1. What are Nanomaterials? a) The term nanoscale refers to the dimension of 10° meters. Itis the one billionth part of a meter. So, the particles whose any of the external dimensions or internal structure dimension or surface structure dimension lies in the range of Inm to 100nm are considered as Nanomaterials.These materials are invisible to the naked eye. b) The material science-based approach of nanotechnology is considered for nanomaterials. At this scale, these materials have unique optical, electronic, mechanical and quantum properties compared to their molecular-seale behavior, €) Ananomaterial can be a nano object or a nanostructured material. Nao objects are the discrete pieces of material, on the other hand, Nanostructured materials have their internal or surface structure in the nanoscale dimension. 4) Nanomaterials can be of natural existence, artificially manufactured or incidentally formed. With the advance in the research, nanomaterials are being commercialized and are being used as commodities 2. WHAT ARE PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS ? Optical properties of nanomaterials: When compared to bulk materials, nanomaterials exhibit distinctive optical characteristics such as greater scattering, absorption, and luminescence. The shape and size of nanoparticles can be altered to change their optical properties. Such unique optical properties can be explained by considering Quantum confinement and surface plasmon effects: 2) Quaritum Confinement: Quantum confinement is a prominent effect in semiconducting materials having one dimension in the range of 1-10 nm. In bulk materials, the exciton-Bohr radius (exciton is the electron-hole pairs present in a material and the distance of separation between them is the exciton-Bohr radius) is much smaller than the size of bulk material, while in the case of semiconducting material, the exciton-Bohr radius is smaller or comparable to the size of bulk material. Thus, it is confined since exciton cannot extend to its natural limit. This phenomenon is called quantum confinement. Due to this effect, the energy level of both the valence band and conduction band becomes discrete, and the band gap energy changes significantly in comparison to the bulk material. The larger the size of nanomaterial, the smaller will be the band gap energy and vice-versa, This results ina blue shift in optical property. b) Surface plasmon effect: Similar to how photons are created by quantizing light and sound waves, plasmons are quasiparticles created by quantizing plasma oscillations. Another quasiparticle known as a plasma polariton can be produced when plasmons combine with a photon. Surface plasmons (SP) are types of ptasmons that are restricted to surfaces and interact with light intensely to produce polariton. SPs are responsible for the nanomaterial’s color. When the size of the metallic particle becomes smaller than the wavelength of light and the natural oscillation frequency of the plasmon becomes equal to the frequency of light used, then the surface plasmon is excited or resonance is achieved called the surface plasmon effect. For example, the frequency for spherical gold particles is roughly 0.58 times that of bulk plasma. Consequently, the SP frequency is in the visible range even though the bulk plasma frequency is in the UV region (wavelength close to 520 nm). Ifa wave of light is applied to @ suspension of nanoparticles in a host, the local electric field may be greatly amplified close to an SP resonance. ) Electrical properties of nanomaterials: Nanomaterials have lower thermal and electrical conductivities than bulk materials. The classical free electron theory of metals states that the movement of electrons within a metallic solid lead to electrical conductivity. Nanomaterials have a high density of grain boundaries, which makes electric-phonon and phonon-phonon scattering effective and reduces conductivity. d) Magnetic properties of nanomaterials: Materials with nanostructures have higher saturation ‘magnetization and magnetic coercivity values. If the external magnetic field is unable to further alter the magnetization of a material, it is sald to be in a magnetically saturated state, The amount of ‘magnetic field required to get a ferromagnetic material's saturation magnetization to zero is known asmagnetic coercivity. Coercivity and saturation magnetization are both used to measure a magnet’s ‘strength. Due to the lowered size effect, the value of both of these attributes has increased, Small Particles have a single magnetic domain behavior that is easily aligned by an external magnet, giving rise to improved magnetic properties. . ) Mechanical properties of nanomaterials: The unique mechanical properties of nanomaterials are due to the increased number of surface atoms and interfaces, which in turn leads to increased density of defects like grain boundaries, dislocations, triple junctions, etc. Nanomaterials exhibit the following mechanical properties as compared to bulk materials: * Increased strength * Increased toughness * Increased hardness * Increased ductility * Decreased elasticity 3. Whatare Application of Nanomaterials? Applications in Mechanical Engineering (2) Since they are stronger, lighter etc., they are used to make hard metals. (2) Smart magnetic fluids are used in vacuum seals, magnetic separators etc. (3) They are also used in Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) spin valves. (4) Nano MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) are used in optimal switches, pressure sensors, mass sensors. Applications in