PARTS OF SPEECH

• The word classes can be put into three groups:

(Parts of Speech/Words - Phrases - Clauses -
Sentence)
(the main functions of the units in English -
Subject/Object/Complement/Modifier
(classify a word by a particular position it
occupies, e.g. if a word occupies the position of subject which is
usually the position of a noun - it is nominal; in position and
function of an Adj = Adjectival; in position and function of an
adverb = Adverbial; in position and function of a verb = Verbal
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 FORM CLASSES
• Words in English can be divided into two classes: Open classes &
Closed classes
• Open classes consist of lexical words such as nouns (N), adjectives
(Adj), verbs (V), and adverbs (Adv).
- They have lexical meaning/definable meaning that can be found in the
dictionary.
- They have a very large membership;
- They can have more words added to them as the language grows and
changes.

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 • Closed classes consist of grammatical/structural or functional
words.
- They have grammatical meaning;
- They have a smaller, restricted membership which rarely
changes;
- They do not open for new words.
- They are pronouns (Pron.), auxiliaries (Aux.), prepositions
(Prep.), conjunctions (Conj.), determiners (Det.)

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LEXICAL WORDS
1. Nouns (N): a word to name a person, place, thing, quality, or
idea.
Types of nouns
- Proper nouns: John Smith, New York,…
- Common nouns: boy, cat, city,…
- Concrete nouns: desk, table, smoke,…
- Abstract nouns: liberty, love, …
- Countable nouns: a chair/table,…
- Uncountable nouns: furniture, love,…
- Collective nouns: family, committee, staff, team,…

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 • Collective nouns refer to a group of people and can take a
singular or plural verb.
- Singular if the word is used to mean a single group or unit
(e.g: Family is the basic element of society.)
- Plural if the word is used to mean all the members of the
group (e.g.: My family are going to Vung Tau this weekend.)

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2. ADJECTIVES (Adj): a word that describes the quality or the state
of something.
• It is a modifier or attributive adjective when it goes right after
or before a noun. Example:
- She is a beautiful girl. = N modifier (NM)
• It’s a subject complement or predicative adjective when
following a linking verb. Eg.
- The plan seems incomplete and unusually expensive. = subject
complement (SC)

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 3. ADVERBS (Adv.) show or clarify time, place, manner, and
degree. They also affirm or deny. Usually they answer the
questions when, why, where, how, what for, …
An adverb modifies V., Adj., Adv., phrases, clauses, and
sentences. Example:
- He sings beautifully.
- She is extremely nice.
- Luckily, she did not die.

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4. VERBS (V): show either action (process, feeling, movement) or
a state of being.
A. Types of verbs
1. Auxiliary
- Primary or semi-auxiliaries: the one that can act as auxiliary or
main verb, e.g. be, have, do, need, … (I’m a teacher – main
verb; I am teaching English – auxiliary; My friend has a car –
main verb; He has just bought a car – auxiliary)

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 • Modal auxiliaries (ModAux.): modal verbs are always
auxiliaries (can/could; may/might; shall/should,….)
• Semi-modal: may be modal or main verbs: e.g., need, dare,…
• Some compound auxiliaries: have to, have got to, had better,
to be, be able to, be about to, be going to, be supposed to, be
expected to, ….

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2. MAIN VERBS
- Linking verbs (LV) express a state of being (e.g., be, seem, appear,
taste, smell, sound, feel, ….)
- Action verbs (AcV.) express an action: work, teach, read, …
• Transitive verbs (TrV) require a direct object to be complete. (I
want a beer. – want what?)
• Monotransitive verbs are verbs that have only one object, a direct
object, in the sentence. (He is reading a book.)
• Ditransitive verbs are verbs that take two objects in the sentence:
a direct object telling ‘what’ or ‘whom’ and an indirect object
telling ‘to’ or ‘for whom’ (He gave me a book. / He gave a book to
me.)

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• Complex-transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object and
an object attribute in the sentence. The direct object tells
‘what’ or ‘whom’ and the object attribute describes a quality
or characteristic pertaining only to the direct object. (E.g. We
considered him our boss. / We found him friendly.)
• Intransitive verbs (IntrV): self-sufficient verbs; they do not
need an object (He is laughing.)

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B. Forms of verbs
1. Finite verbs agree with the subject
Ex. The boy goes to school everyday.
2. Non-finite verbs do not agree with the subject and do not form a
clause (only a phrase): infinitive, gerund, present participle, past
participle.
Ex. The boy sitting near the window is a new student. = present
participle phrase (PrePartP), noun modifier (NM), Adjectival (Ajal)

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 FUNCTIONAL WORDS (CLOSED CLASSES)
1. Pronouns (Pron): can act in the place of a noun, phrase, or clause called its
antecedent.
• Types of pronouns
- Personal pronouns refers to specific persons or things. They change form to
show number and person.
- Relative pronouns introduces dependent clauses called relative or adjective
clauses, e.g. who, which, that, whom, when, where, why, whose, …
Note: Relative pronouns are very similar to question words. The difference is
that, in most cases, relative pronouns have an antecedent while question
words do not. Example:
I don’t remember the town where I was born. (Pron.)
Compare: I don’t remember where I was born. (QW)
I’ll follow you where you go. (Adv)
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• Some special relative pronouns:
- as: when the antecedent is modified by ‘same’ and ‘such’, the Adj.
clause is usually introduced by ‘as’. Example:
- She wore the same dress as she wore at Mary’s wedding.
- I’ve never heard such stories as he’s telling.
- but (pronoun): in a negative sentence, but is used instead of
who/which to form a double negation for emphasis. Example:
There is not a single man here but loves you. (who doesn’t)

