Loads

Introduction to Loads:
The most important and most difficult task faced by the structural
designer is the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to a
structure during its life. No loads that may reasonably be expected to occur
may be overlooked. After loads are estimated, the next problem is to decide
the worst possible combinations of these loads that might occur at one time.
Loads are classed as being dead, live, or environmental.

Dead Loads: Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one
position. They include the weight of the structure under consideration, as well
as any fixtures that are permanently attached to it. For a reinforced concrete
building, some dead loads are the frames, walls, floors, ceilings, stairways,
roofs, and plumbing.

Weights of Some Common Building Materials

Reinforced concrete (300 2 × 12 @ 400mm double
7.2 kN/m2 0.336 kN/m2
mm) wood floor
Acoustical ceiling tile 0.048 kN/m2 Linoleum or asphalt tile 0.048 kN/m2
Hardwood flooring ( 19
Suspended ceiling 0.096 kN/m2 0.192 kN/m2
mm.)
25 mm cement on stone-
Plaster on concrete 0.24 kN/m2 1.54 kN/m2
concrete fill
Asphalt shingles 0.096 kN/m2 Movable steel partitions 0.192 kN/m2
Wood studs with 300mm
3-ply ready roofing 0.048 kN/m2 0.384 kN/m2
gypsum
Clay brick wythes
Mechanical duct allowance 0.192 kN/m2 1.87 kN/m2
(100mm.)

Live loads: Live loads are loads that can change in magnitude and
position. They include occupancy loads, warehouse materials, construction
loads, overhead service cranes, equipment operating loads, and many others.
In general, they are induced by gravity.

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 Some Typical Uniformly Distributed Live Loads
Type of structure Loads kN/m2
Homes:
1. First floor. 2
2. Second floor. 1.5
Stairs and corridors:
1. Special buildings. 3
2. Republic buildings. 5
Halls and lounges:
1. Fixes seats. 3
2. Non fixed seats. 5
Shops 5
Stores 6
Schools:
1. Class room. 2
2. Lanes. 4
Hospitals:
1. Operating rooms 3
2. Special rooms 2
3. Wings 2
Residential buildings:
1. Private apartments 2
2. Public rooms 5
3. Lanes 3
Government buildings:
1. Rooms binders and files 5
2. Offices 2.5

Environmental loads: Environmental loads are loads caused by the

environment in which the structure is located. For buildings, they are caused
by rain, snow, wind, temperature change, and earthquake.

Load Combinations
In the design of structural members in buildings that are not subjected
to significant wind or earthquake forces the factored loads are computed from
either Eq. (5.3.1a) or Eq. (5.3.1b):
U= 1.4 D (ACI Eq. 5.3.1a)
Where: D is the specified dead load.
For combinations including dead load D; live load, L; and roof loads
Lr:

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 U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1b)
Where:
L = Live load that is a function of use and occupancy
Lr = Roof live load
S = Roof snow load
R = Roof rain load
For the common case of a member supporting dead and live load only, ACI
Eq. (5.3.1b) is written as:
U = 1.2D + 1.6L

If the roof load exceeds the floor live loads, or if a column supports a
total roof load that exceeds the total floor live load supported by the column:

U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (1.0L or 0.5W) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1c)

Wind loads: If wind loads are significant:

U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (ACI Eq. 5.3.1d)

Earthquake Loads: If earthquake loads are significant:

U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L + 0.2S (ACI Eq. 5.3.1e)

Where the load factor of 1.0 for the earthquake loads corresponds to a
strength-level earthquake that has a much longer return period, and hence is
larger than a service-load earthquake.

Dead Loads that Stabilize Overturning and Sliding:

U = 0.9D + 1.0W (ACI Eq. 5.3.1f)

or
U = 0.9D + 1.0E (ACI Eq. 5.3.1g)

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 Safety provisions of the ACI code
The safety provisions of the ACI Code are given in the form of:
∅𝑆𝑛 ≥ 𝛾𝑑 𝐷 + 𝛾𝑙 𝐿

∅𝑆𝑛 ≥ 𝛾𝑑𝑙 𝐷 + 𝛾𝑙𝑙 𝐿 + 𝛾𝑊𝑙 𝑊 + ⋯

Using strength reduction factors and load factors. These factors are
based to some extent on statistical information but to a larger degree on
experience, engineering judgment, and compromise. In words, the design
strength ΦSn of a structure or member must be at least equal to the required
strength U calculated from the factored loads, i.e., Design strength required
strength

Design strength ≥ required strength

∅𝑆𝑛 ≥ 𝑈

The nominal strength Sn is computed (usually somewhat

conservatively) by accepted methods. The required strength U is calculated
by applying appropriate load factors to the respective service loads: dead load
D, live load L, wind load W, earthquake load E, earth pressure H, fluid
pressure F, snow load S, rain load R, and environmental effects that may
include settlement, creep, shrinkage, and temperature change. Loads are
defined in a general sense, to include either loads or the related internal effects

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such as moments, shears, and thrusts. Thus, in specific terms for a member
subjected, say, to moment, shear, and axial load.

