Biomolecules

Synopsis:
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or Ketone or compounds which produce such units on
hydrolysis and contain at least one chiral C-atom in their molecule. They are primarily derived from plants
and most of them have general formula Cx(H2O)y
Ex: Glucose, fructose, sucrose etc.

Classification:

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides polysaccharides

(These cannot be (upon hydrolysis (upon hydrolysis
broken into lower yields 2-10 molecules gives more than 10
sugers on hydrolysis) of monosaccharides) molecules of
monosaccharides)
Disaccharides
Ex: starch, cellulose,
Ex: Sucrose, maltose
Aldoses Ketoses glycogen
(Polyhydroxy (Polyhydroxy Trisaccharides
aldehydes) ketones) Ex: Raffinose
Ex: glucose Ex: Fructose Tetrasaccharides
Ex: Stachyose

Classification of Car bohydrates:

1) Based on molecular size:
Three types,
a) Mono saccharides
b) Oligosaccharides
c) Polysaccharides

2) Based on Taste:
Carbohydrates with sweet taste are called sugars while those without a sweet taste are called non-
sugars. It may be noted that all mono and oligo saccharides are sugars while polysaccharides are non-sugars.

3) Reducing and Non-reducing sugars:

Carbohydrates which reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution are called reducing sugars while
those which do not reduce these are called non-reducing sugars.

For Ex: Both glucose and Fructose are called reducing sugars While sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

D and L notations of Monosaccharides:

All naturally occurring monosaccharide’s belong to D series, i.e. –OH group at the penultimate carbon
(adjacent to primary alcoholic group) is on the right hand side like that in D (+) –
glyceraldehyde
Compound is given L-configuration, if-OH group on the penultimate carbon is on the left hand side
like that in L(-) –glyceraldehyde.
D and L are not dextrorotatory and laevorotatory.
Anomers and Epimers:
Pair of stereoisomers which differ in the configuration at C-1 are known as anomers.
Ex: i) α -and β – D glucose
ii) α - D- Fructose and β –D-fructose.
Pair of stereoisomer’s which differ in the configuration at C-2 are known as epimers.
Ex: i) D-glucose and D-mannose are C2-epimers.
ii) Glucose and galactose are C4-epimers.

Structure of Glucose
Glucose is an aldohexose and also known as dextrose.
1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.

2. On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon atoms are linked in a
straight chain.

3. Glucose reacts with hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to give cyanohydrins and reacts with hydroxylamine (H2N-
OH) to form an oxime. These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C=O) in glucose.

4. Glucose gets oxidized to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent
like bromine water. This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.

5. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose gives dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the presence of
a primary alcoholic (-OH) group in glucose.
6. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose penta-acetate which confirms the presence of
five -OH groups. Since it exists as a stable compound, five -OH groups should be attached to different carbon
atoms.

Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose ‘D’ before the name of glucose represents the configuration
whereas ‘(+)’ represents dextrorotatory nature of the molecule.

Cyclic structure of glucose and fructose:

Due to ring formation, hemiacetal or hemi ketal carbon C1 becomes chiral and hence the
monosaccharides exist in two forms, the α-and β –forms . If the –OH group attached to hemiacetal or
hemiketal carbon is towards left it is called β form and if the –OH group is towards right, it is called α-forms.

Structure of glucose:
Structure of fructose:

Disaccharides:
a) Sucrose or Cane sugar or Table sugar:
Sucrose (C12H22O11) is dextrorotatory in nature. It is upon hydrolysis forms equimolar mixture of D
(+) –glucose and D (-) Fructose.
C12O22O11 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
hydrolysis

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

[α]D = +66.5 0 [α]D = +52.7 [α]D = -92.40
0

The mixture is overall laevorotatory. Thus, the hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign
of optical rotation known as inversion and the equimolar mixture of D (+) glucose and D (-) Fructose, which
sucrose gives on hydrolysis is called invert sugar.
Sucrose is non-reducing because the hemiacetal and hemiketal groups of glucose and fructose are
linked with each other through oxygen atom (glycosidic linkage) and are not free to show their reducing
characters.

b) Maltose or Malt sugar:

Maltose is obtained by the partial hydrolysis of starch with the enzyme diastase or β-amylase
present in malt. It is dextrorotatory in nature.
2(C2H10O5) + nH2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ nC12H22O11
Hydrolysis

Maltose is a reducing sugar.

