CML 5

⮚ Polygraph Chair – A chair designed to absorb

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES
concealed muscular movements of the subject. To
serve its purpose, additional recording channel must
Polygraphy – Is the scientific method of detecting
be provided in the polygraph to register the
deception with the use of polygraph machines.
movements of the subject.
(Other names: Deceptography and Lie Detection)
⮚ Plethysmograph – Device that measures changes in
Polygraph – An instrument that graphically records the blood volume in a part of the body. Two common
physiological responses such as respiration, blood types of plethysmographs are occlusion (use of
pressure and pulse rate, and skin’s resistance or inflatable cuff to restrict venous return while
conductivity to electricity exhibited in response to a set of measuring volume changes indirectly via pressure or
questions. The term literally means “many writings” from resistance) and photoelectric (use of infrared light
Greek words “poly” and “grapos”. Other names: emitter-collector diode pair that measures volume
Deceptograph, Lie-detector and Pneumo-Galvo-Cardio- changes indirectly by directing light into the skin and
Sphygmograph). detecting its reflection back).

Lie Detector- It is popular but misleading name of the Polygram – A graphic representation containing selected
Polygraph. In Greek, Polygraph means “many writings” physiological data generated by an examinee during the
and the instrument was so named because it make data collection phase of a polygraph examination. Also
various ink recordings of a person’s body functions. refers to the physiologic recording of responses of the
examinee in response to stimuli. Also known as:
Is Polygraph Examination result admissible in court? (Polygraph Chart or Test Data)
YES, if allowed by the judge. The judge will unlikely to use Types of Polygrams:
polygraph test if unaccredited and inexperienced examiner 1. Analog polygrams
administered the test. There is great deal of action in the 2. Computerized polygrams
court system today concerning the use of polygraph, the
laws are changing rapidly. Polygraphist – Someone who has successfully
completed formal education and training in conducting
Can a person be compelled to be subjected to a lie polygraph examinations and is either authorized or
detector test? formally certified, by the examiner’s agency, to conduct
In as much as the test requires the subject to answer the such examinations.
question either by yes or no, it infers the use of Other names: (Polygraph Examiner, Forensic Psycho-
intelligence and attention or other mental faculties which is physiologist and Polygrapher)
self-incriminatory. Therefore, a person CANNOT be
compelled to be subjected to the test. Subject – Person taking polygraph examination. Also
known as: (Examinee)
Concepts of Polygraph Examination Who may take the Polygraph test?
1. Victim
Polygraph Examination is used to test an individual for the 2. Witness
purpose of detecting deception or verifying the 3. Accused
truthfulness of his statements. 4. Job applicant
It is done by recording identifiable physiological reactions 5. Employee/ Personnel
of the subject, such as blood pressure, pulse rate,
respiration and skin resistance. Stimulus – Is a force or motion reaching the organism
The effectiveness of the polygraph in the recording and excites the perceptors. It is a question formulated by
symptoms of deceptions is based on the theory that “A the polygraphist to be used in the polygraph examination.
conscious mental effort on the part of a normal person to
deceive causes involuntary physiological changes that are Question string – All questions that appear on the
in effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its polygram between test commencement (X) and Test
well-being” termination (XX).

Types of Polygraph: Serial position – the position of a question within a

1. Analog Polygraph – a polygraph instrument that question string. Also known as: Question
directly records the responses of the subject on a piece of
chart. Purpose of Stimulus:
2. Computerized Polygraph - a polygraph instrument 1. to pose threat to the security of the guilty
capable of monitoring, recording, storing, and analyzing subject
respiratory, electrodermal, and cardiovascular activity. 2. to establish the innocence of truthful subject

Main Components: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF POLYGRAPH

a. Pneumograph – It records the respiratory activity.
b. Cardiograph/ Cardiosphygmograph – It records the WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON (1915)
cardiovascular activity.
c. Galvanograph – Component responsible for producing ● The “Father of Modern Polygraphy”
the graphic recording of skin resistance or ● He dealt with the sphygmomanometer, which was
Electrodermal Activity (EDA). EDA recently used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure
replaced the term Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). reading during the course of a test.
d. Kymograph – a motor that drives the polygraph chart
under the recording pen at a uniform rate of 1 division/ 5 ● He also recorded the respiration and noted the time of
seconds (1 division of the chart is equivalent to ½ inch). the subject’s verbal responses.
This component is used only in analog polygraphs in ● He also experimented with galvanometer to record
which the polygram is produced simultaneously with the skin resistance changes and a gripping device to
application of stimulus. record tension.

Accessory Components: CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH

ANGELO MOSSO (1895) ever recorded. The GSR reflected emotional changes
by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to
● He studied fear and its influence on the heart. In his
electricity.
observation subsequently formed the basis for
GEORG STICKER (1897)
detecting technique.
● He made the first suggestion for using the
● He developed the sphygmomanometer and “scientific
galvanograph for detecting deception based on the
cradle” which was designed to measure the flow of
works of several predecessors.
blood while a person lay on his back in a prone
position as it became concentrated on one part of the ● He theorized that GSR is influenced by existing
body and then in the other. mental impression and that will have no effect upon it.
CESARE LOMBROSO (1836-1909) OTTO VERAGUTH (1907)
● Employed the first scientific instrument to detect ● He was the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic
deception. This instrument is known as hydro- reflex”. He believed that the electrical phenomenon is
sphymograph, ”Lombroso’s Glove” which due to the activity of sweat glands.
measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when
suspects were asked about their involvement in or TECHNIQUE
knowledge of specific response. KEELER (1942)
● He was accorded the distinction of being the first ● He developed the “Relevant- irrelevant” test. The
person to utilize an instrument for the purpose of theory of this test is that a guilty reacts only to relevant
detecting lies. questions and innocent shows no reactions.
JOHN LARSON (1921)
● He also added the “Personally Embarrassing”
● Developed an instrument that continually and Question to his “Relevant- irrelevant” test, which was
simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and designed to elicit a reaction only from the innocent
respiration. He designed the first two recording subject, reasoning that the guilty would be still more
channel polygraph in the history. The first mechanical concerned with the relevant or crime question.
form of the present-day polygraph consists of two However, it was found that both the innocent and the
recording components and that is the guilty reacted to the question.
cardiosphymograph and the pneumograph. He JOHN E. REID (1950)
developed the polygraphic apparatus in a portable
● He developed the “Reviewed Control Question”
form.
consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant-
LEONARDE KEELER
irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the
● Developed an improvement of Larson’s apparatus. In innocent subject, to identify the general nervous
1949, he invented the “Keeler Polygraph” with tension and guilt complex reactor and to improve
components for recording blood pressure, pulse and contract between innocent and guilty subjects.
respiration changes.
● He also discovered the “Guilt-Complex test”
● A Galvanometer what is known as the galvanic skin administered to the overly responsive subjects.
reflex or electodermal response generally referred to CLEVE BACKSTER (1960)
as the GSR is also added to his instrument.
● Backster conceived the psychological sit theory that
● He also demised a metal bellows and designed a forms the basis of his zone of comparison technique
Kymograph that pulled at a constant speed. A chart that provides constant monitoring of the subjects
paper under the recoding pens from a roll of chart reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue. This
paper located inside the instrument. is known as the “Backster Zone Comparison Test”.
JOHN REID
● He designed a special chair equipped with metal EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF POLYGRAPH
bellows for recoding unobserved muscular activities of
the arms, thighs and feet, located on the arms of the ▪ Sir James Mackenzie (1906) - He generally
chair and on the seat, this transmit singular muscular overlooked in the history of the scientific determination
activity to the recording polygraph. of truth or deception the fact that polygraph was in
existence on 1906. Its invention however, was not for
the purpose of diagnosing truth or deception but rather
PNEUMOGRAPH for use in medical examinations.
VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914)
▪ VITTORIO BENUSSI (1913) - He presented a paper
● He detected deception with a pneumograph, an before the second meeting of the Italian Society for
instrument that graphically measures the inhalation of Psychology in Rome, on the subject of his
and exhalation. experiments regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.
● He demonstrated the changes in breathing patterns by ▪ RICHARD O. ARCHER (1953) - He is the first
noting the changes in respiration expiration during polygraphist to record simultaneously on regular basis
deception. the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was
HAROLD BURTT (1918) also the first to record simultaneously 2 galvanic skin
reflexes. In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph
● He determined that respiratory changes were
Science, the oldest of the polygraph publication.
indication of deception. He found out that changes in
systolic blood pressure were of greater value in ▪ RICHARD I. GOLDEN (1969) - He presented a paper
determining deception than in changes in respiration. at the Annual Seminar of American Polygraph
Association at Houston, Texas regarding his
experiments using existing control question
GALVANOGRAPH techniques but requiring the subject to answer each
LUIGI GALVANI (1791) question twice. The first time truthfully and the second
● Italian physiologist who developed the Galvanic Skin time with lie, for the purpose of requiring additional
Reflex or the galvanometer which records electrical psycho-physiological data from the examinee by
bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current
 comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known 2. False Negative – occurs when a deceptive subject is
lie to the same question. reported as truthful.

