses
assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In
some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this
case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to
a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to
specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure.
In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may
assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto-configuration methods, such as
Zeroconf.
Uses of Dynamic Addressing
Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative
burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many
devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a
particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by
default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a
DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and
some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.
Sticky Dynamic IP Address
A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL the Internet access
subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses are
usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods of
time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is turned off
and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the
same IP address.
Address Auto-configuration
RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing for
IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also
receives a local-link address automatically in the block fe80::/10.
These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point
connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses
cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of
address auto configuration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been
deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. Many
years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic
Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.

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Uses of Static Addressing
Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name
System (DNS) host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also
convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained
from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to
confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network
administration (RFC 2072).
IP Blocking and Firewalls
Firewalls perform The Internet Protocol blocking to protect networks from unauthorized access. They
are common on today's The Internet. They control access to networks based on the IP address of a
client computer. Whether using a blacklist or a whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the
perceived IP address of the client, meaning that if the client is using a proxy server or network
address translation, blocking one IP address may block many individual computers.
Diagnostic Tools
Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface and
address configuration. Windows provides the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and
users of Unix-like systems can use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, ifstat, or iproute2 utilities to
accomplish the task.
SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is an Internet standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission across
The Internet Protocol (IP) networks. While electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents use
SMTP to send and receive mail messages, user-level client mail applications typically use SMTP only
for sending messages to a mail server for relaying. For receiving messages, client applications usually
use either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or a
proprietary system (such as Microsoft Exchange or Lotus Notes/Domino) to access their mail box
accounts on a mail server.
Mail processing model
Email is submitted by a mail client (MUA, mail user agent) to a mail server (MSA, mail submission
agent) using SMTP on TCP port 587. Most mailbox providers still allow submission on traditional
port 25. From there, the MSA delivers the mail to its mail transfer agent (MTA, mail transfer agent).
Often, these two agents are just different instances of the same software launched with different
options on the same machine. Local processing can be done either on a single machine, or split
among various appliances; in the former case, involved processes can share files; in the latter case,
SMTP is used to transfer the message internally, with each host configured to use the next appliance
as a smart host. Each process is an MTA in its own right; that is, an SMTP server.
The boundary MTA has to locate the target host. It uses the Domain name system (DNS) to look up
the mail exchanger record (MX record) for the recipient's domain (the part of the address on the
right of @). The returned MX record contains the name of the target host. The MTA next connects to
the exchange server as an SMTP client. (The article on MX record discusses many factors in
determining which server the sending MTA connects to.)
Once the MX target accepts the incoming message, it hands it to a mail delivery agent (MDA) for
local mail delivery. An MDA is able to save messages in the relevant mailbox format. Again, mail
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reception can be done using many computers or just one —the picture displays two nearby boxes in
either case. An MDA may deliver messages directly to storage, or forward them over a network
using SMTP, or any other means, including the Local Mail Transfer Protocol (LMTP), a derivative of
SMTP designed for this purpose.
Once delivered to the local mail server, the mail is stored for batch retrieval by authenticated mail
clients (MUAs). Mail is retrieved by end-user applications, called email clients, using The Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP), a protocol that both facilitates access to mail and manages stored
mail, or the Post Office Protocol (POP) which typically uses the traditional mbox mail file format or
a proprietary system such as Microsoft Exchange/Outlook or Lotus Notes/Domino. Webmail clients
may use either method, but the retrieval protocol is often not a formal standard.
SMTP defines message transport, not the message content. Thus, it defines the mail envelope and its
parameters, such as the envelope sender, but not the header (except trace information) nor the body
of the message itself. STD 10 and RFC 5321 define SMTP (the envelope), while STD 11 and RFC
5322 define the message (header and body), formally referred to as the Internet Message Format.
Protocol overview
SMTP is a connection-oriented, text-based protocol in which a mail sender communicates with a
mail receiver by issuing command strings and supplying necessary data over a reliable ordered data
stream channel, typically a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection. An SMTP session
consists of commands originated by an SMTP client (the initiating agent, sender, or transmitter) and
corresponding responses from the SMTP server (the listening agent, or receiver) so that the session is
opened, and session parameters are exchanged. A session may include zero or more SMTP
transactions. An SMTP transaction consists of three command/reply sequences (see example below.)
They are:
1. MAIL command, to establish the return address, a.k.a. Return-Path, from, or envelope sender.
This is the address for bounce messages.
2. RCPT command, to establish a recipient of this message. This command can be issued
multiple times, one for each recipient. These addresses are also part of the envelope.