∅𝑀𝑛 ≥ 𝑀𝑢

∅𝑉𝑛 ≥ 𝑉𝑢

∅𝑃𝑛 ≥ 𝑃𝑢

where the subscripts n denotes the nominal strengths in flexure, shear,

and axial load, respectively, and the subscripts u denote the factored load
moment, shear, and axial load. In computing the factored load effects on the
right, load factors may be applied either to the service loads themselves or to
the internal load effects calculated from the service loads.
The strength reduction factors Φ in the ACI Code are given different
values depending on the state of knowledge, i.e., the accuracy with which
various strengths can be calculated. Thus, the value for bending is higher
than that for shear or bearing. Also, Φ values reflect the probable importance,
for the survival of the structure, of the particular member and of the probable
quality control achievable. For both these reasons, a lower value is used for
columns than for beams. Table 21.2.1 gives the Φ values specified in the
ACI Code 318-19 (21.2).

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 Analysis of beams and frames
Statically indeterminate structures may be analyzed exactly or
approximately. Approximate methods are used as much or more than ever,
for several reasons.
1. The structure may be so complicated that no suitable computer
software is available.
2. Approximate methods may yield values as accurate as those
obtained with an exact analysis, because either method may be
subject to so many errors. A specific example is the analysis of a
building frame for wind loads.
3. Approximate analyses are quite useful in rough-checking exact
solutions.
ACI moment coefficients
ACI318-19 (6.5) Simplified method of analysis for nonprestressed
continuous beams and one-way slabs.
ACI318-19 (6.5.1) It shall be permitted to calculate Mu and Vu due to
gravity loads in accordance with this section for continuous beams and one-
way slabs satisfying (a) through (e):
a) There are two or more spans;
b) Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans not
greater than the shorter by more than 20 percent;
c) Loads are uniformly distributed;
d) Unfactored live load, LL, does not exceed three times unfactored dead
load, DL; and
e) Members are prismatic.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑀𝑢 ) = 𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓. 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2𝑛

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑉𝑢 ) = 𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓. 𝑤𝑢 𝐿𝑛
Where:
Ln: Clear span.
wu: Total factored load per unit length of beam, or per unit area for slab.

Note: For calculating negative moments, Ln is taken as the average of the

adjacent clear span lengths.

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 Coefficients of moments

1 1.15 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
Coefficients of shear

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Example: Calculate all critical shear forces, reactions and bending moments
for the beam shown in figure (Using ACI Coefficient method), D L= 10 kN/m,
LL = 20 kN/m.

Solution:
a) There are two or more spans. O.K.
b) Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans not
greater than the shorter by more than 20 percent:
6.5−6.0
= 7.7% < 20 % O.K.
6.5

c) Loads are uniformly distributed. O.K.

d) Unfactored live load, LL, does not exceed three times unfactored dead load,
DL.
𝐿𝐿 20
= = 2.0 < 3.0 O.K
𝐷𝐿 10

f) Members are prismatic. O.k.

⸫ ACI coefficients can be used
𝑤𝑢 = 1.2 𝐷𝐿 + 1.6 𝐿𝐿 = 1.2 𝑥 10 + 1.6 𝑥 20 = 𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎
Bending Moments:
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓. 𝑤𝑢 𝐿2𝑛
1
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 62 = 𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
24
1
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 62 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟏 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
14
10
Span for negative moment at B: = (6 + 6.5)/ 2 = 6.25 m
6.0 + 6.5
𝐿𝑛 = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎
2.0
1
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀𝐵́ = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6.252 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
9
1
𝑀𝐸 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6.52 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐. 𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
14
1
𝑀𝐶 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6.52 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎
24
Shear forces:

1 1.15 1.15 1
2 2 2 2

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓. 𝑤𝑢 𝐿𝑛
1
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑵
2
1.15
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6 = 𝟏𝟓𝟏. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵
2
1.15
𝑉𝐵́ = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6.5 = 𝟏𝟔𝟒. 𝟓 𝒌𝑵
2
1
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑥 44 𝑥 6.5 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑵
2
Reactions:
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑵
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵́ = 𝟏𝟓𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟏𝟔𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝟑𝟏𝟔. 𝟑 𝒌𝑵
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑵

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H.W: Calculate all critical shear force, Reactions and bending moments for
the beam shown in figure. (Using ACI code coefficient method). LL=25 kN/m
and DL=16 kN/m.

Arrangement of live load

(ACI 318-19 (6.4))
ACI 318-19 (6.4.2): For one-way slabs and beams, it shall be permitted to
assume (a) and (b):
(a) Maximum positive Mu near midspan occurs with factored L on the span
and on alternate spans.
(b) Maximum negative Mu at a support occurs with factored L on adjacent
spans only.

Mu+ Mu+

Maximum positive Mu in the exterior spans

Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternate spans

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 Mu+

Maximum positive Mu in the center spans

Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternate spans.

Mu- Mu-

Maximum negative Mu at both faces of the interior support

Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two adjacent
spans.

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