Polygraph Examination – A process that encompasses Causes of Errors:

all activities that take place between a PDD examiner and 1. misinterpretation of the data on the charts
an examinee during pretest, data collection, test data 2. lack of training and experience of the polygraph
analysis, and post-test phases of a polygraph examiner
examination. Also known as: (Polygraph Test, Lie- 3. counter-measures from the examinee
Detector Test and Psychophysiological Detection of 4. equipment malfunction
Deception (PDD). 5. failure to properly prepare the examinee for the
examination
Utility of Polygraph Examination: 6. poorly worded test questions
Law enforcement agencies and intelligence 7. improper assessment of the examinee's emotional and
agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users physical condition ·
of polygraph technology. In the United States alone all 8. improper use of testing techniques
federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own 9. lack of quality control review
polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners
employed in other agencies. Examination Room – A controlled environment where
1. Law Enforcement – Polygraph Examination is used as polygraph examination is conducted.
a tool in the investigation of crime. An Ideal Examination Room:
2. Legal Community – Result of Polygraph Examination 1. spacious for two persons
is used as evidence in court (subject to the existing rules 2. well lighted
on the admissibility of polygraph evidence). Polygraph 3. room temperature should be more or less 25°C
examination is also used by the Parole and Probation 4. at least 90% sound proof
office in the US to evaluate if the parolees or probationer 5. no decorations
follow the conditions of their release. 6. painted with white color
3. Private Sector – Polygraph examination is used in Pre- 7. with one-way mirror
employment Screening to check the honesty of applicants 8. with concealed microphone
and to establish background information. It is also used in 9. with adjacent observation room
Periodic Screening of employees to check their loyalty and
honesty. For issues limited only to a person’s Integrity, TERMINOLOGIES:
polygraph examination can also be used. a) Deception - the act of making someone believe
4. Other known application of Polygraph Examination something that is not true. It is an act of deceiving or
includes the Test for Espionage and Sabotage (TES) of misleading usually accompanied by lying.
the US Department of Defense and Counter Intelligence- b) Dicrotic Notch - graphic representation within the
Scope Polygraph Examination (CIS) of the US cardio tracing on a polygraph chart caused by a
Department of Energy. Both examinations are used to test backward surge of blood against the semi-lunar valve
their applicants and employees especially when giving in the left ventricle of the heart.
security clearance to classified information. c) Distortion - change in polygraph tracings caused by
artifact stimulus.
Test Results: d) Lie - is an intentionally false statement to a person or
1. Deception Indicated (DI) - An opinion which indicates group made by another person or group who knows it
that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed the is not wholly the truth.
physiological responses to relevant question(s) is an e) Specific Response - A deviation from an examinee’s
indicative of deception. normal state of homeostasis as evidenced by the
2. No Deception Indicated (NDI) - An opinion that tracings on a polygraph chart.
indicates that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed f) Sphygmomanometer - or blood pressure meter
the physiological responses to the relevant question(s) (also referred to as a sphygmomanometer) is a
were not indicative of deception. No Significant Response device used to measure blood pressure, composed of
(NSR) is an equivalent term to NDI. an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a mercury
3. Inconclusive - This is the examiner's required or mechanical manometer to measure the pressure.
diagnostic opinion when an examinee's polygraph record g) Fear – is the emotional response to specific danger
shows responses that are insufficient to determine that appears to beyond a person defensive power.
truthfulness or deception. In the recent year, polygraphist h) Response – is any activity or inhibition of the
no longer use this test result and if the subject is previous activity of an organism resulting from
inconclusive, their diagnosis is reduced to No Opinion. stimulation. Reaction – It is an action in mental
4. No Opinion (NO) - An evaluation that indicates the attitude evokes by external influence.
examiner cannot render a conclusive opinion of DI or NDI i) Detection – Is an act of discovery of existence,
based upon the physiological data on a given set of presence of fat or something hidden or obscure.
charts. Based on earlier references, this result is the j) Lying – the uttering or conveying of falsehood or
diagnostic opinion of the examiner when the subject has creating a false or misleading information with the
been uncooperative during the test and the data has been intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion
corrupted. of other.