3. DATA to send the message text. This is the content of the message, as opposed to its
envelope. It consists of a message header and a message body separated by an empty line.
DATA is actually a group of commands, and the server replies twice: once to the DATA
command proper, to acknowledge that it is ready to receive the text, and the second time
after the end-of-data sequence, to either accept or reject the entire message.
Besides the intermediate reply for DATA, each server's reply can be either positive (2xx reply codes)
or negative. Negative replies can be permanent (5xx codes) or transient (4xx codes). A reject is a
permanent failure by an SMTP server; in this case the SMTP client should send a bounce message. A
drop is a positive response followed by message discard rather than delivery.
The initiating host, the SMTP client, can be either an end-user's email client, functionally identified
as a mail user agent (MUA), or a relay server's mail transfer agent (MTA), that is an SMTP server
acting as an SMTP client, in the relevant session, in order to relay mail. Fully capable SMTP servers
maintain queues of messages for retrying message transmissions that resulted in transient failures.
A MUA knows the outgoing mail SMTP server from its configuration. An SMTP server acting as
client, i.e. relaying, typically determines which SMTP server to connect to by looking up the MX
(Mail eXchange) DNS resource record for each recipient's domain name. Conformant MTAs (not all)
fall back to a simple A record in case no MX record can be found. Relaying servers can also be
configured to use a smart host.
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An SMTP server acting as client initiates a TCP connection to the server on the "well-known port"
designated for SMTP: port 25. MUAs should use port 587 to connect to an MSA. The main
difference between an MTA and an MSA is that SMTP Authentication is mandatory for the latter
only.
SMTP vs Mail Retrieval
SMTP is a delivery protocol only. In normal use, mail is "pushed" to a destination mail server (or
next-hop mail server) as it arrives. Mail is routed based on the destination server, not the individual
user(s) to which it is addressed. Other protocols, such as the Post Office Protocol (POP) and the
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) are specifically designed for use by individual users
retrieving messages and managing mail boxes. To permit an intermittently-connected mail server to
pull messages from a remote server on demand, SMTP has a feature to initiate mail queue
processing on a remote server (see Remote Message Queue Starting below). POP and IMAP are
unsuitable protocols for relaying mail by intermittently-connected machines; they are designed to
operate after final delivery, when information critical to the correct operation of mail relay (the "mail
envelope") has been removed.
Remote Message Queue Starting
Remote Message Queue Starting is a feature of SMTP that permits a remote host to start processing
of the mail queue on a server so it may receive messages destined to it by sending the TURN
command. This feature however was deemed insecure and was extended in RFC 1985 with the
ETRN command which operates more securely using an authentication method based on Domain
Name System information.
On-Demand Mail Relay
On-Demand Mail Relay (ODMR) is an SMTP extension standardized in RFC 2645 that allows an
intermittently-connected SMTP server to receive email queued for it when it is connected.
Outgoing mail SMTP server
An e-mail client needs to know the IP address of its initial SMTP server and this has to be given as
part of its configuration (usually given as a DNS name). This server will deliver outgoing messages
on behalf of the user.
Outgoing mail server access restrictions
Server administrators need to impose some control on which clients can use the server. This enables
them to deal with abuse, for example spam. Two solutions have been in common use:
 In the past, many systems imposed usage restrictions by the location of the client, only
permitting usage by clients whose IP address is one that the server administrators control.
Usage from any other client IP address is disallowed.
 Modern SMTP servers typically offer an alternative system that requires authentication of
clients by credentials before allowing access.
Restricting access by location
Under this system, an ISP's SMTP server will not allow access by users who are 'outside the ISP's
network'. More precisely, the server may only allow access to users with an IP address provided by
the ISP, which is equivalent to requiring that they are connected to the Internet using that same ISP.
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A mobile user may often be on a network other than that of their normal ISP, and will then find that
sending email fails because the configured SMTP server choice is no longer accessible.
This system has several variations. For example, an organisation's SMTP server may only provide
service to users on the same network, enforcing this by firewalling to block access by users on the
wider The Internet. Or the server may perform range checks on the client's IP address. These
methods were typically used by corporations and institutions such as universities which provided an
SMTP server for outbound mail only for use internally within the organisation. However, most of
these bodies now use client authentication methods, as described below.
By restricting access to certain IP addresses, server administrators can readily recognise the IP
address of any abuser. As it will be a meaningful address to them, the administrators can deal with
the rogue machine or user.
Where a user is mobile, and may use different ISPs to connect to the Internet, this kind of usage
restriction is onerous, and altering the configured outbound email SMTP server address is
impractical. It is highly desirable to be able to use email client configuration information that does
not need to change.
Client Authentication
Modern SMTP servers typically require authentication of clients by credentials before allowing
access, rather than restricting access by location as described earlier. This more flexible system is
friendly to mobile users and allows them to have a fixed choice of configured outbound SMTP
server.
Open relay
A server that is accessible on the wider The Internet and does not enforce these kinds of access
restrictions is known as an open relay. This is now generally considered a bad practice worthy of
blacklisting.
Ports
Server administrators choose whether clients use TCP port 25 (SMTP) or port 587 (Submission), as
formalized in RFC 6409 (previously RFC 2476), for relaying outbound mail to an initial mail server.
The specifications and many servers support both. Although some servers support port 465 for
legacy secure SMTP in violation of the specifications, it is preferable to use standard ports and
standard ESMTP commands according to RFC
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to
another host over a TCP-based (transmission control protocol) network, such as the Internet.
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections between
the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol,
normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server is
configured to allow it. For secure transmission that hides (encrypts) the username and password, and
encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS ("FTPS"). SSH File Transfer Protocol ("SFTP")
is sometimes also used instead, but is technologically different.
Protocol Overview
Communication and Data Transfer