In maltose two glucose units are joined by an α-glycoside linkage between C1 of non reducing glucose unit
and C-4 of other reducing glucose unit.

c) Lactose or milk sugar:

Lactose is found in milk of mammals. Upon hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D (+)-glucose and D (+)-
galactose, which are epimeric in nature. Lactose is a reducing sugar. In lactose C-1 of galactose unit is
attached to C-4 of glucose unit (1-4 glycosidic linkage).

Polysaccharides:
1) Starch: (C6H10O5) n
Starch is a main storage polysaccharide in plants. The chief commercial source of starch are wheat,
maize, rice, potatoes etc.
Starch is a mixture of two components a water soluble component called amylose (20%) and a water
insoluble component called amylopectin (80%)
Amylose is a linear polymer of α-glucose where D-glucose units joined together by α-glycosidic
linkages involving C-1 of one glucose and C-4 of the next.
Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose units joined by α-glycosidic linkage between C-1 of
one glucose unit and C-4 of next glucose unit. The chains are connected to each other by 1, 6-linkage.

Cellulose:
Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. It
is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant. Cellulose is a linear condensation polymer of – glucose
units which are joined by β-glycosidic linkage between C-1 of one glucose and C-4 of next glucose unit.
Cellulose is not digestible by human beings since cellulose hydrolysing enzyme, cellulase, is absent in human
digestive system.

3) Glycogen:
The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because
its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscle and
brain. When the body needs glucose, enzyme breaks the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen found in
yeast & fungi.
Amino acids and Proteins:
Proteins are most important biomolecules produced in nature. They have high molecular weights and
upon hydrolysis they give α-aminoacids via peptides.

→ peptides ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Proteins ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Aminoacid
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

Amino acids contains both an-NH2 group and α –COOH group. Depending upon the relative position
of amino group with respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids are classified as α, β, δ and so on. Only α -
aminoacids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins.

α -aminoacids are building blocks of proteins. The α -carbon of all the amino acids (except glycine) is
chiral and hence amino acids can exist in two stereoisomeric forms. i.e. D and L

Classification of Amino acids:

Amino acids are classified as,
1) Acidic amino acids: Amino acid which contain one –NH2 group and two –COOH group
Ex: aspartic acid, glutamic acid.
2) Basic amino acids: Amino acids containing two -NH2 group and one -COOH group.
Ex: lysine, histidine, arginine etc.
3) Neutral amino acid: Amino acids which contain one –NH2 group and one –COOH group.
Ex: glycine, Alanine, valine etc.
Essential and non- essential amino acids:
The amino acids which can be synthesised by the body are called non-essential amino acids. The
amino acids which cannot be synthesised are called Essential amino acids.
Properties of Amino acids:
1) Zwitter ion structure of α -amino acids:
Since α-amino acids molecule has a basic –NH2 group and acidic –COOH group, a proton transfer
takes place from acidic –COOH group to basic –NH2 group in the same molecule to form a Zwitter ion or
dipolar ion.

In zwitter ion form amino acid shows amphoteric behaviour as they react both with acids & bases.

2) Isoelectric point of α -amino acids:

The isoelectric point of an amino acid is the pH at which it has no net charge. In other words, it is
the pH at which amount of negative charge on an amino acid exactly balances the amount of positive
charge. Hence there is no net migration of the α -amino acids under the influence of an electric field.
Ex; Arginine has highest isoelectric point i.e. 10.8 Cysteine has lowest isoelectric point i.e.5.1

Peptides:
Proteins are the polymers of α -amino acids and they are connected to each other by peptide
bond or peptide linkage.
Peptides are amides formed by condensation of –NH2 group of one amino acid with –COOH group
of the other with the elimination of a molecule of H2O.

The CO-NH bond thus formed is called the peptide bond.

If two same or different amino acids are joined by a peptide bond, the amide formed is called a
dipeptide. Similarly, a tripeptide is formed by the condensation of three α-amino acids with the elimination
of two molecules of water.
If a large no. of α -amino acids are joined by peptide bonds; the polyamide thus formed is called a
polypeptide.
Peptides having molecular masses less than 10,000 are polypeptides and which have molecular mass
more than this, are called Proteins.

Classification of Proteins:
A) On the basis of molecular structure:
Fibrous proteins and Globular proteins
 Globular Proteins Fibrous Proteins
1. They are cross-linked condensation 1. They are linear condensation products.
polymers of acidic and basic amino acids. 2. They are insoluble in common solvents
2. They are soluble in water or aqueous but soluble in strong acidic or basic
solutions of acid, base or salts. solutions.
3. They are folded to give rise three 3. The long linear protein chains are held
dimensional spheroidal shape. together by intermolecular H-bonds.
4. Examples: albumin in egg, enzymes and 4. Examples: fibroin in silk; collagen in
some hormones etc. tendons; myosin in muscles, etc.