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• As is used as a relative pronoun after such, and sometimes after the
same.
- He is such a man as I honor.
- My position is the same as yours.
• After a negative, the word but is used as a relative pronoun in the
sense of who…not or which…not. (e.g., There is no rose but has some
thorn. (= There is no rose which does not have some thorn.)
• but can be used as a preposition to indicate an exception =
‘except/for’, ‘apart from’. It is used after words such as all,
everything/nothing, everyone/no one, everybody/nobody: The
cleaning is done now, all but the floors.
• but can also be used as an adverb = only

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 - Interrogative pronouns introduce questions: who, what,
which, whom, … Example: Who are you? What do you want?
- Reflexive pronouns name a receiver of an action that is
identical to the one doing the acting: myself, yourself,
him/herself, …. A reflexive pronoun can have the function of
a noun.
- Example: John is looking at himself in the mirror. (object of
prep.) Pro/OP

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 - Intensive/emphasizing pronouns: as reflexive pronouns but with the
function for emphasis. Example: The president himself visited me last night.
- Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another. Example: They are fighting
each other.
- Demonstrative pronouns: show which nouns perform or receive the action:
this, that, these, those,one/ones,…
- Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, hers,…
- Indefinite pronouns: stand for a vague or un specified number of people or
things: all, another, everyone, none, nothing, …
Note: demonstrative and indefinite Pron., become Adj. when they precede a
noun, e.g.: many books, these boys. ….

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 Prepositions
Prepositions (Prep.) are usually followed by a noun phrase,
personal pronoun called the object of prepositions.
- Prep. + NP (OP) = Prep.P
Eg. The boy is sitting near the window.
Prep NP/OP
PreP

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• TYPES OF PREPOSITION
a. Simple prepositions consist of one word, e.g. about, above,
across, after,…
b. Compound prepositions consist of two or more words, e.g.
according to, ahead of, because of, by reason of, in addition to,
in front of, in spite of, with respect to, …
c. -ing prepositions have a verb as stem, e.g. assuming,
beginning, considering, including, regarding, …(e.g. ‘We have
new information concerning his disappearance’)

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 • Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses to show
order and to relate two or more ideas.
Types of conjunctions
a. Coordinating conjunctions join equal items: and, or, but, so,
nor, for, yet (FAN BOYS)
b. Correlative conjunctions also join items of equal grammatical
rank, but they always function as a pair: both … and; either …
or; neither … nor; not only … but also … (‘You look attractive in
either the pink dress or the yellow.’)

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 • Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions show relationships of cause
(because, since, as, …) time (before, after, as soon as …),
location, degree, manner, etc. (Unless you take the car, I
won’t go.’)

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 DETERMINERS
• Determiners identify the noun and always precede the noun.
Determiners consist of:
- Articles: a, an, the
- Possessive adjectives or possessive case of proper names;
- Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those;
- Numbers: cardinal and ordinal numbers;
- Indefinite words: one, another, some, several, ….

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 POSITIONAL CLASSES
• Positional classes are based on the position occupied by
the form classes. The members of these classes are both
words and word groups.
- Nominal (Nal)
- Verbal (Val)
- Adjectival (Ajal)
- Adverbial (Adval)

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 Nominals can function as:
- Subject of verb (S)
- Subject complement (SC)
- Direct object (DO)
- Indirect object (IO)
- Object complement (OC)
- Object of preposition (OP)
- Retained object (RO)

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 - Subject of verb (SV): Rich is good. (Adj/S/Nal) /
Steadily is the best way to work. (Adv./S/Nal) / On the
beach now is much better in class. (PreP/S/Nal) /
- Subject complement (SC): My favorite hiding place is
under the table. (PreP/SC/Nal)
- Object complement: They thought Peter to be the
winner. (Inf.P/OC/Nal)

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 - DO: I enjoy swimming. (G/DO/Nal)
- IO: She offered whoever came a special gift.
• OP: From here, you can have an overview of the
city. (Adv/OP/Nal)
• RO: The girl was bought a dress by her mother.
(NP/RO/Nal)

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 • Types of subject: real subject and formal
(unreal/expletive) subject (here/there/it).
Example: There is a book on the table. → A book is
on the table. / It is very difficult to study English. →
To study English is very difficult.

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 • TYPES OF OBJECT
- Direct object (DO) receive the action expressed by a
transitive active verb (Sarah bought some flowers.
(bought what?)
- Retained object (RO) occurs in the passive voice of
some transitive verbs (The girl was bought a dress
by her mother)
- Indirect object (IO): He sold the student a ticket. (to
whom?)/He asked her a question.

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