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FTP may run in active or passive mode, which determines how the data connection is established.
In active mode, the client creates a TCP control connection to the server and sends the server the
client's IP address and an arbitrary client port number, and then waits until the server initiates the
data connection over TCP to that client IP address and client port number. In situations where the
client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP connections, passive mode may be
used. In this mode, the client uses the control connection to send a PASV command to the server
and then receives a server IP address and server port number from the server, which the client then
uses to open a data connection from an arbitrary client port to the server IP address and server port
number received.
Login
FTP login utilizes a normal usernames and password scheme for granting access. The username is
sent to the server using the USER command, and the password is sent using the PASS command. If
the information provided by the client is accepted by the server, the server will send a greeting to
the client and the session will commence. If the server supports it, users may log in without
providing login credentials, but the same server may authorize only limited access for such sessions.
Anonymous FTP
A host that provides an FTP service may provide anonymous FTP access. Users typically log into the
service with an 'anonymous' (lower-case and case-sensitive in some FTP servers) account when
prompted for user name. Although users are commonly asked to send their email address instead of
a password, no verification is actually performed on the supplied data. Many FTP hosts whose
purpose is to provide software updates will provide anonymous logins.
Web Browser Support
Most common web browsers can retrieve files hosted on FTP servers, although they may not support
protocol extensions such as FTPS. When an FTP—rather than an HTTP—URL is supplied, the
accessible contents on the remote server are presented in a manner that is similar to that used for
other Web content. A full-featured FTP client can be run within Firefox in the form of an extension
called FireFTP
More details on specifying a username and password may be found in the browsers' documentation,
such as, for example, Firefox and The Internet Explorer. By default, most web browsers use passive
(PASV) mode, which more easily traverses end-user firewalls.
Security
FTP is not able to encrypt its traffic; all transmissions are in clear text, and usernames, passwords,
commands and data can be easily read by anyone able to perform packet capture (sniffing) on the
network. This problem is common to many of the Internet Protocol specifications (such as SMTP,
Telnet, POP and IMAP) that were designed prior to the creation of encryption mechanisms such as
TLS or SSL. A common solution to this problem is to use the "secure", TLS-protected versions of the
insecure protocols (e.g. FTPS for FTP, TelnetS for Telnet, etc.) or a different, more secure protocol
that can handle the job, such as the SFTP/SCP tools included with most implementations of the
Secure Shell protocol.
HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative,
hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide
Web. Hypertext is a multi-linear set of objects, building a network by using logical links (the so-
called hyperlinks) between the nodes (e.g. text or words). HTTP is the protocol to exchange or
transfer hypertext.
Technical overview
HTTP functions as a request-response protocol in the client-server computing model. A web
browser, for example, may be the client and an application running on a computer hosting a web
site may be the server. The client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server which
provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of
the client returns a response message to the client. The response contains completion status
information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.
HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications
between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver
content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously
accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to reduce network traffic. HTTP proxy
servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally
routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.
HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet Protocol Suite.
Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, and Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) is commonly used. However HTTP can use unreliable protocols such as the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), for example in Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).
HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)—
or, more specifically, Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)—using the http or https URI schemes. URIs
and hyperlinks in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents form webs of inter-linked
hypertext documents. On the Internet the World Wide Web was established in 1990 by English
computer scientist and innovator Tim Berners-Lee.
HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP (HTTP/1.0). In HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the
same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to
download images, scripts, stylesheets et cetera after the page has been delivered. HTTP/1.1
communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents
considerable overhead.
SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an "Internet-standard protocol for managing
devices on IP networks." Devices that typically support SNMP include routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, modem racks, and more." It is used mostly in network management systems to
monitor network-attached devices for conditions that warrant administrative attention. SNMP is a
component of the Internet Protocol Suite as defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It
consists of a set of standards for network management, including an application layer protocol, a
database schema, and a set of data objects.
SNMP exposes management data in the form of variables on the managed systems, which describe
the system configuration. These variables can then be queried (and sometimes set) by managing
applications.
Overview and basic concepts
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Principle of SNMP Communication
In typical SNMP uses, one or more administrative computers, called managers, have the task of
monitoring or managing a group of hosts or devices on a computer network. Each managed system
executes, at all times, a software component called an agent which reports information via SNMP to
the manager.
Essentially, SNMP agents expose management data on the managed systems as variables. The
protocol also permits active management tasks, such as modifying and applying a new configuration
through remote modification of these variables. The variables accessible via SNMP are organized in
hierarchies. These hierarchies, and other metadata (such as type and description of the variable), are
described by Management Information Bases (MIBs).
An SNMP-managed network consists of three key components:
 Managed device
 Agent — software which runs on managed devices
 Network management system (NMS) — software which runs on the manager

