Predicate Logic:

Semantics
Alice Gao

Lecture 13

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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Learning goals

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

▶ Define a valuation.
▶ Determine the value of a term given a valuation.
▶ Determine the truth value of a formula given a valuation.
▶ Give a valuation that makes a formula true or false.
▶ Determine and justify whether a formula is satisfiable and/or
valid.

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The Language of Predicate Logic

▶ Domain: a non-empty set of objects

▶ Individuals: concrete objects in the domain
▶ Functions: takes objects in the domain as arguments and
returns an object of the domain.
▶ Relations: takes objects in the domain as arguments and
returns true or false. They describe properties of objects or
relationships between objects.
▶ Variables: placeholders for concrete objects in the domain
▶ Quantifiers: for how many objects in the domain is the
statement true?

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The semantics of a predicate formula

Given a well-formed formula of predicate logic,

does the formula evaluate to 0 or 1 in some context?
Example: What does (𝐹 (𝑎) ∨ 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑏)) mean?

The symbols 𝐹 , 𝐺, 𝑎, and 𝑏 do not have intrinsic meanings.

In propositional logic, we need a truth valuation
to give a meaning to a formula.
In predicate logic, we need a valuation
to give a meaning to a term or a formula.

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Valuation

A valuation 𝑣 for our language ℒ consists of

1. A domain 𝐷,
2. A meaning for each individual symbol, e.g. 𝑎𝑣 ∈ 𝐷,
3. A meaning for each free variable symbol, e.g. 𝑢𝑣 ∈ 𝐷,
4. A meaning for each relation symbol, e.g. 𝐹 𝑣 ⊆ 𝐷𝑛 ,
≈𝑣 = {⟨𝑥, 𝑥⟩}𝑥 ∈ 𝐷} ⊆ 𝐷2 .
5. A meaning for each function symbol, e.g. 𝑓 𝑣 ∶ 𝐷𝑚 → 𝐷.

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A function symbol must be interpreted as a total function

A function symbol 𝑓 must be interpreted as

a function 𝑓 𝑣 that is total on the domain 𝐷.

𝑓 𝑣 ∶ 𝐷𝑚 → 𝐷

▶ Any 𝑚-tuple (𝑑1 , ..., 𝑑𝑚 ) ∈ 𝐷𝑚 can be an input to 𝑓 𝑣 .

▶ For any legal 𝑚-tuple (𝑑1 , ..., 𝑑𝑚 ) ∈ 𝐷𝑚 ,
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑑1𝑣 , ..., 𝑑𝑚
𝑣
) ∈ 𝐷.

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CQ Which function is total?

Which of the following functions is total?

(A) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 − 𝑦. 𝐷 = ℕ (natural numbers).

√
(B) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. 𝐷 = ℤ (integers).
(C) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1. 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
(D) 𝑓(1) = 2, 𝑓(2) = 3 and 𝑓(3) = 3. 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
(E) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 > 𝑦. 𝐷 = ℤ (integers).

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Value of Terms

Definition (Value of Terms)

The value of terms of 𝐿 under valuation 𝑣 over domain 𝐷 is
defined by recursion:
1. 𝑎𝑣 ∈ 𝐷.
2. 𝑢𝑣 ∈ 𝐷.
3. 𝑓(𝑡1 , … , 𝑡𝑛 )𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑣 (𝑡𝑣 𝑣
1 , … , 𝑡𝑛 ).

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The assignment override notation

𝑣(𝑢/𝛼) keeps all the mappings in 𝑣 intact

EXCEPT reassigning 𝑢 to 𝛼 ∈ 𝐷.
Consider a valuation: 𝑢𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
1 = 3, 𝑢2 = 3, 𝑢3 = 1. 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
𝑣(𝑢1 /2)
1. 𝑢1 =?
𝑣(𝑢 /2)
2. 𝑢2 1 = ?
𝑣(𝑢 /2)(𝑢2 /1)
3. 𝑢1 1 =?
𝑣(𝑢 /2)(𝑢2 /1)
4. 𝑢2 1 =?
𝑣(𝑢 /2)(𝑢2 /1)
5. 𝑢3 1 =?

