Image Interpretation and

Analysis
In order to take advantage of and make good use of remote
sensing data, we must be able to extract meaningful information
from the imagery. This brings us to the topic of discussion in this
chapter - interpretation and analysis

Interpretation and analysis

of remote sensing imagery
involves the identification
and/or measurement of
various targets in an image
in order to extract useful
information about them.
Targets in remote sensing images may be
any feature or object which can be
observed in an image, and have the
following characteristics:
 Targets may be a point, line, or area feature. This
means that they can have any form, from a bus in a
parking lot or plane on a runway, to a bridge or
roadway, to a large expanse of water or a field.

The target must be distinguishable; it must contrast

with other features around it in the image.
 Much interpretation and identification of targets in
remote sensing imagery is performed manually or
visually, i.e. by a human interpreter.

In many cases this is done using imagery displayed in

a pictorial or photograph-type format, independent of
what type of sensor was used to collect the data and
how the data were collected.

In this case we refer to the data as being in analog format.

remote sensing images can also

be represented in a computer as
arrays of pixels, with each pixel
corresponding to a digital
number, representing the
brightness level of that pixel in
the image
 In this case, the data are in a digital format.
Visual interpretation may also be performed
by examining digital imagery displayed on a
computer screen. Both analogue and digital
imagery can be displayed as black and white
(also called monochrome) images, or as
colour images by combining different
channels or bands representing different
wavelengths.
When remote sensing data are available in digital format,
digital processing and analysis may be performed using a
computer. Digital processing may be used to enhance data
as a prelude to visual interpretation. Digital processing and
analysis may also be carried out to automatically identify
targets and extract information completely without
manual intervention by a human interpreter. However,
rarely is digital processing and analysis carried out as a
complete replacement for manual interpretation. Often, it
is done to supplement and assist the human analyst.
Manual interpretation and analysis dates back to the early
beginnings of remote sensing for air photo interpretation.
Digital processing and analysis is more recent with the advent
of digital recording of remote sensing data and the
development of computers. Both manual and digital
techniques for interpretation of remote sensing data have
their respective advantages and disadvantages. Generally,
manual interpretation requires little, if any, specialized
equipment, while digital analysis requires specialized, and
often expensive, equipment. Manual interpretation is often
limited to analyzing only a single channel of data or a single
image at a time due to the difficulty in performing visual
interpretation with multiple images.
The computer environment is more
amenable to handling complex images of
several or many channels or from several
dates. In this sense, digital analysis is useful
for simultaneous analysis of many spectral
bands and can process large data sets much
faster than a human interpreter.
 Manual interpretation is a subjective process,
meaning that the results will vary with
different interpreters. Digital analysis is based
on the manipulation of digital numbers in a
computer and is thus more objective, generally
resulting in more consistent results. However,
determining the validity and accuracy of the
results from digital processing can be difficult.
It is important to reiterate that visual and digital
analyses of remote sensing imagery are not
mutually exclusive. Both methods have their
merits. In most cases, a mix of both methods is
usually employed when analyzing imagery. In
fact, the ultimate decision of the utility and
relevance of the information extracted at the
end of the analysis process, still must be made
Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and
information extraction. Observing the differences between
targets and their backgrounds involves comparing different
targets based on any, or all, of the visual elements of tone,
shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, and association.