A managed device is a network node that implements an SNMP interface that allows unidirectional
(read-only) or bidirectional access to node-specific information. Managed devices exchange node-
specific information with the NMSs. Sometimes called network elements, the managed devices can
be any type of device, including, but not limited to, routers, access servers, switches, bridges, hubs,
IP telephones, IP video cameras, computer hosts, and printers.
An agent is a network-management software module that resides on a managed device. An agent
has local knowledge of management information and translates that information to or from an SNMP
specific form.
A network management system (NMS) executes applications that monitor and control managed
devices. NMSs provide the bulk of the processing and memory resources required for network
management. One or more NMSs may exist on any managed network.
Factors affecting The Internet speed and connection
There are several factors that can affect your The Internet speed:
 The Internet traffic.
 The server speed of the site you're visiting.
 Your computer's hardware and software configuration.
 Traffic on your home network.

Factors Affecting the Internet Speed

The Internet speed is a complex issue that can create a lot of bewilderment. Speed is used to
measure how much data can be transferred per second. When buying The Internet access from a
service provider, you are guaranteed a connection speed up to the speed that you are paying for. In
most cases that speed is hard to attain.
If you are looking to get The Internet service or wish to just increase the speed of one, it would be a
good idea to understand what can affect your connection.
Your Computer
Most computers today have fast processors that by themselves can easily handle most The Internet
speeds. However, a poor video card, network card or memory intensive programs can seriously