Electrical, Electronic and Communication Engineering (1) Orderly assembled nano materials are used as quantum electronic devices and used in photonic crystals. (2) Some of the nano materials are used as sensing elements. Especially the molecular nano materials are used to design robots, assembler etc. (3) They are used in energy storage device such as hydrogen storage device in ionic batteries, (4) In magnetic recording devices. Applications in Computer Science Engineering and IT (1) To make CDs, and semiconductor LASER. (2) To make smaller chips few information storage. (3) In mobile phones, Lap - tops etc. (4) Nano dimensional photonic crystals and quantum electronic crystals and quantum electronic devices playa vital role in recently developed computers. Applications in Bio - Medical and Chemical Energy (1) Consolidated state nano particles are used as catalysts, electrodes in solar and fuel cells. (2) Bio- sensitive nano particles are used in the production of DNA chips, bio-sensors etc. (3) Nano - structured ceramic materials are used in synthetic bones. (4) Few nano materials are used in absorbents, self cleaning glass fuel additives, drugs, ferro fluids ete. (5) Nano metallic colloids are used as film precursors.4. What is surface to volume rato The surface area to volume ratio for a material or substance made of nanoparticles has a significant effect ‘of the propertios of the material. Firstly, materials made up of nanoparticles have a retative larger surface area When compared to the same volume of material made: Up of bigger particles. | .. For example, let us consider a sphere of radius ‘The surface area of the sphere will be ane? The volume of the sphere = 4/3(nr) Therefore the surface area to the volume ratio will be 4nr2 (4/3) = 3/r 4) Iemeans that the surface area to volume ratio Increases as the radius of the sphere decreases and vice Versa, {also means that when a given volume of material is made up of smaller particles, the surface area of the material increases, Therefore, as particle size decreases, a greater proportion of the particles are found at the surface of the material, For example, a particle of size 3 nm has 50% of its particles on the surface; at 10 nm, 20% of its particles are on the surface; and at 30 nm, 5% of its particles are on the surface. Therefore, materials made of nanoparticles have a much greater surface area per unit volume ratio compared with the Materials made up of bigger particles, This leads to nanoparticles being more chemically reactive. As chemical reactions occur between particles that are on the surface, a given mass of nanomaterial will be much more reactive than the same mass of material made up of large particles. This means that materials that are inert in thelr bulk form are reactive when produced in their nanoparticle form b q q| S. Explain top down and bottom up approaches to prepare nanomaterials? There are two general approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials a) Bottom-up approach. b) Top- down approach {A) Bottom-up approach The alternative approach, which has the potential of creating less waste and hence the more economical, is the ‘bottom: up’. Bottom-up approach refers to the build up of a material from the bottom: atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster, Many of these techniques are still under development or are just beginning to be used for commercial production of nano powders, ‘Oragano metallic chemical route, revere-micelle route, sol-gel synthesis, colloidal Precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, template assisted sol-gel, electrodeposition etc, are some of the well- known bottom-up techniques reported for the Preparation of luminescent nano particals, (B) Top-down approach Top-down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk material into nanosized structures or particles, Top-down synthesis techniques are extension of those that have been used for producing micron sized particles, Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and depend either on removal or division of bulk ‘material or on miniaturization of bulk fabrication processes to produce the desired structure with appropriate properties,The biggest problem with the top-down approach is the imperfection of surface structure. For example, nanowires made by lithography are not smooth and may contain a lot of impurities and structural defects on its surface. Examples of such techniques are high-energy wet ball milling, electron beam lithography, atomic force manipulation, gas-phase condensation, aerosol spray, etc. 6. Explain with neat diagram principle and working of SEM. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that scans surfaces of microorganisms that uses a beam of electrons moving at low energy to focus and scan specimens. The development of electron microscopes was due to the inefficiency of the wavelength of light microscopes. electron microscopes have very short wavelengths in comparison to the light microscope which enables better resolution power. Principle of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) _ ae ae a Unlike the Transmission Electron Microscope which uses transmitted electrons, the scanning electron Microscope uses emitted electrons. The Scanning electron microscope works on the principle of applying kinetic energy to produce signals on the interaction of the electrons. These electrons are secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and diffracted backscattered electrons which are used to view crystallized elements and photons. Secondary and backscattered electrons are used to produce an image. The secondary electrons are emitted from the specimen play the primary role of detecting the morphology and topography of the specimen while the backscattered electrons show contrast in the composition of the elements of the specimen. ‘How does the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) work? Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Objectve lens ——— fm» Back scattered —— lection detector* The source of the electrons and the electromagnetic lenses are from tungsten filament lamps that are placed at the top of the column and it is similar to those of the transmission electron Microscope, * The electrons are emitted after thermal energy Is applied to the electron source and allowed to move in @ fast motion to the anode, which has a Positive charge. 154 wile * The beam of electrons activates the emiss levels and secondary electrons at low-ener interacts with the specimen to Produce si composition of the specimen. lon of primary scattered (Primary) electrons at high energy rey levels from the specimen surface, The beam of electrons ignals that give Information about the Surface topography and The specimen does not need Special treatment for visualization under the SEM, even air-dried samples can be examined directly. However, microbial Specimens need fixation, dehydration, and drying in order to maintain the structural features of the Cells and to prevent collapsing of the cells when exposed to the high vacuum of the microscope, * The samples are mounted and coated wi Ith thin layer of heavy metal elements to allow Spatial scattering of electric charges on the surface of the Specimen allowing better image production, with high clarity, * Scanning by this microscope is attained by tapering a beam of electrons back and forth over a thin Section of the microscope. When the electrons reach the specimen, the surface releases a tiny staw of electrons known as secondary electrons which are then trapped by a special detector apparatus, * When the secondary electrons reach and enter the detector, material that fluoresces when struck by a charged particle or high-energy photon). This emits flashes of light which get converted into an electric current by a photomultiplier, sending a signal to the cathode ray tube. This produces an image that looks like a television picture that can be viewed and photographed. they strike a scintillator (a luminescence * The quantity of secondary electrons that enter the detector is highly defined by the nature of the specimen i.e raised surfaces to receive high quantities of electrons, entering the detector while depressed surfaces have fewer electrons reachin the surface and hence fewer electrons enter the detector. * Therefore raised surfaces will appear brighter on the screen while depressed surfaces appear darker, The major components of the inning Electron Microscope include; * Electron Source — This is where electrons are produced under thermal heat at a voltage of 1-40kV. the electrons condense into a beam that Is used for the creation of an Image and analysis. There are three types of electron sources that can be used I. e Tungsten filament, Lanthanum hexaboride, and Field emission gun (FEG) * Lenses ~ it has several condenser lenses that focus the beam of electrons from the source through the column forming a narrow beam of electrons that forma spot called a Spot size. * Scanning Coll ~ they are used to deflect the beam ‘over the specimen surface. * Detector ~ it’s made up of several detectors that are able to differentiate the secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and diffracted backscattered electrons, The functioning of the detectors highly depends on the voltage speed, the density of the specimen. * The display device (data output devices) * Power supply * Vacuum systemLike the transmission electron Microscope, the Scanning electron microscope should be free from vibrations and any electromagnetic elements, ‘Applications of the Scanning Electron Microsco| as Mis used in a variety of fields including Industrial uses, nanos Microbiology 1, Used for spot chemical analysis In energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy, 2. Used in the analysis of cosmetic components which are very tiny in size. 3. Used to study the filament structures of microorganisms, * They are easy to operate and have user-friendly interfaces. + They are used in a variety of industrial applications to analyze surfaces of solid objects. + Some modern SEMs are able to generate digital data that can be portable. . It is easy to acquire data from the SEM, withi Limitations * They are very expensive to purchase * They are bulky to carry * They must be used in rooms that are free of vibrations and free of electromagnetic elements * They must be maintained with a consistent voltage * They should be maintained with access to cooling systems. 7. Explain with neat diagram principle and working of TEM. Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) are microscopes that use a particle beam of electrons to visualize specimens and generate a highly-magnified image. TEMs can magnify objects up to 2 million times. In order to get a better idea of just how small that is, think of how small a cell is. It is no wonder TEMs have become so valuable within the biological and medical fields. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is similar to the light microscope. difference is that light microscopes use light rays to focus and produce an image while the TEM uses a beam of electrons to focus on the specimen, to produce an image. Electrons have a shorter wavelength in comparison to light which has a long wavelength. The mechanism of a light microscope is that an increase In resolution power decreases the wavelength of the light, but in the TEM, when the electron illuminates the specimen, the resolution power increases increasing the wavelength of the electron transmission. The wavelength of the electrons is about 0.005nm which is 100,000X shorter than that of light, hence TEM has better resolution than that of the light microscope, of about 1000times. This can accurately be stated that the TEM can be used to detail the internal structures of the smallest particles like a virion particle. Their working mechanism is enabled by the high-resolution power they produce which allows it to be used in a wide variety of fields. It has three working parts which include: 1. Electron gun 2, Image producing system 3. Image recording system Electron gun '» This is the part of the Transmission Electron Microscope responsible for producing electron beams. Electrons are produced by a cathode that Is a tungsten filament that is V-shaped and it is normally heated. The tungsten filament is covered by a control grid known as a Wehnelt cylinder made up of a central hole which lies columnar to the tube, The cathode lies on top of or below the cylindrical column hole. The cathode and the control grid are negatively charged with an end of the anode which is disk-shaped that also has an axial hole. ea'* When electrons are transmitted from the cathode, they pass through the columnar aperture (hole) to the anode at high voltage with constant energy, which is efficient for focusing the specimen to produce an accurately defined image. * _ Italso has the condenser lens system which works to focus energy intensity and the column hole of the electron gun. The TEM uses two condenser lenses to converge the beam of electrons to the specimen. The two condenser lens each function to Produce an image i.e the first lens which has strong magnification, produces a smaller image of the specimen, to the second condenser lens, directing the image to the objectives. Image- Producing system * _ Its made up of the objective lens, the electron beam on the specimen by controlling the 3 movable stage or holding the specimen, intermediate and projector lenses, They function by focusing the passing electrons through the specimen forming a highly magnified image. * The objective has a short focal length of about 1-5mm and it produces an intermediate image from the condenser which are transmitted to the projector lenses for magnification. * The projector lenses are of two types, i.e the intermediate lens which allows great magnification of the image and the projector lens which Bives a generally greater magnification over the intermediate lens. * To produce efficient high standard images, the objectives and the Projector lenses need high power supplies with high stability for the highest standard of resolution. Image-Recording System Its made up of the fluorescent screen used to view and to focus on the image. They also have a digital camera that Permanently records the images captured after viewing. * They have a vacuum system that prevents the bom! their movement and ability to focus. A vacuumed s\ image. * The vacuumed system Is made up of a pump, gauge, valves and a power supply. * The image that is formed is called a monochromatic image, which is greyish or black and white. The image must be visible to the human eye, and therefore, the electrons are allowed to Pass through a fluorescent screen fixed at the base of the microscope. * The image can also be captured digitally and displayed on a computer and stored in a JPEG or TIFF format. During the storage, the image can be manipulated from its monochromatic state to a colored image depending on the recording apparatus eg use of pixel cameras can store the image in color, The presence of colored images allows easy Visualization, identification, and characterization of the images. bardment or collision of electrons with air molecules disrupting 'ystem facilitates the straight movement of electrons to the Electron Gun Condenser Sample Objective lens Projection lenslectron Microscope (TEM) work? From the Instrum ribed, the working mechanism is a sequential process mentioned above. To mean: ‘+ Aheated tungsten filament in the el condenser lenses. the parts of the TEM . By the assistance offered by the column, a clear image, the vacuum allows electrons to produce a clear may deflect them. n'a wide variety of fields Fr Some of these applications include: + To visualize and study cell structures of bacteria, viruses, and fungi » To view bacteria flagella and plasmids . To view the shapes and sizes of microbial cell organelles 1 2 3. 4. To study and differentiate between plant and animal cells. 5. 6. Its also used in nanotechnology to study nanoparticles such as ZnO nanoparticles It is used to detect and identify fractures, damaged microparticles which further enable repair isms of the particles, 3. It can beused to acquire vast information on compounds and their structures. 4. ‘It produces very efficient, high-quality images with high clarity. 5. It can produce permanent images. 6. Itis easy to train and use the Transmission Electron Microscope Limitations of Transmission Electron Mi 1. Generally, the TEMs are very expensive to pui a eran 2. They are very big to handle. 3. The preparation of specimens to be viewed under the TEM is very tedious, 4, The use of chemical fixations, dehydrators, and embedments can cause the dangers of artifacts. 5 6. 