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True Value of Formulas

Definition (Truth Value of Formulas)

The truth value of formulas of 𝐿 under valuation 𝑣 over domain 𝐷
is defined by recursion:
1. 𝐹 (𝑡1 , … , 𝑡𝑛 )𝑣 = 1 iff ⟨𝑡𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
1 , … , 𝑡𝑛 ⟩ ∈ 𝐹 .
2. (¬𝐴)𝑣 = 1 iff 𝐴𝑣 = 0.
3. (𝐴 ∧ 𝐵)𝑣 = 1 iff 𝐴𝑣 = 1 and 𝐵𝑣 = 1.
4. (𝐴 ∨ 𝐵)𝑣 = 1 iff 𝐴𝑣 = 1 or 𝐵𝑣 = 1.
5. (𝐴 → 𝐵)𝑣 = 1 iff 𝐴𝑣 = 0 or 𝐵𝑣 = 1.
6. (𝐴 ↔ 𝐵)𝑣 = 1 iff 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐵𝑣 .
7. (∀𝑥 𝐴(𝑥))𝑣 = 1 iff for every 𝛼 ∈ 𝐷, 𝐴(𝑢)𝑣(𝑢/𝛼) = 1,
where 𝑢 does not occur in 𝐴(𝑥).
8. (∃𝑥 𝐴(𝑥))𝑣 = 1 iff there exists 𝛼 ∈ 𝐷, 𝐴(𝑢)𝑣(𝑢/𝛼) = 1,
where 𝑢 does not occur in 𝐴(𝑥).

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Our predicate logic language

Our language of predicate logic:

Individual symbols: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.
Free variable symbols: 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤.
Bound variable symbols: 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧.
Function symbols: 𝑓 is a unary function. 𝑔 is a binary function.
Relation symbols: 𝐹 is a unary relation. 𝐺 is a binary relation.

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An example of a valuation

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = 1, 𝑏𝑣 = 2, 𝑐𝑣 = 3.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = 3, 𝑣𝑣 = 2, 𝑤𝑣 = 1.
▶ Functions:
𝑓 𝑣 : 𝑓 𝑣 (1) = 2, 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 3, 𝑓 𝑣 (3) = 1.
𝑔𝑣 : 𝑔𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) mod 3) + 1.
▶ Relations:
𝐹 𝑣 : 𝐹 𝑣 (𝑥) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 5.
𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑦.

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Another example of a valuation

Valuation 𝑣′ :
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑜𝑏, 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = 𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑣 = 𝐵𝑜𝑏, 𝑐𝑣 = 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = 𝐵𝑜𝑏, 𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝑤𝑣 = 𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒.
▶ Functions:
𝑓 𝑣 : 𝑓 𝑣 (𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒) = 𝐴𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒, 𝑓 𝑣 (𝐵𝑜𝑏) = 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑓 𝑣 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑒) = 𝐵𝑜𝑏.
𝑔𝑣 : 𝑔𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = the person with the longer name. return 𝑥 if
there is a tie.
▶ Relations:
𝐹 𝑣 : 𝐹 𝑣 (𝑥) is true iff the person likes chocolates. (Alice and
Cate like chocolates whereas Bob dislikes chocolates.)
𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true iff 𝑥 is older than or has the same age as
𝑦. (Alice is older than Cate, who is older than Bob.)

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Notation for functions and relations

Consider the domain 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.

Functions:
▶ 𝑓 𝑣 is the identify function. 𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑥.
▶ 𝑓 𝑣 (1) = 1, 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 2 and 𝑓 𝑣 (3) = 3.
Relations:
▶ 𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑦.
▶ 𝐺𝑣 = {⟨2, 1⟩, ⟨3, 1⟩, ⟨3, 2⟩}

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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Evaluating terms and formulas w/o variables

Evaluate these terms and formulas under the valuation 𝑣.

𝑓(𝑓(𝑎)), (𝐹 (𝑎) ∨ 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑏)).
Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = 1, 𝑏𝑣 = 2, 𝑐𝑣 = 3.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = 3, 𝑣𝑣 = 2, 𝑤𝑣 = 1.
▶ Functions:
𝑓 𝑣 : 𝑓 𝑣 (1) = 2, 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 3, 𝑓 𝑣 (3) = 1.
𝑔𝑣 : 𝑔𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) mod 3) + 1.
▶ Relations:
𝐹 𝑣 : 𝐹 𝑣 (𝑥) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 5.
𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑦.

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Give a valuation that makes the formula true/false

Complete the valuation 𝑣 such that

(A) 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑎)))𝑣 = 1
(B) 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑎)))𝑣 = 0

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = ?, 𝑏𝑣 = ?, 𝑐𝑣 = ?.
▶ Functions: 𝑓 𝑣 ∶ ?, 𝑔𝑣 ∶ ?
▶ Relations: 𝑃 𝑣 ∶ ?, 𝐺𝑣 ∶ ?

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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A valuation for interpreting free variables

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = 1, 𝑏𝑣 = 2, 𝑐𝑣 = 3.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = 3, 𝑣𝑣 = 2, 𝑤𝑣 = 1.
▶ Functions:
𝑓 𝑣 : 𝑓 𝑣 (1) = 2, 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 3, 𝑓 𝑣 (3) = 1.
𝑔𝑣 : 𝑔𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) mod 3) + 1.
▶ Relations:
𝐹 𝑣 : 𝐹 𝑣 (𝑥) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 5.
𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑦.

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Evaluating terms & formulas w/o bound variables

Evaluate these terms and formulas under the valuation 𝑣.