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reduce the speed of the data being processed by your system, slowing down the speed at which
your computer can take the information coming in.
Cables and Modem
If your cables or modem are substandard with a low rating, they can seriously slow down the speed
at which data is transmitted. If your The Internet service comes over the phone line and you have a
faulty filter attached, or if the cables are too long, the speed will be compromised.
Wireless Routers
A wireless router makes life easy only when it is set up properly. Make sure it is a modern router
and capable of the speeds you are paying for. Set up your network in a place that is in the middle
of the usual areas you are in. The closer you are to the router, the stronger and faster the signal will
be. Setting your firewall properly will improve the speed as well.
USB Modems
Although fast, a USB modem is not as fast as a direct-line modem. The former tends to be slower
and is affected by the heat of the laptop that is being used, which could slow it down further. When
possible, try to use a regular or wireless modem. It is a good idea to periodically update your drivers
to newer versions.
The Internet Variables
Actual the Internet speeds will vary, depending on the distance the data travels coupled with how
many servers it has to go through and the different speeds of each server. The amount of users
transferring data will also impact the Internet service's performance.
Amount of Memory Being Used
With each program you open on your computer, you are using up more memory. Your computer
has to write this data to disk, and the more memory you are using up on open programs, the less
memory there is available to receive the data. Data will slow down if your computer cannot receive
it fast enough, making the Internet speed seem slow.
The speed of computer
Distance the data travels
The actual the Internet speeds will vary depending on the distance the data travels coupled with
how many servers it has to go through and the different speeds of each server.
Additionally, the shorter the cable or the closer the computers are to the routers, the faster the
connection speed.
Heavy traffic on the network
The grater the number of computers on the network is, the more the Internet speeds reduces. ISPs
are allocated a certain mount of bandwidth which is shared among all of the incoming and outgoing
connections.

Malware, Syware and Viruses

Viruses hinder the operation of programs on the computer, regardless of its processor strength; this
in turn slows down the speed of connectivity.

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Modem speed
If the modem is substandard with a low rating, or not compatible with your ISPs modem then this
will slow down n the speed at which data is transmitted.
Natural conditions
Instability in connection speed is also commonly caused by natural conditions such as stormy
weather and thunder, which interfere with the transmission of signals
Hardware problems
A poor network card, video card or signal receiver can seriously reduce the speed of the data being
processed by your system, slowing down the speed at which your computer can take the
information coming in. If your Internet service comes over the phone line and you have a faulty
filter attached, the speed will be compromised.
Software problems
You need good updated web browser software to display the web pages efficiently. Currently internt
exploer verison 6 is unable to display some webpages with advanced features. It is also good to h
ave updated softeare and device drivers to newe versions for optimum performance.
Modems + routers positioning
Modems and routers should be strategically positioned. The routers should not be put below or
under tables but should be raised well to be able to send the signals directly to the receiving
computers or laptops.
Memory available
With each program you open on your computer, you are using up more RAM memory. Your
computer has to write this data to the disk, and the more memory you are using up on open
programs, the less memory there is available to receive the data. Data will slow down if your
computer cannot receive it fast enough, making the Internet speed seem slow.
Computer the Internet settings
Improper computer settings can also affect the speed of your the Internet connection. Setting your
firewalls, safe search and other options properly will improve the speed as well.
Technological circumstances
Slow speed of an the Internet connection can be due to technical causes such as loose connections
of cables or maintenance works being done by your ISP.
Cookies
When surfing, the browser collects information, such as passwords and stores it on your local hard
drive in a file known as a cookie Overtime, these cookies can compromise the speed of your the
Internet connection, particularly if you visit many websites during a browsing session.
There are many other factors such as quality of type of intent connection that may be specific to a
particular case. The factors above are general factors. You can however troubleshoot to your