Accuracy of Polygraph Test Result: Specific Objectives of Polygraph Examination

If the properly trained examiner utilizes the established 1. To ascertain if person is telling the truth
testing procedures, the accuracy of the decisions made by 2. To verify and compare conflicting statement
polygraph examiners is very high. Generally, the accuracy 3. To obtain additional facts of an offense, location of the
level as based on several experiments is on the range of stolen goods and whereabouts of wanted persons.
85%-95%. 4. To identify other persons involved in the case
5. Gain valuable information from unwilling subject
Errors in Polygraph Test Result: 6. Most important is the elimination of innocent suspect.
1. False Positive – occurs when a truthful subject is
reported as deceptive. Principal Use of Polygraph Examination
1. It is an investigative aid for the investigator to:
 a. confirm the statement of the victims hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit one’s
b. ascertain the credibility of witnesses good image
c. assess truthfulness of suspects 3. Red Lie – a lie common to communist countries, it is
2. It speeds the process of investigation used to destroy common ideologies by means of
3. It eliminates innocent subjects propaganda. This involves political interests and motives
4. The investigator can concentrate/focus to one subject to because this is a party of communist propaganda strategy.
determine truth or deception 4. Aggressive lies – are self-serving and may potentially
damage others, and therefore, most people would see
Uses of Polygraph them as clearly immoral.
1. Criminal Investigation - It is a valuable tool for criminal 5. Bold-faced Lie– lie that is told when it is obvious to all
investigation. It provides fast means of eliminating concerned that it is a lie.
innocent suspects, gives clue about the identity of criminal 6. Perjury – making verifiably false statements on a
suspects, verifies statements of those who are involved material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law
and save a lot of time and effort during the process of or in any various statements in writing. Perjury is a crime
investigation (Geronimo 2007) because the witness has sworn to tell the truth, and for the
2. Pre-Employment Test (Screening) - It is the fastest credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on
and most accurate means of verifying statement of a job as being truthful.
applicant from derogatory remarks by a previous employer 7. Malicious lie – a pure dishonesty to obstruct justice. It
who bears personal grudge against him. is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended
3. Periodic Personnel Check (Integrity) - It is the best purely to mislead or obstruct justice by a guilty accused
way of the company to determine dishonest employees person.
who are responsible for company losses and to determine 8. Altruistic lies – are those lies that are told to benefit
the honesty of the employees assigned to sensitive someone else, to reduce suffering, or to help increase
position. self-esteem. Used to comfort, protect and support the
4. Claim Verification Test deceived.
(Insurances/Compensations/Benefits) - For the 9. Pathological Lies– are those that are told even when
insurance company, for them to know if there’s a fraud or there is little or no apparent gain to the person who is
manipulation lying. In fact, the lying often occurs even when the results
5. Loyalty test (Intelligence and Honesty Check) - This would be better if the truth were told. A lie made by
is mostly conducted in organization like PNP, Phil. Air persons who cannot distinguish right and wrong
Force, Phil. Army, Phil. Navy and the likes Furthermore, the lie is not determined solely by situational
6. Promotion - There are instances wherein the company factors and appears to be compulsive or fantastic.
has difficulty in deciding between two or more candidates 10. Emergency Lies Defensive Lies– used when the
to be promoted, polygraph test helps to determine who is truth may not be told because of the harm that would
the most qualified as well as employees future intent come of it.
against the company (Geronimo 2007) 11. Humorous Lies – (Jocose Lie) those aimed at
amusing the listener, and any intent to deceive is transient
Principal Use of Polygraph Examination and teasing. Characteristically, they involve some degree
a. It is an aid to the investigator of preposterous exaggeration.
b. It speeds up the process of investigation 12. Bluffing – is an act of deception that is not usually
c. It eliminates innocence suspect seen as immoral because it takes place in the context of a
d. The investigator could focus or concentrate to the game where this kind of deception is consented to in
subject to determine the truth or deception advance by the players. This kind of deception is accepted
as a tactic and even expected.
Significance of Lie Detection in Criminal Investigation 13. Exaggeration – is when the most fundamental aspect
In criminal investigation, the truth must be of a statement is true but the degree of its truthfulness is
established to ensure proper prosecution of offenders. incorrect. Maximization of felt emotions reflects a dramatic
Criminal investigators must exert all effort to determine attempt to influence another person.
lying not only on the part of the suspect but as well as to 14. Minimization – The result of an individual's attempt to
everyone involved in the criminal act – witnesses, victims, dampen the external appearance of a more deeply
etc. experienced emotion is minimization of emotional
expression.
Kinds of Lies 15. Neutralization – An effort to mask emotional
response by adapting a "poker face”. Psychoanalysts and
Lie refers to either untruthful or falsehood statements; any other professionals may display relatively little response in
act that deceives or creates false impressions. It is also their efforts to appear nonjudgmental of the patient's or
synonymous to deceit, deception or fabrication. client's statements.
Lying is an uttering or conveying falsehood, creating a 16. Substitution – it’s a common mechanism of hiding
false or misleading impression with the intention of one's true feelings. One of the most common techniques
affecting wrongfully the acts through the opinion or employed for this purpose is to substitute "pleasure" for a
affection of another. negative emotion. Smiling is one of the easiest nonverbal
Lying can be devastating, it does not only hurt the one communications to produce and may be used to mask
who is being lied to, but it also hurts the one who tells it. feelings of arrogance, anxiety, or boredom.
Lying is the common denominator in many of our lives and 17. Promotion Lie – a kind of lie used in advertisement
recognizing some of the different types might help us in (or marketing strategies) that is used to influence the
dealing with the liars in our lives. consumers to buy products.

Kinds of Lies Which of the different types of lies usually committed

1. White Lie/ Benign Lie – it is used to avoid the harmful by a person? Why?
and realistic implications of the truth. It will cause no Answer: White Lie, because it is common type of lie that
discord if not discovered and offers some benefit to the liar lubricate interpersonal relationships.
and the hearer. It is basically used to lubricate
interpersonal relationships. What are the effects of lying?
2. Black Lie – telling an untruth and attributing it to a false Answer: The consequences of lying are not as simple as
source. A lie who accompanies pretensions and they might seem. People often think that lies breed
contempt and guilt, but they do much more. They foster 8. Drinking Ordeal practiced in Nigeria and India where
relationships, build trust, destroy social networks, create the accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest –if
social networks, make people more creative, and innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
influence how often other people lie. 9. Trial of the Eucharist practiced in European countries
where this trial is reserved for clergy and administered
Different types of Liars with pomp and ceremony. If the accused was guilty it was
Liar is a person who tells lies. believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and
1. Sociopathic Liars - are those who lie continuously to prevent the accused from swallowing the food given to
get their own way, without care or concern for others. him.
They are goal oriented 10. Ordeal of the Heat and Fire the accused has to walk
2. Compulsive Liars - are someone who continually lies barefooted over burning coals, if unharmed the accused is
as their habit. They feel discomfort of being truthful innocent.
because lying makes them feel right. 11. Ordeal of the Boiling Oil or Water practiced in Asian
3. Occasional Liars - are those who seldom tell lies. They practiced in Asian countries where the accused was
are quick to ask forgiveness from the individual that they forced to dip his hands into the boiling water or oil and ask
lied to to pick up stone in it. If he remains unhurt then he is
4. Panic Liars - are those who lie in order to avoid the innocent.
consequences of confession. They are afraid of 12. Ordeal of the Red Hot Needle a hot needle is pierced
embarrassment and they believe that confession will just in the lower lip of the accused; I f blood flows from the
make the matter worse. wound the accused is guilty
5. Occupational Liars - are considered to be practical 13. Ordeal of the Tiger practiced in Thailand where the
liars for they lie when it has a higher “pay off” than telling accuser and the accused were placed together in the
the truth same and a tiger is set loose upon them. If both were
6. Tournament Liars - are those who love to lie and are spared, further elimination followed
excited by the challenge of not being detected. For them 14. Test of the Cross Ordeal practiced in Europe where
an interview is a contest that they want to win; they realize the accuser and the accused were made a stand with
that they will probably be convicted but will not give arms crossed on their breast. The one who endured the
anyone the satisfaction of hearing them confess. longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other is
7. Psychopathic Liars - are the most difficult type; these liar.
persons have no conscience and show no regret for 15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal the accused is asked to touch
dishonesty and manifestation of guilt. the tail of the sacred ass in a room without the presence of
8. Ethnological Liars - are those who are taught not to be anyone; he is made to believe that the sacred ass will
a squealer utter a sound if touched by guilty hands. After the accused
9. Pathological Liars - are persons who cannot have returned from the room, his hands will be checked if
distinguish right from wrong due to their sick mind. dusted with black powder which was secretly smeared on
10. Black liars - are persons who always pretend what he the tail of the ass which is not sacred at all, if so the
is and what he thinks of himself accused is innocent. The basis of this procedure is that
11. White Liars - are those who don’t usually think of they believe that a truthful person will touch the tail of the
themselves as true “liars”. They justify their lies as ass even if no one is looking to prove his innocence.
harmless and beneficial.
OTHER COUNTRIES PRACTICING ORDEAL
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION Burma - The Ordeal of Divination is being practiced in this
1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal practiced in Rajhmal, North country, whereby it involves 2 parties being furnished with
Bengal, the accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron candles of equal size and lighted simultaneously the
nine times (9) unless burned sooner. If burned, he is put to owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged
death as he is guilty. Not only just licking the iron but also to have won his cause.
he is made to carry the metal into his hands. Madagascar - Legal authorities practiced trail by ordeal.
2. Ordeal by the Balance practiced in Vishnu, India The supposed criminal was made to drink a decoction, a
where the scale of balance is used where the accused is poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose is fatal. By
placed in the other end while a counter balance was managing the size of the dose, those who administer it
made. If he were lighter before then he will be acquitted. can decide the result.
3. Ordeal by Rice Chewing practiced by Indians. It is Borneo - The accuser and accused were presented with
formed with a kind of rice called “sathee” prepared with shellfish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then
various incantations. The person on trial eats the rice then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish
spits upon an eyeful leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or moved first was adjudged the winner.
the corner of the mouth swell or he trembles, he is Greece - A suspended axe was spun at the center of a
declared then a liar. group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was
4. Ordeal of the Red Water practiced in Eastern Africa in the line with the blade as supposed to be guilty out by
were the accused is made to swallow a small amount of the Divine Providence.
rice after fasting for twelve hours and then immersed in Nigeria - The priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced
dark colored water, if the accused ejects all the rice, he is the tongue of the accused. If the feather passed through
adjudged innocent. the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If
5. Trial by Combat a fight between the accuser and the not, the accused is guilty. Another method practiced into
accused, whoever lost the battle will be adjudged guilty. It the same country is the pouring of corrosive liquid into the
became the legal ordeal in England during the time of eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmed if
“King Henry III” innocent. Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the
6. Trial by Torture the accused was put into a severe accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is
physical test. If the accused can endure such torture, he also practiced.
will be considered innocent.
7. Trial by Ordeal (by means of pain)- is a judicial Scientific Methods of detecting Deception
practice by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is
determined by subjecting them to a painful task. If either
the task is completed without injury, or the injuries
sustained are healed quickly, the accused is considered ● INTOXICATION - is a physiological state induced by
innocent. the consumption of alcohol.
 - The method use intoxicating beverages to 3. Disgust
bring out the mental state of stupefaction or excitement, 4. Fear
speech and emotion are less strained due to the lowering 5. Happiness
of inhibitions and so the subject may reveal the truth. 6. Sadness
7. Surprise
● HYPNOSIS - is a special psychological state with
certain physiological attributes, resembling sleep only ● POLYGRAPHY- It is based upon a theory that once a
superficially and marked by a functioning of the lie has been made or that an emotion evoking stimulus
individual at a level of awareness other than the has been given, conscious mental effort of a normally
ordinary conscious state. conditioned person causes physical and physiological
- Contemporary research suggests that changes in the body which are capable of being
hypnotic subjects are fully awake and are focusing recorded, diagnosed and interpreted.
attention, with a corresponding decrease in their peripheral - The polygraph machine records
awareness; subjects also show an increased response to graphically the physiological responses of the subject
suggestions. (respiration, sweating, blood pressure and pulse rate)