𝑔(𝑢, 𝑓(𝑏)), 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑢))).
Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = 1, 𝑏𝑣 = 2, 𝑐𝑣 = 3.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = 3, 𝑣𝑣 = 2, 𝑤𝑣 = 1.
▶ Functions:
𝑓 𝑣 : 𝑓 𝑣 (1) = 2, 𝑓 𝑣 (2) = 3, 𝑓 𝑣 (3) = 1.
𝑔𝑣 : 𝑔𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) mod 3) + 1.
▶ Relations:
𝐹 𝑣 : 𝐹 𝑣 (𝑥) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 5.
𝐺𝑣 : 𝐺𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) is true if and only if 𝑥 > 𝑦.

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Give a valuation that makes the formula true/false

Complete a valuation such that

(A) 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑢)))𝑣 = 1
(B) 𝐺(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑓(𝑢)))𝑣 = 0

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Individuals: 𝑎𝑣 = ?, 𝑏𝑣 = ?, 𝑐𝑣 = ?.
▶ Free variables: 𝑢𝑣 = ?, 𝑢𝑣 = ? 𝑢𝑣 = ?.
▶ Functions: 𝑓 𝑣 ∶ ?, 𝑔𝑣 ∶ ?
▶ Relations: 𝑃 𝑣 ∶ ?, 𝐺𝑣 ∶ ?

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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Evaluate quantified formulas under a valuation

Evaluate these formulas under the valuation 𝑣.

(A) (∀𝑥 (∃𝑦 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦)))
(B) (∃𝑥 (∀𝑦 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦)))

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ Relations: 𝐺𝑣 = {⟨1, 2⟩, ⟨3, 1⟩, ⟨2, 3⟩}.

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Give a valuation that makes the formula true/false

Complete the valuation 𝑣 to make the following formula true/false.

(When satisfying the formula, try making 𝐺𝑣 as small as possible.)

(A) (∀𝑦 (∃𝑥 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦)))

(B) (∃𝑦 (∀𝑥 𝐺(𝑥, 𝑦)))

Valuation 𝑣:
▶ Domain: 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}.
▶ ...

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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Difference between Individual and Free Variable Symbols

Let our domain be the set of people. Let the predicate 𝐿(𝑢) be
true if 𝑢 likes chocolates. Let 𝑎 be an individual symbol referring
to Alice.
▶ 𝐿(𝑎)
This formula only contains individual symbols.
Since 𝑎 refers to Alice, the truth value of this formula is
already determined (It’s true because Alice likes chocolates
=).
▶ 𝐿(𝑢)
This formula only contains free variable symbols.
We do not know the truth value of this formula because 𝑢 can
refer to any person in the domain. We need to assign 𝑢 to a
particular person because we can determine whether this
formula is true or false.

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Difference between Free and Bound Variables

Let our domain be the set of integers.

▶ 𝑢+𝑢=𝑣
The variables are free.
We do not know the truth value of this formula until we
assign the free variables to elements of the domain.
▶ ∀𝑥 ∀𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑦)
The variables are bound.
We know the truth value of this formula because the
meanings of the variables are given by the quantifiers.

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Outline

The Learning Goals

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Variables

Evaluating Terms and Formulas w/o Bound Variables

Evaluating Quantified Formulas

A few clarifications

Satisfiable and Valid

Revisiting the Learning Goals

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Satisfiable and Valid

A formula 𝐴 is satisfiable:

there exists a valuation 𝑣, 𝐴𝑣 = 1.

A formula 𝐴 is valid:

for every valuation 𝑣, 𝐴𝑣 = 1.

Most predicate formulas are satisfiable but not valid

because we have a great deal of freedom to choose the valuation.

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Proving that a formula is satisfiable or not

Is the following formula satisfiable? If it’s satisfiable, give a

valuation that satisfies it. If it’s not satisfiable, give a proof.

(∃𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥)) → (∀𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥))

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Proving that a formula is valid/not valid

Is the following formula valid? If it’s valid, give a proof.

If it’s not valid, give a counterexample.

(∀𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥)) → (∃𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥))

▶ Determine whether the formula is valid or not.

▶ How do I prove that a formula is NOT valid?

▶ How do I prove that a formula is valid?

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Proving that a formula is valid or not

Is the following formula valid? If it’s valid, give a proof.

If it’s not valid, give a counterexample.

(∀𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥)) → (∃𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥))

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Proving that a formula is valid or not

Is the following formula valid? If it’s valid, give a proof.

If it’s not valid, give a counterexample.

(∃𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥)) → (∀𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥))

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Revisiting the learning goals

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

▶ Define a valuation.
▶ Determine the value of a term given a valuation.
▶ Determine the truth value of a formula given a valuation.
▶ Give a valuation that makes a formula true or false.
▶ Determine and justify whether a formula is satisfiable and/or
valid.

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