Pangasinan State University

Lingayen Campus
CASL – General Education

LOGIC MODULE NO. 7

CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

Outline of Topics:

A. Categorical syllogism: Its meaning and structural elements

1. Parts of categorical syllogism
2. Syllogistic analysis

B. Classical Method in determining validity of categorical syllogisms

1. Rules governing categorical syllogism
2. Figures and Moods of Categorical Syllogism

OVERVIEW

After the discussion of immediate inference in module 6, this module will guide you towards
understanding Categorical Syllogism, the standard form of deductive mediate inference comprising
of categorical propositions.

In this Module, you will learn about the structure and the principles of categorical syllogism.
Likewise, you will learn how to determine the validity of categorical syllogism through the classical
methods, i.e., the traditional rules and the figures and moods of categorical syllogism.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. Identify the parts of a categorical syllogism.

2. Illustrate the syllogistic analysis using symbols.

3. Formulate a valid syllogism using the rules in identifying the validity of a categorical
syllogism.

4. Asses the validity of a syllogism using figures and moods.

Topic 1. Categorical syllogism: Its Meaning and Structural Elements

Sub-topic 1.1. Parts of Categorical Syllogism

1. The Propositions

A categorical syllogism is a syllogism consisting of three categorical propositions. In other

words, the two premises and the conclusion are all categorical propositions (A, E, I and/or O).

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The standard form of categorical syllogism refers to the sequential arrangement of the three
categorical propositions in the syllogism. The standard form is shown in the following arrangement:

Major Premise
Minor Premise
Conclusion

All persons are living beings.

But, Pepito is a person.
Therefore, Pepito is a living being.

2. The Terms

Now, let us also identify the other parts of the categorical syllogism. Aside from the three
propositions (two premises and the conclusion), we also have the three terms in the syllogism. The
three terms are: the Major term (P), the Minor term (S) and the Middle term (M).

1. Major Term (P) – is the predicate of the conclusion. The same term can also be found in
the Major Premise.
2. Minor Term (S) – is the subject of the conclusion. The same term can also be found in
the Minor Premise.
3. Middle Term (M) – it is the term that connects the major premise and the minor premise.
Hence, it is a term that can be found in both premises.

Major Premise: All persons are living beings.

M P
Minor Premise: But, Pepito is a person.
S M
Conclusion: Therefore, Pepito is a living being.
S P
Major Term: Living thing
Minor Term: Pepito
Middle Term: Person

There are categorical syllogisms that are not in their standard forms. For logical purposes and
to easily determine their validity, there is a need for us to transform syllogisms to their standard forms.
In transforming categorical syllogisms to their standard forms, it is very important to identify the
premises and the conclusion (refer to the premise and conclusion indicators discussed in Module 5).

Examples:

Non-Standard Syllogisms: Standard Forms:

Ann is a learned person since Ann is a All doctors are learned persons.
doctor and that doctors are learned But Ann is a doctor.
persons. Thus, Ann is a learned person.

Given that Johnny is an American and All Filipinos are not Americans.
that no American is a Filipino, it follows But Johnny is an American.
that Johnny is not a Filipino. So, Johnny is not a Filipino.

We may infer that some buildings are Some tourist spots are churches.

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tourist spots for the reason that all All churches are buildings.
churches are buildings and that some Thus, some buildings are tourist spots.
tourist spots are churches.

Sub-topic 1.2. Syllogistic Analysis – Principles of Categorical Syllogism

The following principles are based on the terms in a categorical syllogism. Specifically, a
categorical syllogism expresses either the identification or non-identification of the S and the P on the
basis of their identity or non-identity with the third term, the M.

According to McCall, there are four principles of a categorical syllogism. These are the
following (McCall, 1967):

1. THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCAL IDENTITY

Two terms that are identical with a third term are identical with each other:

If P agrees with M
And S also agrees with M,
Then S agrees with P.

2. THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCAL NON-IDENTITY

Two terms, one of which is identical with a third term and the other is not identical with the
same third term, are not identical with each other.

If P agrees with M
But S disagrees with M,
Then S disagrees with P.

3. DICTUM DE OMNI

What can be affirmed universally of a certain term, can be affirmed to every extension of the
said term. Dictum de Omni is also called the “Law of All”.

If “all men are rational”, then all the extensions of men like “Pedro, Juan, Petra and Juana are
also rational”.

4. DICTUM DE NULLO

What can be rejected/denied universally of a certain term, can be denied to every extension
of the said term. Dictum de Nullo is also called the “Law of None”.