Regular Police Methods of detecting Deception

● WORD-ASSOCIATION TEST - A psychological Test
1) Information Gathering – it can be done through record
intended to reveal associative connections between
check, surveillance, background investigation and
stimulus words and free verbal responses.
intelligence check.
- Systematic study of associative thoughts
2) Investigation – it can be done through interview and
can reveal information about an individual’s personality,
interrogation; and through admission and confession.
character and areas of emotional disturbances. It is based
on a theory that one word or idea is reflective of another
What is Information?
word or idea and the expression of their association forms
Is a knowledge of facts gathered or acquired from
a meaningful picture.
persons or documents relevant concerning the
commission of a crime or criminal activities. It is a data
● TRUTH-SERUM TEST - is a psychoactive medication gathered by the investigator from other person including
used to obtain information from subjects who are the victim himself and from public records, private records
unable or unwilling to provide it otherwise. and Modus Operandi
- Commonly used Truth-serum drugs: What is Investigation?
a) Sodium Thiopental/ Sodium Pentothal, marketed The act or process of examining a crime, problem,
as Pentothal. statement, etc. carefully, especially to discover the truth.
b) Amobarbital, commonly called as Sodium Amytal
c) Scopolamine Interview VS Interrogation
Interview Interrogation
● PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR - Detects 1. Nature is voluntary 1. Process is compulsory
"guilt-revealing," laryngeal micro-tremors which exist 2. Witness may or may 2. Suspect should answer
in the voice and are associated with stress and lying not answer questions the questions
3. Mode: merely asking of 3. Technique: Questions
● COMPUTER VOICE STRESS ANALYZER - It is questions should be propounded to
based on hypothesis that there are infrasonic 4. Answers or statements the suspect
components of human voice not audible to observers may be or not necessary 4. Answers are very
caused by a physiological phenomenon present in to the case important either as
muscles called "microtremor". 5. Subjects are often admission or confession
victims or witnesses 5. Subjects are always
● NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING - This the suspect
method has made the claim that by watching a
person’s eye movements, an interviewer can Admission VS Confession
determine if a person is remembering a past event Admission Confession
(true recall, as in a valid alibi) or constructing an -It is the self-incriminatory -It is a declaration of facts
event (as in a false event that never occurred, i.e., a statement of facts by the directly acknowledging
false alibi). accused that does not the truth of the guilty as
directly acknowledge the charged, or of the
● BRAIN-WAVE FINGERPRINTING - Uses brain- offense committed, with commission of the
reading techniques to determine whether specific which he is charged 1. criminal act itself.
information is stored in a subject’s brain; it does this by There is a statement of a 1. There is a declaration
measuring electrical brainwave responses to words, person. of the person.
phrases, or pictures that are presented on a computer 2. The person only 2. The statement of the
screen. acknowledged facts accused is the
- Farwell and colleagues report over 99% circumstances of the acknowledgement of his
accuracy in laboratory research and real-life field crime guilt from the commission
applications 3. There is no of the crime.
● MICRO-EXPRESSION - Micro-expressions are acceptance of guilt 3. Guilt is admitted.
unconscious expressions that surface as the limbic
part of our brain sort, gather and assess information. 3) Instrumentation - scientific examination of real
- 1/25 to 1/15 of a second evidence, application of instruments and methods of the
- Can provide cues or leakage that reveals physical sciences in detecting crime. Example: through
the true feeling of the subject and can be used to detect the different forensic sciences (such as Forensic
possible deceit or concealed emotion. Medicine, Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology, Forensic
- Seven universal emotions: Ballistics, etc.)
1. Anger
2. contempt
What is Instrumentation? It is "the art and science of polygraph examination, after which the examiner will form
measurement and control". It is all about measuring, one of the following professional opinions:
analyzing, recording and controlling the kinds of
instruments which are capable of it.
◆ NDI - No Deception indicated - The subject is telling
the truth
Phases of Polygraph Examination ◆ DI - Deception Indicated - The subject is not telling
Polygraph examination is the use of any instrument to the truth
graphically record simultaneously the physiological ◆ INC - Inconclusive - The evaluation of the
changes in human respiration, cardiovascular activity, and physiological data is inconclusive
any other physiological changes that can be recorded for
the purpose of verifying truth or deception and includes d. The Post-test Interview (Post-test Phase)
the reading and interpretation of the polygraph records This stage includes all consideration that bears on
and results. the examination. This is done just after the instrument is
turned off. If the polygraph test results indicate deception,
a. Preliminary preparations the examiner will then proceed to conduct a short
This stage is the initial interview with the investigator interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain
handling the case or person requesting it. The group confession. However, if the polygraph indicates that the
involved in this stage are the victim or the complainant, subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the
suspects and witnesses. This stage includes obtaining subject cordially and thank him/her for his/her cooperation.
and evaluation of facts, determining areas the subjects The purposes of further questioning after the test are:
needs to be asked and the investigator must furnish the 1. to clarify the findings
examiner the following: 2. to learn if there are any other reasons for the subject’s
responding to a relevant question, other than the
1. Sworn statement of the suspect/ knowledge of the crime; and
witnesses/victim/complainant 3. to obtain additional information and an admission for
2. Incident report, spot report, B.I. of the suspect, law enforcement purposes, if the results suggested
witnesses, victims and complainants deception.
3. Rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other
facts such as specific article and exact amount of money Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Polygraph Results
stolen In the past 75 years, studies have been
4. Peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set conducted on the accuracy of polygraph testing. Since
5. Exact time the offense was committed many different conditions and factors are involved in the
6. Known facts about the suspect’s action or movement research, and since a polygraph examination is a very
7. Facts indicating any connection between the suspects, complex process, it is difficult to draw from the data a
victim and witnesses precise figure for the accuracy of polygraph testing in all
8. Exact type of weapon, tool or firearms used settings. Nevertheless, the preponderance of available
9. Result of laboratory test information indicates that when a properly trained
10. Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the examiner utilizes as established testing procedure, the
victim, suspects and the investigator accuracy of the decisions made by the polygraph
examiners is generally on the range of 85-95% for specific
b. The Pre-test Interview (Pre-test Phase) issue investigations.
This is the stage of interview of the subject. The
primary purpose is to prepare or condition the subject for Generally, the following are the factors affecting the
the test. The following should be taken in considerations: polygraph examination accuracy:
1. the appraisal of subject’s constitutional right 1. The Instrument
2. obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by 2. The condition of the subject
signing a statement of consent 3. The condition of the examination room
3. taking of personal data of the subject 4. The qualification and skills of the examiner
4. determining his/her suitability as a subject
5. evaluating the psychological preparation of the subject Specifically, the 15% errors of lie detection test come from
6. informing the subject of his involvement of the case the following circumstances:
The following right of the subject must be informed clearly
to him/her. 1. Nervousness or extreme emotional tension
1. The right to remain silent experienced by a subject who is telling the truth regarding