7 . They are laborious to maintain. i. Itrequires a constant inflow of voltage to Operate. - They are extremely sensitive to vibrations isolated areas, where they are not exposed, 8. It produces monochromatic images, unless they usea fluorescent screen at the end of visualization,8.Explain with neat diagram principle and working of atomic force microscope(afm). The Atomic Force Microscope works on the principle measuring intermolecular forces and sees atoms by Using probed surfaces of the specimen in nanoscale. Its functioning Is enabled by three of its major working Principles that include Surface sensing, Detection, and imaging, Beip ey . The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) performs surface sensing by using a cantilever (an element that is made of a rigid block like a beam or plate, that attaches to the end of support, from which it protrudes making a perpendicularly flat connection that is vertical like a wall). The cantilever has a sharp tip that Scans over the sample surface, by forming an attractive force between the surface and the tip when it draws closer to the sample surface, When it draws very close making contact with the surface of the sample, a repulsive force gradually takes control making the cantilever avert from the surface. . During the deflection of the cantilever away from the sample surface, there is a change in direction of reflection of the beam, and a laser beam detects the aversion, by reflecting off a beam from the flat surface of the cantilever. Using a positive-sensitive photo-diode (PSPD- a component that is based on silicon PIN diode technology and is used to measure the position of the integral focus of an incoming light signal), it tracks these changes of deflection and change in direction of the reflected beam and records them. . The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) takes the image of the surface topography of the sample by force by scanning the cantilever over a section of interest. Depending on how raised or how low the surface of the sample is, it determines the deflection of the beam, which is monitored by the Positive-sensitive Photo-diode (PSDP). The microscope has a feedback loop that controls the length of the cantilever tip just above the sample surface, therefore, it will maintain the laser Position thus generating an accurate imaging map of the surface of the image Lote) rere acento Photodiode Laser Cantilever Sample Surface & Tipi¢ Force Microscope ihe eS Kay ” ree Microscopes have several techniques for measuring force interactions such as van der Waals, thermal, electrical and magnetic force interactions for these interactions done by the AFM, it has the following parts that assist in controlling its functions, * Modified tips which are used to detect the sample surface and undergo deflections * Software adjustments used to image the samples. * Feedback loop control - they control the force interactions and the tip positions using a laser deflector. the laser reflects from the back of the cantilever and the tip and while the tip interacts with the surface Of the sample, the laser’s position on the photodetector is used in the feedback loop for tracking the surface of the sample and measurement. * Deflection -The Atomic Force Microscope is constructed with a laser beam deflection system. The laser is reflected from the back of the AFM lever to the sensitive detector. They are made from silicon compounds with a tip radius of about 10nm. * Force measurement - the AFM works and depends highly on the force interactions, they contribute to the image produced. The forces are measured by calculation of the deflection lever when the stiffness of the cantilever is known. This calculation is defined by Hooke’s law, defined as follows: Fe -kz, where F is the force, k is the stiffness of the lever, and z is the distance the lever is bent. Applications of Ato This type of microscopy has been used in vario semiconductor studies, molecular engineering, Cell biology, medicine, and physics. Some of these applications include: Identifying atoms from samples . Evaluating force interactions between atoms Studying the physical changing properties of atoms . Studying the structural and mechanical Properties of protein complexes and assembly, microtubules. us disciplines in natural science such as solid-state physics, Polymer chemistry, surface chemistry, molecular biology, PWNP such as w . used to differentiate cancer cells and normal cells. &. Evaluating and differentiating neighboring cells and their shape and cell wall rigidity. Advantages of Atomic F 1. Easy to prepare samples for observa 2. Itcan be uséd in vacuums, air, and liquids. 3. Measurement of sample sizes is accurate 4. Ithas a 3D imaging 5. It can be used to study living and nonliving elements 6. Itcan be used to quantify the roughness of surfaces 7. Itis used in dynamic environments. ey Iproscope = 2. It can only scan a singie nanosized image at atime of about 150x150nm, 2. They have alow Scanning time which might cause thermal drift ‘on the sample. 3. The tip and the sample can be damaged during detection.) 1 4. Ithasa limited magnification and vertical range.9. Explain the physical methods for synthesis of Nano particles? Various techniques are adopted for the synthesis of nano materials that too in various forms like nano Particles, nano powder, nano crystals, nano films, nano wires, nano tubes, nano dots. These methods includes: 1, Ball Milling 2. Sputtering 3. Vapor deposition 4. Solgel technique. 