If “all men are not dogs”, then all the extensions of men like “Pedro, Juan, Petra and Juana
are not dogs”.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Online Sharing

Respond to the following questions. I will randomly select lucky” student-sharers among you to share
their answers to the following guide questions in our official MS Teams or messenger group chat.
Good luck!

Identify the missing term or proposition in the following syllogisms:

1. Every _____ is a thinker.

But every person is rational.
Therefore, every _____ is a thinker.

2. Every senator is a ______.

But some elected officials are senators.
Thus, some _______ are legislators.

3. All plants are living things.

But _____________________.
Hence, some substances are living things.

4. No machine is an ______.
But every car is a ______.
Therefore, no car is an animal.

5. Words are symbols.

But nouns are words.
Thus, ___________________.

Topic 2. Classical Methods in Determining Validity of Categorical Syllogism

Sub-topic 2.1. Rules Governing Categorical Syllogism

As stated by Copi, “truth and falsehood may be predicated of propositions, but never of
arguments” (Copi, 1982). In other words, an argument (particularly the syllogism) cannot be attributed
as true or false. The attributes that can belong to a syllogism are VALIDITY and INVALIDITY (a valid
syllogism or an invalid syllogism). Validity refers mainly to the correctness of the inferential process
in a syllogism.

Determining the validity or invalidity of a syllogism is directly managed through the general
rules that have been provided by logicians in the past. These rules are often called today as the
Traditional Rules of a Categorical Syllogism. A syllogism is VALID if it complies with all the traditional
rules. Violation of any of the traditional rules will render the syllogism INVALID. Moreover, a violation
of a rule corresponds to a fallacy.

Presented below are the eight general (traditional) rules for standard categorical syllogisms
with their corresponding fallacies committed when the rules are violated:

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RULE 1: A valid standard categorical syllogism must contain exactly three terms (the S, P and the
M); each term is used twice in the same thought throughout the syllogism.

Example: All persons are rational beings.

But Filipinos are persons.
Therefore, Filipinos are rational beings.

There are three terms in the syllogism:

1. Jufri
2. Rational beings
3. Persons

Any syllogism that contains more than three terms is invalid. Violation of Rule 1 corresponds
to the following fallacies:

A. Fallacy of Four Terms (According to Copi, even when a syllogism contains five, six,
seven or more terms, the same name is applied to the fallacy)

All queens are humans.

But Jan Louis is a king.
Therefore, Jan Louis is not a queen.

There are four terms in the syllogism:

1. Queen/s
2. Humans
3. Jan Louis
4. King

B. Fallacy of Equivocation – a standard categorical syllogism may contain equivocal terms

(see Chapter II for equivocal terms). Equivocal terms look similar but they have entirely
different meanings. Since they have different meanings, they are entirely different terms.

Light is the opposite of darkness.

But cotton is light.
Therefore, Cotton is the opposite of darkness.

Although it would seem that there are three terms in the syllogism, it actually
has four terms:
1. Light – means ‘an agent that makes things visible’
2. Opposite of darkness
3. Light – means ‘deficient in weight’
4. Cotton

RULE 2: The middle term must not appear in the conclusion.

M
Example: Cell phones are gadgets.
M
N-Series are cell phones.
Therefore, N-Series are gadgets.

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Where: M stands for the Middle Term

As we have learned beforehand, only the minor term (S) and the major term (P) must appear
in the conclusion. Any syllogism that has a conclusion containing the middle term is invalid. Violation
of Rule 2 corresponds to the Fallacy of Using the Middle Term in the Conclusion.

The following example commits the Fallacy of Using the Middle in the Conclusion:
M
All DOTA characters are computer generated objects.
M
Beastmaster is a DOTA character.
M
Therefore, some computer generated objects are DOTA characters.

RULE 3: The middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises.
D
Examples: All monsters are not human beings.
D
But all monsters are imaginary.
Therefore, some imaginary things are not human beings.

D
All ladies are persons.
Un
But Miss Lady Guagua is a lady.
Therefore, Miss Lady Guagua is a person.

Where: D stands for Distributed

Un stands for Undistributed

Any syllogism that contains two undistributed middle terms is invalid. Violation of Rule 3
corresponds to the Fallacy of Undistributed Middle.

The following examples commit the Fallacy of Undistributed Middle:

Un
All books are reading materials.
Un
But some reading materials are expensive.
Therefore, some expensive things are books.

Un
All persons are creatures.
Un
But a carabao is a creature.
Therefore, a carabao is a person.

Where: Un stands for Undistributed

RULE 4: No term must have greater extension in the conclusion than it has in the premise; No term
may be made distributed in the conclusion if it is undistributed in the premise.
Un

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Examples: All Filipinos are Asians.

D
Kris Aquino is a Filipino.
D Un
Therefore, Kris Aquino is an Asian.