2. Anything he/she say may be used in favor or the offense in question but who is nevertheless affected
against him/her by:
3. The right to have a lawyer of his/her choice a. apprehension induced by the mere fact that suspicion
4. Right to refuse or accusation has been directed against him.
b. apprehension over the possibility of an inaccurate lie
“when the blood pressure rise up to 150 over 100 do detector test result
not conduct examination” c. over-anxiety to cooperate in order to assure an
accurate test results
c. The Examination Proper (In-test Phase) d. apprehension concerning possible physical hurt from
After the pre-test interview, the examiners should the instrument
proceed to the placement or attachment of polygraph e. anger resentment over having to take a lie detector
sensors. The first to be attached is the pneumograph test
followed by the cardiograph and the galvanograph f. over-anxiety regarding serious personal problems
sensors. Review all the questions with the subject before unrelated to the offense under investigation g.
the actual examination is made. The examiner should previous extensive interrogation, especially when
discourage any comments or statements by the subject. accompanied by physical abuse
Test instruments must be given to the subject upon g. a guilt complex or fear of detection regarding some
completion of the necessary preliminary preparations. other offense which he had committed
The examiner will analyze, interpret and evaluate
the examinee's physiological data collected during the
2. Physiological abnormalities such as examiner who identifies deception through the use or aid
a. excessively high or excessive low blood of the polygraph instrument.
pressure
b. diseases of the heart a. Pneumograph Component records changes occurring
c. respiratory disorder in the respiratory or breathing system. The sensors are
the following:
3. Mental abnormalities such as: 1) Pneumograph tube is a corrugated and
a. feeblemindedness as in idiots, imbeciles, and stretchable rubberized tube or apparatus that is to
morons be attached to the subject’s chest or stomach (or
b. psychosis as in manic depressive, paranoids, both). The inhalation will cause the tube to stretch
schizophrenic, paretic, etc. and subsequently create an upward tracing or
c. psychoneurosis and psychopathy, as among movement of the pneumo-pen unto the polygraph
the so called “peculiar” or emotionally unstable chart. Exhalations are the download tracing.
persons
2) Beaded chain is a freewheeling string of stainless
4. Unresponsiveness in a lying or guilty subject beads with a hook which fastens the
because of: pneumographic tube unto subject’s chest or
a. no fear of detection stomach
b. apparent inability to consciously control
response by means of certain mental sets of b. Cardiograph Component records the changes
attitudes occurring in the human circulatory system, such as the
c. a condition of “sub-shock” or “adrenal blood pressure and pulse rates. It involves the following
exhaustion” at the time of test sensors:
d. rationalization of the crime in advance of the 1) Arm cuff shall be attached to the subjects’ arm
test to such an extent that lying about the 2) Hand pump bulb causes the arm cuff to inflate in
offense arouses little or no emotional disturbance order to produce blood pressure and pulse rates
e. extensive interrogation prior to the test 3) Aneroid blood pressure meter gauge measures
and monitors BP reading while the polygraph
5. Attempt to “beat the machine” by controlled testing is ongoing.
breathing or by muscular flexing
6. c. Galvanograph Component is sometimes called the
6. Unobserved application of muscular pressure Galavanic-Skin-Reflex (GSR) component which records
which produces ambiguities and misleading the changes occurring in the Nervous-Excretory systems.
indications in the blood pressure tracing It has been studied that brain’s activities and electrical
charges have been recorded the epidermal skin reflexes
Limitations of the Polygraph Technique passed through the different nerves of the human body.
1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a The sensor is the:
substitute for investigation 1) Finger electrodes - are the special types of sensitive
2. It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic metal plate to be attached to the subject’s end joints of
instrument both index and ring fingers for the recording of the
3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that electrical charges (ohms) from the brain through the skin.
which the subject knowns to be true
4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent d. Kymograph Component is a motor chart drive
5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been mechanism that moves strip chart paper at a specific rate.
established to permit the examiner to prepare a complete It has a synchronized motor that drives the charts at the
set of suitable questions rate of six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute and its
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent speed constant is vital because the vertical lines, which
of the subject are spaced either at one-half of an inch interval,
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart. This
any report that a person will be considered guilty because provides the examiner with a means of determining pulse
he refused to take the test rate and the questioning space.
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been
explained with the subject CONTROL OF THE CARDIO-SPHYGMOGRAPH
9. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or physical SECTION:
evaluation of any person 1. Manual centering knob used to place cardio in its
10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject proper place on the chart.
2. Vent Valve- is used to left atmospheric pressure
Barriers to the Polygraph Examination into the system and used to release pressure all or parts
1. Pathological liar (a person who cannot distinguish right of the pressure.
from wrong) 3. Resonance control-is used to decrease the
2. Mental cases amplitude of the cardio tracing ard d used to sharpen the
3. Persons under the influence of intoxicating liquor diacrotic notch.
4. Narcotic related cases
5. Various heart and other organic troubles
HOW TO OBTAIN BLOOD PRESURE PATTERN OR
MODERN COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH TRACING: (CARDIO)
INSTRUMENT Pen balance is critical. Pen is to be held on paper
The instrument used in polygraph examinations is by friction of the. Inflate pressure until you reach subject's
often called polygraph. It was defined as an instrument or mean pressure. The mean pressure is the midway
device capable of producing recordings of physiological between the systolic and the diastolic is the lowest
phenomena that may be used as the basis for the pressure. In order to get the arithmetic mean pressure,
application of reliable technique for diagnosing truth or add the diastolic and systolic and the sum divided it by
deception. The instrument itself does not detect lies or two. To get the geometric mean pressure, plus diastolic,
deception; it only records the physiological changes that watch your sphyg-dial when inflating the pressure, for
occur when the subject tells a lie or deception. It is the maximum deflection.
 3. Dicrotic notch - is cause by the minor secondary
pulse wave passing under and beyond the blood pressure
CONTROLS OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH SECTION: cuff. In the wake of subsiding primary wave which
momentarily halts or slow down the decrease in the
1. Manual centering knob - used to position base line surface pressure against the bladder in turn causing a
of the pneumo tracing on the upper heavy horizontal line. hesitation in the bellow movement back to or towards its
2. Vent - with the vent down, the system is closed original position.
and unoperative. With the vent up, the system is open and Since the chart paper continues its movement
ready for use. past the cardio pen, dishalting or slowing in the bellow
3. Uses of the vent: movement shows up in the tracing as an offset or shoulder
a) To stop the pen between the tests and to in the descending limb. When a pressure matches the
prevent possible tambour assembly. approximate mean pressure of the subject, the diacrotic
b) To prevent pen from possible clogging by notch is to0 high, in the tracing the machine pressure
moving up or down in one place of the chart would be to00 slow. When you cannot obtain the diacrotic
paper. notch adjust your machine pressure so that you have
c) To stop pen during the tube adjustment. maximum amplitude. After obtaining proper pattern
d) To assists in gaining amplitude. amplitude, center the cardio pen on the lower heavy
e) To let atmospheric into the system. horizontal line of the chart.

HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACINGS OF THE TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH

PNEUMO TRACING:
First observe subject for point of maximum chest
motion. Placed tube at point where maximum motion is 1. Ascending limb -with the expansion of the chest
observed. The tube must be smug. A tube that is too loose during the inhalating, the air capacity in the pneumograph
will result in a distorted pattern. A tube is too tight will be tube is increased creating a vacuum within the system,
uncomfortable and distort the pattern. With female which reduces the internal surface pressure against the
subjects the tube is almost, always placed above the bellow. Thus moving the bellows backward causing a
breast. Some females are abdominal breathers and tubes lateral clockwise or upward stroke of the pen.
will have to be lowered.

2. Descending limb - cause by the exhalation thus

CAUSES OF REACTION ON EXURSION OF THE PEN: reversing this process causing an increase in internal
1. Sudden noise surface pressure against the bellows, thus moving the
2. Intermuption bellow to or toward its original position and producing a
3. Extraneous thoughts lateral counter-clockwise or a downward movement of the
4. Sudden movements pen.

HOW TO OBTAIN PROPER TRACING IN MODEL 63 TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE GALVO TRACING:
KEELER MACHINE: (GALVO)
Tum power switch from off and on position. Then
the galvo pen fails to the bottom of the chart, then galvo 1. The ascending limb it is caused by the decrease
section is then ready for operation from 15 to 18 seconds of the subject's resistance which throws the established
after you have tumed the switch to an on position. circuit out of balance and modifies the electric current flow
through the magnetic field surrounding the pivot-
movement of the recording pen.
HEART RATE: 2. Descending limb:
The nomal heart rate in adult males is 70-75 beats a) Physical cause - is caused by a reverse in the subject
per minute. Rate is slightly higher in female adults. resistance toward the original position thus bringing
the circuit back to or toward balance again
TECHNICAL PRODUCTION OF THE CARDIO TRACING producinga lateral clockwise or downward movement
of the pen.
b) Mechanical cause the fine coil springs attached to the
1. The ascending limb - pulse wave causes an pivot mountain pen cradle serve as counter balance
expansion of the arterial wall and an increase surface for pen movement either above or below the
pressure against the cuff bladder thus forcing air from the established base line and assists in returning the pen
bladder through the tubing into the tambour. The cradle to or towards the original position.
increasing air volume in the tambour increases pressure
against the bellows and forces the bellows forward. This
forward movement provides power to move the penfork in COMPUTING RATE:
the attached pen in a lateral clockwise or upward direction Graph paper is lined and spaced in seconds. It is
pen in a lateral clockwise or upward direction of the chart moving under pens at a uniform rate of six inches per
surface. minute. Rate is kept uniform through medium of
synchronized motor. From one heavy vertical line
constitute a five second period. It is also one half inch.
2. Descending limb when a pulsed wave passes Cont the beats inside any five seconds scale multiply by
beyond cuff bladder attendant drop in a surface pressure twelve. This gave you number of heartbeats at any point in
against bladder reverses this processes permitting the the test. For greater accuracy you count the beats in two
below to return to or toward its original position. This five seconds area multiply by six.
return of the bellows to its original position is transmitted
to the penforks and attached pen as a lateral counter QUESTION FORMULATION
clockwise or downward stoke on chart surface. There are two general types of questions to be
constructed and maybe supplemented by other types of
questions.
 with a subject’s norm made during the answering of
1. General Question Test (GCQ) the most commonly irrelevant questions.
applied.
Example: a. Relevant Question. It is a question that has
1 Is today Tuesday? relevance or connection to the issue under investigation.
2 Do you intend to lie to me on this test?
a1. Strong Relevant or Primary Relevant
3 Are you sitting down?
Question. It has an intense relationship to the crime or
4 Did you rob the quick mart last night? problem being considered. This is intended to produce
Did you use a gun to rob the quick mart last strong emotional response in guilty subjects. Example: Did
5
night? you steal Nick’s Ipod?
6 Do you sometimes watch TV? a2. Weak Relevant or Secondary Relevant
7 Is your name Bob? Question. This question is concerned with elements of
Did you rob the cashier at the quick mart last the crime and details mostly on guilty knowledge and
8 partial involvement.
night?
Example: Between 10-12 a.m., 10 February 2011, did you
Did you take money from the cash register at
9 open the table drawer of Mr. De la Cruz?
the quick mart last night?
10 Do you like beer? 1. Sacrifice Relevant or (DYAT) Question (Do you
11 Have you lied to me today? intend to answer truthfully). It is designed to absorb
12 Do you live in the United States? the response generally generated by the introduction
of the first relevant question in the series. The
2. Peak of tension Test (PTT) which is usually used as response of the subject will give the examiner a clue
supplementary test as to the subject’s attitude of willingness in taking the
Example: test.
a. Do you know whether the stolen watch from Rommel is Example: Regarding the stolen wristwatch of Mary, do you
a Rolex? (This is an introductory phrase plus padding intend to answer truthfully all questions about it?
question)
b. Is it an Omega? (Padding) 2. Knowledge Question. This type of question is
c. Is it a Seiko? (Padding) designed to prove whether the subject possesses
d. Is it a Timex? (Relevant question) information leading to the identification of the offender
e. Is it Alba Quartz? (Padding) or location of evidence. Then the phrase “for sure”
f. Is it a Citizen? (Padding) should be included to eliminate doubts in case the
subject knew the offender or the location of evidence
Rules in Formulating Questions but is only hesitant to answer “yes”.
This area of instruction covers one of the most vital Example: Do you know for sure who stole the Ipod of
phases of the detection, selection of the correct issue and Nick?
formulation of questions, which reflect both the needs of
the examiners and the concepts of the examinee. 3. Evidence Connecting Question. This links the
1. Questions must be simple and direct subject to the evidence found in crime scene
2. Must not involve legal terminology such as rape, Example: Were the footprints found outside the house of
murder, assault, and etc. Nick yours?
3. Must be answerable by “Yes” or “No”
4. Must be short as possible b. Control Questions are used for the purpose of
5. The meaning must be cleared and unmistakable, comparison.
phrased in a language that can be easily understood. 1) Primary Control Questions recalls the offense done
6. Must not be in a form of an accusation from the time childhood up to three to five years
7. Questions must never contain inferences which before the occurrence of the present offense being
presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject investigated
8. All questions must refer to one offense only Example: Before reaching the age of 28, have you ever
9. All questions must refer to only one element of an stolen anything?
offense
10. Must not contain inferences to one’s religion, race or 2) Secondary Control Questions are more specific in
belief nature and based upon another sort of wrongdoing
which will enhance the subject’s opportunity or
TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS responsiveness. The scope is up to the present
There are two general types of questions to be period of examination.