5. Electro deposition, 6. Mechanical crushing or Ball milling 7. LASER synthesis 8. Inert gas condensation We will take few of them for study. BALL MILLING 1.As the name suggests, the ball milling method consists of balls and a mill chamber. Therefore over all a ball mill contains a stainless steel container and many small iron, hardened steel, silicon carbide, or tungsten carbide balls are made to rotate inside a mill (drum). 2. The powder of a material is taken inside the steel container. This powder will be made into nanosize using the ball milling technique. A magnet is placed outside the container to provide the pulling force to the material and this magnetic force increases the milling energy when milling container or chamber rotates the metal balls. 3. The ball to material mass ratio is normally maintained at 2 ratio 1 4-These silicon carbide balls provide very large amount of energy to the material powder and the powder then get crushed. This process of ball milling is done approximately 100 to 150 hrs to get uniform fine powder. 5. Ball milling is a mechanical process and thus all the structural and chemical changes are produced by mechanical energy. Advantages of ball milling process: 1. Nanopowders of 2 to 20 nm in size can be produced. The size of nanopowder also depends upon the speed of the rotation of the balls. 2. It is an inexpensive and easy process. Disadvantages: 1.As the process is not so sophisticated, therefore the shape of the nanomaterial is irregular. 2. There may be contaminants inserted from ball and milling additives. 3. This method produces crystal defects.SPUTTERING @. The ejection of atoms from the surface of a materi Particles is called sputtering. ij b. Sputtering is a momentum transfer bombarding ions, €, Sputtered atoms travel until they strike a substrate, The simplest source of ions for Sputtering is provided by to an applied electric field between two electrodes in a d. The gas breaks down to conduct electricity when a Basis called plasma. lons of the plasma are acceler: ial (the target) by bombardment with energetic Process in which atoms from a cathode/target are driven off by where they deposit to form the desired layer, the well-known phenomenon of glow discharge due gas at low pressure, certain minimum voltage is reached. Such an ionized ated at the target by a large electric field, @. When the ions impact the target, atoms (or molecules) are ejected from the surface of the target into the plasma, where they are carried away and then deposited on the substrate. This type of sputtering is called “DC sputtering.” f. In order to avoid any chemical feaction between the sputtered atoms and the sputtering gas, the uch as argon. However, in some applications, such as the 2 reactive gas is purposely added to argon so that the deposited filmis a chemical compound. This type of sputtering is called “reactive sputtering” . & When the plasma ions strike the target, their electrical charge is neutralized and they return to the Process as atoms. If the target is an insulat Yor, the neutralization process results in a positive charge on the target surface. i, In order to increase the efficiency of the sputtering process, it is common for the sputtering source to have some magnetic confinement through a magnetron source. The effect of the Magnetic field is to spiral the electrons so that they have more chance of undergoing an ionizing collision, thus enabling the Plasma to be operated at a higher density. This type of sputtering is called “magnetron sputtering” and itcan be used with DC or RF sputtering. J. Many variations can be introduced in the ion Sputtering synthesis route by altering the magnetic field or RF depending on the Properties of nanoparticles which are to be synthesized, Materials that can be sputtered include elements, such as pure metals and elemental semiconductors, alloys, and compounds, Such as oxides, nitrides, sulfides, and carbides, Advantages : 1. Sputtering allows for the dey 2. Itis a versatile technique th: 3. Ithas many process variabl, position of films having the sam at can be used for almost all mai les that may be used to tailor an 'e composition as the target source. terial types, id modify the Properties of the materials. The use of solid targets makes it possible to control the type and composition of the material and thus avoids the use of complicated Process chemistry, Disadvantages ; Sputtering rates are low compared to those that can be attained in thermal evaporation, Sputtering targets are often expensive, Most of the energy incident on the target becomes heat, which must be removed, In reactive sputter deposition, the gas composition must be carefully controlled revent poisoning the ‘i , i th : 'y controlled to prevent 1BSOL-GEL TECHNIQUE a. Nano particles and nano powder is obtained using this technique. 4. OARRGO 7708 mts oi iqui In general, sol - gel technique is based on the precursors and formation of colloidal ‘ solutions. maileam b. Out of few more processes, hydro - dynamic cavitation is often used, in which nanoparticles can be | generated through creation and release of gas bubbles inside the sol - get solution. | c. Here, the sol - get solution is taken in a drying chamber and thoroughly mixed by applying enormous pressure, high temperature and further exposing it to cavitational disturbances. d. This process creates hydrodynamic bubbles in the sol - gel. These bubbles will undergo nucleation, growth and then it quenches to form nano particles. Precunors + Solvents uf Sel Formation Connected porous wa (Collodal Structures in Sol) structure (gel) : ‘ yt i ‘ at Sep § (Cah nation) casation) — Sep Sand 4 (Aging & Dryting) T Saupe | OySredynin) Steyr 2 (Can