D
All mayors are politicians.
Un
But some politicians are peace-loving citizens.
Un Un
Therefore, some peace-loving citizens are mayors.

Any syllogism that has an over-extended term in its conclusion (making a term distributed in
the conclusion when it is undistributed in the premise) is invalid. Violation of Rule 4 corresponds to
the following fallacies:

A. Fallacy of Illicit Major – this fallacy is committed when the major term is made distributed
in the conclusion when it is undistributed in the major premise.
Un
Some kids are cheerful.
But all flood victims are not cheerful.
D
Therefore, all flood victims are not kids.

B. Fallacy of Illicit Minor – this fallacy is committed when the minor term is made distributed
in the conclusion when it is undistributed in the major premise.

All monkeys are mammals.

Un
But all monkeys are animals.
D
Therefore, all animals are mammals.

RULE 5: No standard categorical syllogism is valid which has two negative premises. In other words,
at least one premise (or both premises) must be affirmative in a categorical syllogism.

Examples: All persons are sentient.

Jufri Jan is a person.
Therefore, Jufri Jan is sentient.

All philosophers are not learned individuals.

Some learned individuals are Filipinos.
Therefore, some learned individuals are not philosophers.

Any syllogism that contains two negative premises is invalid. Violation of Rule 5 corresponds
to the Fallacy of Exclusive Premises.

The following example commits the Fallacy of Exclusive Premises:

Some TV programs are not educational.

All TV programs are not reading materials.
Therefore, some reading materials are not educational.

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RULE 6: If either premise of a valid standard categorical syllogism is negative, the conclusion must
be negative.

Example: All machines are not sentient.

But all stereos are machines.
Therefore, all stereos are not sentient.

Any syllogism that has an affirmative conclusion and a negative premise is invalid. Violation
of Rule 6 corresponds to the Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion from a Negative
Premise.

The following example commits the Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion from a
Negative Premise:

All Filipinos are Asians.

But Chu Chi Burichi is not an Asian.
Therefore, Chu Chi Burichi is a Filipino

RULE 7: No standard categorical syllogism is valid which has two particular premises. In other words,
at least one premise (or both premises) must be universal in a categorical syllogism.

Examples: All kings are leaders.

All leaders are purpose-driven persons.
Therefore, some purpose driven persons are kings.

All honest persons are trustworthy.

But some politicians are honest persons.
Therefore, some politicians are trustworthy.

Any syllogism that contains two particular premises is invalid. Violation of Rule 7 corresponds
to the Fallacy of Particular Premises.

The following example commits the Fallacy of Particular Premises:

Some ringtones are funny.

But some funny things are malicious.
Therefore, some malicious things are ringtones.

RULE 8: If either premise of a valid standard categorical syllogism is particular, the conclusion must
be particular.

Example: Some wild creatures are lions.

All lions are carnivorous.
Therefore, some carnivorous animals are wild creatures.

Any syllogism that has a universal conclusion and a particular premise is invalid. Violation of
Rule 8 corresponds to the Fallacy of Drawing a Universal Conclusion from a Particular Premise.

The following example commits the Fallacy of Drawing a Universal Conclusion from a

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Particular Premise:

All crimes are unlawful.

Some crimes are brutal.
Therefore, all brutal acts are unlawful.

Sub-topic 2.2. Figures and Moods of Categorical Syllogism

The Figures and the Moods of a standard categorical syllogism are traditionally used as
patterns of deductive argumentation. Specifically, these patterns – figures and moods – will help us
make arguments easily and correctly. Accordingly, learning them is as important as learning the
traditional rules of a categorical syllogism.

A. FIGURE

The figure of a standard categorical syllogism indicates the location of the middle term in the
premises (Copi, 1982).

In either premise, the middle term may be the subject or the predicate. The middle term may
also be the subject of the major premise and predicate of the minor premise. Likewise, the middle
term may be the predicate of the major premise and subject of the minor premise. In view of this,
there are four different figures that a standard categorical syllogism may have.

The Four Figures are:

FIGURE I: The middle term is the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the minor
premise. To illustrate, refer to the figure below:

M P
S M
S P

Where: M stands for the middle term

S stands for the minor term
P stands for the major term
c stands for the copula

Example: All plants are living things.

But tomato is a plant.
Therefore, tomato is a living thing.

FIGURE II: The middle term is the predicate of the major premise and also the predicate of
the minor premise. To illustrate, refer to the figure below:

P M
S M
S P

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Example: All angels are not mortal beings.

But some creatures are mortal beings.
Therefore, some creatures are not angels.

FIGURE III: The middle term is the subject of the major premise and also the subject of the
minor premise. To illustrate, refer to the figure below:

M P
M S
S P

Example: All flowers are beautiful things.