constructed and may be supplemented by other types of Example: Have you ever stolen anything from this locality?
questions
1. General Question Test (GCQ) the most commonly c. Irrelevant (Neutral) Questions type of questions which
applied. have no importance to the case under investigation.
2. Peak of tension Test (PTT) which is usually used as Example: Did you eat today?
supplementary test 1. Check Questions are the last questions asked in the
lie test. It is a direct question that relates to the fact
There are also five sets of tests that may be applied that the subject has told the truth to all questions
during the polygraph examination process: asked in the lie test.
2.
Test I – General Question Test. The purpose is to get 3. Fishing Expedition Test Question - use to vagrants
the standard tracing of the subject and to establish a true or loiters for routine interrogation. No idea about what
telling pattern for the initial part of the record. It consists of offense has been committed.
a series of RELEVANT and IRRELEVANT questions Example:
asked in a planned order. Questions are so arranged as to a) Have you ever been arrested before?
make a comparison of the responses to relevant questions b) Are you wanted anywhere now by the
police?
 c) Have you stolen anything since you have Example: Are you completely convinced that I will not ask
been in tour? any question on this test that has not already been
reviewed?
d. Symptomatic Questions these questions are intended
to identify or assess the occurrence of outside issues that 4. S.K.Y. Questions these are three groups of questions
might restrain a subject's response to the relevant placed as one by Backster and they are intended to verify
questions. These are outside factors in a case, which is the previous charts and detect indirect participation or
concerned, but not the issue under investigation. guilty knowledge. The “S” stands for Suspect; the “K”
A question type developed by Cleve Backster stands for Know; and “Y” stands for You.
which is used to identify whether or not an examinee is
fearful the examiner will ask an unreviewed question 5. Silent Answer Test is conducted in the same manner
embracing an outside issue that is bothering the as when relevant and control questions are asked but the
examinee. This mistrust of the examiner will supposedly subject is instructed to answer the questions silently, to
dampen the examinee’s responses to other test questions. himself, without making any verbal response causes
Symptomatic questions are widely used, though the trend distortion in the tracing such as sniff or clearing the throat.
in the research is that there is no meaningful effect.
Example: Are you now convinced that I will not ask you 6. Zone Comparison Test contains three Zones (black,
any questions aside from the questions that we red and green), with comparison of responses between
have reviewed? two of the zones (red and green) for the determination of
Are you afraid that I will ask you about truth or deception. The ZCT is designed to pose a threat
something which I told you I would not? to the wellbeing of the examinees, regardless of their
innocence or guilt and compel them to focus their attention
e. Sky Questions – These are three groups of questions on a specific zone question(s).
placed as one by Backster and they are intended to verify Three basic zones:
the previous charts and detect indirect participation or a) Black zone - (consists of Symptomatic /Outside
guilty knowledge. The “S” stands for Suspect; the “K” Issue Questions) designed to gain the
stands for Know; and “Y” stands for You. examinee's confidence regarding avoidance of
Example: Do you SUSPECT anyone in particular in unreviewed questions embracing outside issues.
stealing Mary’s wristwatch? b) Red zone – (consists of Relevant Questions)
Do you KNOW who stole the wristwatch of dealing with the issue for which the examinee is
Mary? being tested.
Did YOU steal Mary’s wristwatch? c) Green zone – (consists of Control Questions)
that are designed to elicit a negative answer
Test II – Number Test (Psychological Test). The from the examinee to questions that encompass
purpose is to check the possible deliberate distortion when unknown offenses or misdeeds during a period
the chosen number is asked and to obtain a chart wherein earlier than the time the alleged offense was
the subject is not under stress. committed.
Test III – Spot Responder Test. The purpose is to Each control question is compared against its neighboring
determine the responsiveness of the subjects to crucial relevant question for a determination of truth of deception.
questions on spot responses.
Test IV – Mix Question Test. The purpose is to compare Backster Zone Comparison Test (Varieties)
the degree of reaction between control and relevant 1. Matte Quadri-Track Zone Comparison Technique
question 2. Backster Tri-Zone Comparison Technique
Test V – Silence Answer Test (SAT). It is a confirmatory 3. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) Bi-
test Spot Zone Comparison Technique
4. Integrated Zone Comparison Technique
SUPPLEMENTARY TEST QUESTIONS 5. Utah Zone Comparison Technique a. Utah Probable Lie
1. Peak of Tension Test (PTT) the subject may be Test (Utah PLT) b. Utah Direct Lie Test (Utah DLT)
given this test if he is not yet informed of the details of the
offense for which he is being interrogated by the CHART MARKINGS
investigation or by other persons or from other sources Chart Marking is one of the most important things in the
like the print media. The questions formulated are similar conduct of polygraph examination because it assists the
in nature and construction, not only one of which is true examiner in interpreting and evaluating the test result,
and the perpetrator who would naturally be in possession without these markings the examiner will find it difficult to
of such unpublicized knowledge will usually exhibit a rise interpret the tracings which will be the basis in drawing out
in the tracing up to that particular question. conclusions and recommendations.
To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of the
2. Guilt Complex Test (GCT) This test is applied when test result, chart markings are made using signs and
the response to relevant and control questions are similar symbols to enable the examiner determine the following:
in degree and in consistency and in a way that the 1. exact time the test commenced and terminated
examiner cannot determine whether the subject is telling 2. initial and final blood pressure and galvanograph
the truth or not. If the subject does not respond to the readings
added relevant questions, it indicates that the subject was 3. particular point where each question asked started
being deceptive as to the primary issue under and ended.
investigation. No conclusion can be drawn if the response 4. corresponding identification of question, and the type
to the added guilt complex is similar to the real issue and time of answer given by the subjects
questions. 5. duration and amplitude of reaction patterns
Example: Did you steal that Ferrari toy collection? In this 6. any instruction given or repetition of question made
case the stealing of toy collection was not actually 7. any movement, cough tracing by the suspect or
committed because the alleged crime investigated was the outside distractions that occurred
loss of family? 8. mechanical adjustment or re-adjustment made
9. extraneous factors affecting the test chart such as
3. Symptomatic Question is to detect and evaluate the paper jams
presence of outside issues which may suppress response 10. time interval between questions
to relevant questions.
11. chart number, name of subject, time, date, and place physiological response and usually appears when
taken the subject is being of irrelevant questions.
b) Specific Response refers to any deviation
Signs and Symbols commonly used in Chart Marking from the normal tracing of the subject in the
Signs or Meaning Signs Meaning relevant and control questions.
Symbols or
Symbo 1. Pneumograph Tracing. It is normally found at the top