B) On the basis of chemical composition:

1) Simple proteins:
These proteins on hydrolysis give only α -amine acids. Ex: albumins, globulins, glutelins etc.
2) Conjugated proteins:
Conjugated proteins on hydrolysis give in addition to α -amino acids a non-protein portion called the
prosthetic group.
Ex: Nucleoproteins contain nucleic acid as prosthetic group.
Phospho proteins (Contains H3PO4 Ex: Casein)
Glycoprotein (Contain carbohydrate Ex: mucin)

3) Derived proteins:
These are the proteins formed by the partial hydrolysis of simple conjugated proteins such as
proteoses, peptones, peptides etc. These proteins may be regarded as intermediate hydrolysis product.

Structure of Proteins:
1) Primary structure:
Primary structure refers to the number nature and sequence of amino acids present in a protein
molecule.
2) Secondary structure:
Secondary structure refers to the conformation which the polypeptide chains assume as a result of
H-bonding. There are two types of secondary structures.
a) α -helix: In this type of protein, polypeptide chains coil up to form a spiral-like structure.
There occur extensive inter molecular hydrogen bonding between two adjacent turns so that the helix is
rigid.
b) Flat sheet or β-pleated sheet structure: In this structure, polypeptide chains are extended and
held together by intermolecular hydrogen bond.
3) Tertiary structure:
It refers to the three dimensional structure of proteins. It explains the way, the molecule folds to
produce a specific shape.
4) Quaternary structure:
It describes the arrangement and ways in which different sub units are held together.

Denaturation of proteins:
Most of the soluble globular proteins when heated are coagulated to insoluble fibrous proteins.
This coagulation of proteins is called denaturation. Coagulation can also be caused by treating proteins
with strong acids or bases or strong electrolytes.
 The denaturation causes a change in the secondary or tertiary structure of proteins.
Ex: Coagulation of albumins present in the egg, curdling of milk.
Denaturation results in loss of Biological activity. In case of few denatured proteins if temperature
& pH are brought back to original condition, then biological activity as well as secondary & Tertiary
structures are recovered. This reverse process is called renaturation of proteins.

Vitamins:
A vitamin is a nutrient that is an organic compound required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic
reactions in a living organism.
There are about 25 vitamins known.
They are broadly divided into two categories.
1. Fat soluble vitamins: vitamins A, D, E & K.
2. Water soluble vitamins: Vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12 & C.
Chemical Nature Important Sources Deficiency Diseases
Vitamin A, Carotenoids. Soluble in oils Milk, butter, egg yolk, fish, Night blindness,
and fats, but insoluble in water. It is cod liver oil, green and xerophthalmia(cornea
essential for growth and vision. yellow vegetables. becomes opaque),
drying of skin.
Vitamin B1, Thiamine. Soluble in water, Unpolished rice, whole Beri Beri, loss of appetite.
destroyed by heat. cereals, yeast, liver, milk,
green leafy vegetables.
Vitamin B2, Riboflavin. Soluble in water. Egg white, liver, milk, Cracked lips, sore tongue
Stable to heat, destroyed by light. green leafy vegetables. and skin disorders.
Vitamin B6, Pyridoxine. Cereals, milk, egg yolk, Nervous disturbances and
yeast, liver, legumes. convulsions.
Vitamin B12 or Cyano cobalamin. Soluble Present in all animal Pernicious anaemia (RBC
in water and contains cobalt. tissues, Present in liver, deficient in haemoglobin).
kidney, eggs and curd
Vitamin C, Ascorbic acid, C6H8H6. Soluble Oranges, lemons, grapes, Scurvy, dental caries,
in water. Destroyed by cooking and tomatoes, cabbage, leafy pyorrhea, anemia.
exposure to air. Maintains healthy skin green vegetables,
and helps in development of body sprouted seeds.
resistance against diseases.
Vitamin D, mixture of 4 complex Cod liver oil, Halibut liver Infantile rickets;
compounds containing C, H and O. oil and other fish-liver oils. Osteomalacia
Soluble in fats and oils but insoluble in Sun rays catalyze the
water. Stable towards heat and oxidation formation of vitamin D
and regulates the absorption of calcium inside the skin, hence
and phosphate in intestine. called (sunshine vitamin).
Vitamin E, Tocopherrol. Mixture of 3 Milk, ghee, cottonseed oil, Loss of sexual power of
complex substances containing C, H and corn oil, peanut oil, egg reproduction and muscular
O. Soluble in fats and oils but insoluble in yolk, wheat-germ. weakness.
water. Stable to heat and oxidation.
Vitamin K, mixture of two complex Leafy vegetables, fish, Tendency to hemorrhage
substances containing C, H and O. Soluble meat, oils of grains and and impaired clotting of
in fats but insoluble in water. Stable to cereals. blood.
heat and oxidation.
Nucleic acids:
Nucleic acids are biomolecules which are found in the nuclei of all living cells in form of nucleoproteins.
They are biopolymers in which the repeating structural unit is nucleotide. Hence nucleic acids are also called
polynucleotide. Nucleic acids required for the storage and expression of genetic expression.
Each nucleotide consists of three components.
1) A pentose sugar: D(-) ribose or 2-deoxy –D(-) ribose. Both these sugars are found in furanose form.