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computer using the Internet trouble-shooter to find out the cause of the reduction in your
connectivity.
Factors Affecting the Speed of your Broadband Connection
Your plan
Different broadband plans have different speeds. The speed quoted on your plan is the maximum
speed. The actual speed may vary depending on the factors below. Once you hit your monthly
international data usage limit, your connection is automatically speed-capped to 64k (just above
dialup speed) until the end of the month.
The computer
Your computer's set-up and operating system, especially RAM availability, may affect speed.
Modem/Router, Filters & Phone Cable
Not all Broadband modems & ADSL filters are created equal, and some may not give as high quality
connection as others. You can purchase one of our recommended modems either by ringing our
tollfree helpdesk, or through our website.
Loose wiring in telephone cables running from your modem to your telephone jack may cause your
Broadband connection speed to degrade. Additionally, if you have a long extension cable running
from your Broadband modem to the telephone jack, this may also affect your Broadband
connection.
If you have the 'self-install' option (you are using ADSL filters on each phone in the house), and you
have more than 5 devices plugged into your phoneline (including your Broadband modem), this will
affect the quality of your Broadband connection. Try unplugging some devices from your line, and
then try your Broadband connection again.
The Internet
Not all websites will offer the same speed of download, no matter how fast your connection is. A
general rule is that you may expect a NZ website to load a little faster than an international one.
Because the Internet works by sending data through a chain of computers between you, your ISP
and the website you want to reach, there may be limitations or congestion on any of the links
between these points which may affect your speed.
The Internet traffic
During busy periods you may experience slower speeds as more people are accessing the Internet.
Telecom allocate a certain amount of bandwidth to your telephone exchange, which may mean that
at peak times, the maximum speed you can reach is limited because everyone on your exchange is
using the same bandwidth at the same time. This is a limitation placed by Telecom at every phone
exchange. Higher speed plans do get higher priority on bandwidth than lower speed plans, so that
customers paying for a higher speed connection should still get higher speed than low-speed plans,
even at peak times.
Your location
The distance of your home or office from the Telecom exchange has a big impact on the maximum
speed you will be able to obtain on your Broadband connection. Generally the further you are from
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the exchange, the poorer the quality of Broadband connection. Anything over 4-5km from the
exchange may have a noticeable difference.
Other programs or users downloading on your connection
If you have a home or office network, and others are downloading or uploading, or if you are
downloading on your own computer whilst trying to do other things, these activities may 'saturate'
the bandwidth, slowing down your other downloads, email or web browsing.
What to do if you think your speed is slower than expected
If your Broadband connection seems slow, we recommend going through this speed troubleshooting
list in your own time, to try to work out where the problem may lie. These suggestions are not in
any particular order of importance.
 Be aware that the speed of your Broadband account is the maximum speed you can obtain.
Not everyone will get maximum speed on every download.
 Run the Broadband speed test. You will need to hold down the CONTROL key on your
keyboard and click refresh to force it to reload a fresh version of the page, without caching
it. Refresh the page 2 or 3 times to get a useful idea of your speed.
 Check whether you have exceeded your international data limits for this month by logging on
to the Broadband Usage Checker. If you have exceeded your limit, you will automatically be
speed-limited to 64k (just above dialup speed)
 Is anyone else on your connection downloading, or using a lot of bandwidth?
 Do you have any Peer-to-Peer software running that could be draining your bandwidth?
 Does your computer have sufficient resources (memory, CPU etc. -- especially if you have an
internal broadband modem) to handle the fast connection?
 If you have a long telephone/modem extension cable, this could affect the speed. Try
removing this, even if you have to temporarily move your computer closer to the walljack.
 Loose wiring in modem cables or phone cables can cause problems with your connection.
This is often the case where a cable has been rolled up, or walked on. Many phone cables
are poor quality to begin with, and don't last long. If you suspect loose wiring, replace the
modem/phone cable with a new one.
 Does the slowdown happen at peak times of the day? If so, there's a strong chance that the
Telecom exchange is congested. There is nothing that Quicksilver can do to relieve this.
 Is your home located more than 4 or 5km from your local phone exchange? If so, this could
affect your connection. Broadband ADSL works best when you are less than 5km from the
exchange.
 Is it just one particular site, or overseas sites that are slow? Overseas sites will download
slightly slower than NZ sites. If only one site is giving you slow download speeds, there's a
strong chance that they don't have enough bandwidth, the site is congested, or there's a
delay somewhere along the line between their site and Quicksilver. We are unable to do
anything about this.
 Do you have more than 5 'other' phone devices plugged in to your phoneline (phones, fax
machines, sky decoder, alarms etc.) if so this will slow down your connection. Try
unplugging everything except the Broadband modem & one telephone from the phoneline,
and try again. Cordless phones particularly will affect your Broadband speed more than
standard analogue telephones.

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