Tone refers to the

relative brightness or colour of
objects in an image. Generally,
tone is the fundamental
element for distinguishing
between different targets or
features. Variations in tone also
allows the elements of shape,
texture, and pattern of objects
to be distinguished.
Shape refers to the
general form, structure, or
outline of individual objects.
Shape can be a very distinctive
clue for interpretation.
Straight edge shapes typically
represent urban or agricultural
(field) targets, while natural
features, such as forest edges,
are generally more irregular in
shape, except where man has
created a road or clear cuts.
Farm or crop land irrigated by
rotating sprinkler systems
would appear as circular
shapes.
Size of objects in an image
is a function of scale. It is
important to assess the size of a
target relative to other objects
in a scene, as well as the
absolute size, to aid in the
interpretation of that target. A
quick approximation of target
size can direct interpretation to
an appropriate result more
quickly. For example, if an
interpreter had to distinguish
zones of land use, and had
identified an area with a number
of buildings in it, large buildings
such as factories or warehouses
would suggest commercial
property, whereas small
buildings would indicate
residential use.
Pattern refers to the
spatial arrangement of visibly
discernible objects. Typically an
orderly repetition of similar
tones and textures will produce
a distinctive and ultimately
recognizable pattern. Orchards
with evenly spaced trees, and
urban streets with regularly
spaced houses are good
examples of pattern.
Texture refers to the
arrangement and frequency of tonal
variation in particular areas of an
image. Rough textures would consist
of a mottled tone where the grey
levels change abruptly in a small
area, whereas smooth textures would
have very little tonal variation.
Smooth textures are most often the
result of uniform, even surfaces, such
as fields, asphalt, or grasslands. A
target with a rough surface and
irregular structure, such as a forest
canopy, results in a rough textured
appearance. Texture is one of the
most important elements for
distinguishing features in radar
imagery.
Shadow is also helpful in
interpretation as it may provide an
idea of the profile and relative
height of a target or targets which
may make identification easier.
However, shadows can also reduce
or eliminate interpretation in their
area of influence, since targets
within shadows are much less (or
not at all) discernible from their
surroundings. Shadow is also useful
for enhancing or identifying
topography and landforms,
particularly in radar imagery.
Association takes into account the
relationship between other recognizable
objects or features in proximity to the
target of interest. The identification of
features that one would expect to
associate with other features may
provide information to facilitate
identification. In the example,
commercial properties may be
associated with proximity to major
transportation routes, whereas
residential areas would be associated
with schools, playgrounds, and sports
fields. In our example, a lake is
associated with boats, a marina, and
adjacent recreational land.
Digital Image Processing
In today's world of advanced technology where most
remote sensing data are recorded in digital format, virtually
all image interpretation and analysis involves some element
of digital processing. Digital image processing may involve
numerous procedures including formatting and correcting of
the data, digital enhancement to facilitate better visual
interpretation, or even automated classification of targets
and features entirely by computer. In order to process
remote sensing imagery digitally, the data must be recorded
and available in a digital form suitable for storage on a
computer tape or disk. Obviously, the other requirement for
digital image processing is a computer system, sometimes
referred to as an image analysis system, with the
appropriate hardware and software to process the data.
Several commercially available software systems have been
developed specifically for remote sensing image processing
and analysis.
For discussion purposes, most of the common image
processing functions available in image analysis systems
can be categorized into the following four categories:

Preprocessing
Image Enhancement
Image Transformation
Image Classification and Analysis

Preprocessing functions involve those operations that are

normally required prior to the main data analysis and
extraction of information, and are generally grouped as
radiometric or geometric corrections.
Radiometric corrections include correcting the data for
sensor irregularities and unwanted sensor or
atmospheric noise, and converting the data so they
accurately represent the reflected or emitted radiation
measured by the sensor.

Geometric corrections include correcting for geometric

distortions due to sensor-Earth geometry variations, and
conversion of the data to real world coordinates (e.g.
latitude and longitude) on the Earth's surface.
The objective of the second group
of image processing functions
grouped under the term of image
enhancement, is solely to improve
the appearance of the imagery to
assist in visual interpretation and
analysis. Examples of enhancement
functions include contrast
stretching to increase the tonal
distinction between various
features in a scene, and spatial
filtering to enhance (or suppress)
specific spatial patterns in an
image.
Image transformations are operations similar in concept to
those for image enhancement. However, unlike image
enhancement operations which are normally applied only to a
single channel of data at a time, image transformations usually
involve combined processing of data from multiple spectral
bands. Arithmetic operations (i.e. subtraction, addition,
multiplication, division) are performed to combine and
transform the original bands into "new" images which better
display or highlight certain features in the scene. We will look at
some of these operations including various methods of
spectral or band ratioing, and a procedure called principal
components analysis which is used to more efficiently
represent the information in multichannel imagery.
Image classification and analysis
operations are used to identify and
classify pixels in the data digitally.
Classification is usually performed on
multi-channel data sets (A) and this
process assigns each pixel in an image to
a particular class or theme (B) based on
statistical characteristics of the pixel
brightness values. There are a variety of
approaches taken to perform digital
classification. We will briefly describe the
two generic approaches which are used
most often, namely supervised and
unsupervised classification.