2) A Heterocyclic nitrogenous base:

Two types of nitrogenous base are present in nucleic acid i.e. Purines and Pyrimidines.
Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines: Uracil (U), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C)

3) Phosphoric acid

Nucleosides and Nucleotides:

Nucleosides contain only two components: a pentose sugar and nitrogenous base.
Nucleotides contain all three components:

Types of Nucleic acids:

Depending on the type of sugar present, nucleic acids are of two types.
1) Deoxy ribo nucleic acid (DNA)
It contains cytosine and thymine as pyrimidine bases, adenine and guanine as purine bases and 2-
deoxy-D (-) – ribose sugar.
2) Ribonucleic acid (RNA):
It contains ribose sugar and cytosine and uracil as pyrimidine bases and D (-) ribose sugar.

Chargaff’s rule:
A purine always pairs with pyrimidine.
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) through two hydrogen bonds. (A=T) and Guanine (G) pairs with
Cytosine (C) through three H-bonds. (G ≡ C)
In case of RNA, Adenine pairs with Uracil (A=U)

Structure of Nucleic acid:

1) Primary structure:
In this, nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3’ carbon atoms
of the pentose sugar.

2) Secondary structure:
James Watson and Francis Crick gave a double strand helix structure for DNA.
DNA consists of two identical polynucleotide chains twisted around each other. These strands run in opposite
directions. In this double helical structure, the two strands are held in position at definite distance through
hydrogen bonds present between the two chains.
The two strands of the double helix are complementary and not identical. Since the base sequence
of one strand automatically fixes that of other due to the above base pairing principle. RNA is a single
stranded molecule.
RNA molecule is of three types.
They are named as,
i) Messenger RNA (m-RNA)
ii) ribosomal RNS (r-RNA)
iii) tranfer RNA (t-RNA)

Biological Functions of Nucleic acids:

1) DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic information.
2) DNA controls the growth and division of cells.
3) DNA directs the protein synthesis.
4) m-RNA carries message of DNA
5) r-RNA provides the site for protein synthesis.
6) t-RNA transfers amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers they transfer information from one part of the body to another part of
the body through blood stream.
Classification of Hormones
On the basis of their chemical constitutions, the hormones are broadly divided into two classes:

1. Steroid Hormones
Steroids are the compounds which are derivatives of four ring systems consisting of three cyclohexane rings
and one cyclopentane ring.

a) Sex Hormones: The sex hormones can be divided into three major groups:
i) Male sex hormone or androgen
ii) Female sex hormone or estrogen
iii) Pregnancy hormone or progestin

Testosterone is the major male sex hormone. It is secreted by the testes.

Estradiol is the main female sex hormone. It is secreted by ovaries and promotes the development of the
secondary female characteristics that appear at the onset of puberty.

Progesterone is the most important pregnancy hormone or progestin. This hormone prepares the uterus for
implantation of the fertilized ovum.

2. Non-Steroid Hormones
Protein or Peptide Hormones:
Insulin: Is secreted by pancreas, its function is to lower the blood sugar level by increasing the rate of
conversion of glucose into glycogen. Its deficiency in human beings causes diabetes mellitus.
Oxytocin and vasopressin: Two polypeptide hormones secreted by posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Oxytocin controls the uterine muscle contraction during child birth. Vasopressin controls the re-absorption
of water in kidneys.
Glucagon: secreted by pancreas is also a peptide hormone. Its function is to increase blood sugar.