But all flowers are substances.
Therefore, some substances are beautiful things.

FIGURE IV: The middle term is the predicate of the major premise and the subject of the minor
premise. To illustrate, refer to the figure below:

P M
M S
S P

Example: All teachers are learned individuals.

But all learned individuals are not morons.
Therefore, all morons are not teachers.

B. MOOD

The mood of a standard syllogism is determined by the forms of the standard categorical
propositions it contains (Copi, 1982). In other words, the mood refers to the combination of the
categorical propositions in the syllogism by means of their forms (the Four Categoricals: A, E, I or O).

There are eight valid moods. These are:

MOOD: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Major Premise: A A A A E E I O
Minor Premise: A E I O A I A A
Conclusion: A E I O E O I O

DETERMINING VALIDITY USING THE FIGURES AND MOODS

Once the figure and mood is determined, we can identify the validity of the given categorical
syllogism. It is precisely done by checking the mood and figure against the following table of valid
syllogistic combinations:

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VALID SYLLOGISTIC COMBINATIONS:

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
AAA EAE IAI AEE
EAE AEE AII IAI
AII EIO OAO EIO
EIO AOO EIO AEO**
AAI** AEO** AAI** EAO**
EAO** EAO** EAO** AAI**
** Conditionally valid forms based on the Aristotelian standpoint, the terms represent actually
existing things (Hurley, 2012).

Examples:

VALID: Figure 2 – Mood AEE

All celebrity icons are persons.
But all monkeys are not persons.
Therefore, all monkeys are not celebrity icons.

VALID: Figure 3 – Mood AII

All students are enrolled in a learning institution.
But some students are Filipinos.
Therefore, some Filipinos are enrolled in a learning institution.

INVALID: Figure 1 – Mood AEE

All animals are sentient.
But all books are not animals.
Therefore, all books are not sentient.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Activity Sheet: Determining Validity of a Syllogism using the Syllogistic Rules

Determine the validity of the following categorical syllogisms. If it is not valid, identify the formal fallacy
committed.

1. All legislators are politicians.

But all senators and congressmen are politicians.
Therefore, all senators and congressmen are legislators.

2. A person is rational.
Every Filipino is a person.
Hence, a Filipino is rational.

3. All BSND students are citizens of the country.

Few of my friends are BSND students.
Ergo, few of my friends are not citizens.

4. A father is a man with a child.

But a priest is a father.
Therefore, a priest is a man with a child.

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5. No symbolist poets are romantic poets.

But epic poets are romantic poet.
Thus, epic poets are symbolist poets.

6. Some citizens are executives.

But all native-born Filipinos are citizens.
Thus, all native-born Filipinos are executives.

7. Every sin is evil.

But Covid19 is evil.
Therefore, Covid19 is a sin.

8. No car is an animal.
All cars are machines.
Therefore, no machine is an animal.

9. All even numbers are divisible by two.

But some prime numbers are not even numbers.
Ergo, All prime numbers are not divisible by two.

10. A body of knowledge is a science.

But Dietetics is a science.
Ergo, Dietetics is a body of knowledge.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3

Quiz:

Review all the lessons under Sub-topic 2.2. Figures and Moods of a Categorical Syllogism and
prepare for a quiz.

SUMMARY

• A categorical proposition is composed of three propositions (major premise, minor premise

and conclusion) and three terms (major term, minor term and middle term).

• there are four principles of a categorical syllogism. These are the principle of reciprocal
identity, principle of reciprocal non-identity, dictum de omni and dictum de nullo.

• Classically, one can determine the validity of a categorical syllogism by using the eight rules
governing a categorical syllogism and by using the valid syllogistic combinations of the
figures and moods of a categorical syllogism.

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REFERENCES

Agapay, R. 2007. Logic: The Essentials of Deductive Reasoning. Mandaluyong

City: National Book Store.

Bachhuber, Andrew H. 1966. Introduction to Logic. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.

Copi, Erving M., and Carl Cohen. 2009. Introduction to Logic: 13th Edition. Pearson, London:
Collier Macmillan.

Hurley, Patrick J. 2012. Introduction to Logic. Pasig City. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd (Philippine
Branch).

McCall, Raymund J. 1967. Basic Logic. New York: Barne and Noble, Inc.

PHILO-notes: 8 Rules of Syllogism – Arguments and Validity.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4ig5uHOy4w

Piñon, Manuel. 2004. Logic Primer. Reprinted, 1979. Manila: Rex Bookstore.

Prepared by:

Jufri Jan Louis M Narvas

Faculty
Pangasinan State University - Lingayen Campus

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