3. Amine Hormones
Thyroxin: Secreted by thyroid and controls the rate of metabolism.
Adrenaline: Is produced by adrenal medulla. Secretion of adrenalin takes place under the conditions of stress
such as fear, anger or some other emergency. It stimulates the glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen)
in the live which gives glucose.

Previous Year Questions

1. The statement that is NOT correct is KCET-2014

a) Carbohydrates are optically active
b) Lactose has glycosidic linkage between C4 of glucose and C1 of galactose unit.
c) Aldose or ketose sugars in alkaline medium do not isomerise.
d) Penta acetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine.

2. One of the following is an essential amino acid: KCET-2015

a) Cysteine b) Serine c) Tyrosine d) Isoleucine

3. Cheilosis and digestive disorders are due to the deficiency of KCET-2015

a) Ascorbic acid b) Pyridoxine c) Thiamine d) Riboflavin

4. Adenosine is an example of KCET-2015

a) purine base b) nucleoside c) nucleotide d) pyrimidine base

5. Glycogen is. KCET-2015

a) a polymer of β-D-glucose units
b) a structural polysaccharide
c) structurally very much similar to amylopectin
d) structurally similar to amylopectin but extensively branched

6. Which of the following gives positive Fehling’s solution test? KCET-2016

a) Sucrose b) Glucose c) Fats d) Protein
7. Which of the following is correct about H-bonding in DNA? KCET-2016
a) A-T, G-C b) A-G, T-C c) G-T, A-C d) A-A, T-T

8. Hormones are secreted by ductless glands of human body. Iodine containing hormone is
KCET-2017
a) Insulin b) Thyroxine c) Testosterone d) Adrenaline

9. The Glycosidic linkage present in sucrose is between KCET-2017

(a) C-1 of α-glucose and C-2 of β-fructose
(b) C-1 of α-glucose and C-4 of α - glucose
(c) C-1 of β-galactose and C-4 of α - glucose
(d) C-1 of α-glucose and C-4 of β-fructose

10. Pick the wrong statement from the following : KCET-2017

(a) Sources of Vitamin are yeast, milk, green vegetables and cereals
(b) Deficiency of Vitamin (pyridoxime) results in convulsions
(c) Consumption of citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables in food prevents scurvy
(d) Deficiency of vitamin D causes xerophthalmia

11. The two forms of D-Glucopyranose are called KCET-2018

a) Diastereomers b) Anomers
c) Epimers d) Enantiomers

12. Which of the following bases not present in DNA?

a) Adenine b) Guanine c) Cytosine d) Uracil KCET-2018

13. The glycosidic linkage involved in linking the glucose units in amylose part of starch is
a) C1–C4 β-linkage b) C1–C6 β -linkage
c) C1–C6 α-linkage d) C1–C4 α -linkage KCET-2018

14. In nucleic acids, the nucleotides are joined together by KCET-2019

a) Phosphodiester linkage b) Phosphoester linkage
c) Sulphodiester linkage d) Phosphodisulphide linkage
15. Which of the following is generally water insoluble? KCET-2019
a) Vitamin-C b) Fibrous protein
c) Glycine d) Amylose

16. The vitamin that helps in clotting of blood is

a) A b) C c) B2 d) K KCET-2019

17. Which of the following vitamins is not stored in the adipose tissue? KCET-2020
a) D b) E c) A d) 𝐵6

18. Hypothyroidism is caused by the deficiency of: KCET-2020

a) Thyroxine b) Glucocorticoid
c) VitaminB-12 d) Adrenali

19. 𝐶1−𝐶4 Glycosidic bond is NOT found in: KCET-2020

a) Lactose b) Starch
c) Maltose d) Sucrose

20. RNA and DNA are chiral molecules, their chirality is due to the presence of KCET-2021
a) D-sugar component b) L-sugar component
b) Chiral bases d) Chiral phosphate ester unit

21. Primary structure in a nuclei acid chain contains bases as G A T G C ..... The chain which is
complementary to this chain is
(a) G G T G A ....... (b) T G A A G ......
(c) C T A C G ....... (d) T T T A G ...... KCET-2022

22. A Nucleic acid, whether DNA or RNA gives on complete hydrolysis, two purine bases, two
pyrimidine bases, a pentose sugar and phosphoric acid. Nucleotides which are intermediate
product in the hydrolysis contain
a) purine or pyrimidine base and ortho-phosphoric acid
b) Purine or pyrimidine base a pentose sugar and ortho-phosphoric acid
c) Purine or pyrimidine base and pentose sugar
d) A purine base, pentose sugar and ortho-phosphoric acid KCET-2022