ls of the chart. It is a record of a subject’s respiratory action
X/60/1.5 A First markings N Noise during the questioning process and is classified as normal
on the chart or abnormal. The pneumograph pattern consists of
XX/60/1.5 Examiner’s S Sighed (Moan) inhalation and exhalation strikes with a normal amplitude
A mark after the of form ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to
test 18 breaths per minute and may vary in reasons of
X Start of test PJ Paper Jump exceptional physical build condition or respiratory defect.
XX End of test SN Sniffed The pneumograph changes from individual norm which
60 Mm of mercury BI Breathing may be indicative of deception are:
shown in the Instruction a. change in rhythm or regularity
sphygmomano b. change in amplitude or volume
meter dial c. change in the inhalation or exhalation ratio
A or M Automatic or OS Outside d. notched or serrated inhalation or exhalation strokes
manual galvo stimulus e. change of baseline; loss of base line
amplifier used caused change f. hyperventilation
of tracing g. suppression
// Point where its M Moved or h. respiratory block
question begins movements
+ Yes answer to MI Movement 2. Galvanograph Tracing. It is normally located at the
question Instruction center position. When properly balanced, it takes the form
of slightly wavering line across the middle portion of the
- No answer to L Laughed
chart with a minor response to spoken stimuli. It records
question
changes in subject’s increase or decrease resistance to a
A Adjustment B Use to signify
constant electrical current generated through an amplifier,
belch or burp
recording galvanometer, and rectifier of the polygraph.
T Subject talked C+ Increase in
The galvanic tracings which may indicative of deception
instead of Yes galvo
are:
or No sensitivity
a. vertical rise at point of deception
R Request for C- Decrease in b. double saddle response
repetition of galvo c. long duration and/or degree of response
question sensitivity d. plugging galvo tracing
C Coughed Y Yawned
CT Cleared Throat IS Ink Stopped 3. Cardiosphygmograph/Cardiograph Tracing. It is
normally found at the bottom of the chart showing the
Polygraph Chart Paper or Polygram refers to the three physiological phenomena, a systolic stroke, diastolic
recorded tracings of all emotional patterns permanently on strokes and a dicrotic notch.
the charts or graphs from a series of questions. It is about The cardiograph tracing taking the form of specific
100 feet long, 6-8 inches in width with ½ or .5 inch top and responses indicative of deception are:
bottom margins. Chart papers are imprinted with a. increase or decrease in blood pressure
horizontal lines spaced at ¼ inch intervals or 20 divisions b. increase or decrease in pulse rate
and vertical lines at 1/10 inch intervals with heavy lines at c. increase or decrease in amplitude
½ or .5 inch intervals. Each ½ each division of the vertical d. change in position or disappearance of dicrotic notch
lines represents 5 seconds of time. Pulse rate per minute e. extra systoles (premature contradiction of an auricle or
mat then be computed according to the number of beats ventricle while fundamental rhythm of the heart is
per ½ division by 12. maintained)
General Rules in Chart Interpretation Evaluation of Polygraph Test/Test Data Analysis
1. There must be a specific response Test data analysis is the systematic process by which a
2. To be specific, it must form a deviation from the norm particular set of scoring and decision rules is applied to
3. The specific response must appear in at least two (2) the evaluation of diagnostic features and other
test charts physiological data resulting in one of three outcome
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneously decisions.
specific in the three (3) tracings of the chart.
In specific issue testing the decision outcomes or
Chart Interpretation diagnostic opinions, as they are sometimes called,
The most important single factor in polygraph testing is are:
chart interpretation. The accuracy of instrumental 1. No Deception Indicated (NDI) - An opinion that
detection of deception is dependent upon the examiner’s indicates that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed
ability to diagnose truth or deception by reading or the physiological responses to the relevant question(s)
interpreting a subject’s charts. The polygraph chart is the were not indicative of deception.
composite record of the pneumograph, cardiograph and No Significant Response (NSR) is an equivalent term to
galvanograph tracing from one series of questions. NDI.
In every polygraph test chart there are two kinds of 2. Deception Indicated (DI) - An opinion which indicates
responses where deception may be traced: that an analysis of the polygraph charts revealed the
physiological responses to relevant question(s) is an
a) Normal response refers to the tracing of indicative of deception.
response on the chart which does not deviate 3. No Opinion (NO) - An evaluation that indicates the
from the norms of the subject’s psycho- examiner cannot render a conclusive opinion of DI or NDI
based upon the physiological data on a given set of testing format, dictate which relevant and comparison
charts. Based on earlier references, this result is the question(s) to use for analysis.
diagnostic opinion of the examiner when the subject has j) Waveform-The term waveform and tracing are used
been uncooperative during the test and the data has been interchangeably and refers to the particular visual
corrupted. representation of the physiological data that is
studied for its diagnostic value.
Methods of Chart Interpretation:
1. Global Evaluation is an overall inspection of polygraph Numerical Evaluation Scoring System (DoDPI) utilizes
charts to form a general impression concerning the three considerations in evaluating physiological data
relative strengths of the reaction to various questions obtained through a polygraph.
2. Numerical Scoring 1. A positive value (i.e., +1) is assigned to an analysis spot
a. Three-position numerical evaluation scale - permits a if the physiological response is more significant at the
range of only one of three values that may be assigned to applicable comparison question than at the relevant
an analysis spot. The range is: minus one (-1), zero (0), question.
and plus one (+1) 2. A negative value (i.e., -1) is assigned to an analysis
b. Seven-position numerical evaluation scale - permits a spot if the physiological response is more significant at the
range of seven values that may be assigned to an relevant question than at the comparison question(s).
analysis spot. The range is: minus three (-3), minus two (- 3. Zero scores are assigned when there is either no
2), minus one (-1), zero (0), plus one (+1), plus two (+2), response to either the relevant or applicable comparison
and plus three (+3). question(s) or the difference is indiscernible. Assign a
(Automated Computer Algorithms is used in some value of zero with a line through it (Ø) if any recording
computerized polygraph) channel is unable to be evaluated due to an artifact or
other excessive noise.
The standard unit of measurement is a Vertical Chart
Division, with a grid setting of one-quarter inch, appearing COUNTERMEASURES
either on a computer screen or paper chart. It is an action taken by the examinee to influence the
physiological responses being measured and thereby
Terms commonly used in Chart Interpretation: produce a test result that indicates truthfulness.
a) Analysis Spot - an analysis spot refers to the
specific location, or applicable relevant question on a Purpose of Countermeasures: Countermeasures are
chart where the spot analysis concept is applied. mostly used by guilty examinees in order to increase the
b) Artifact -an artifact is the cause for a change in the probability of false negative outcome. There are some
examinee’s physiological data that is not attributable innocent examinees however who also use
to an applied stimulus or recovery (i.e., movement, countermeasures in an effort to increase the probability
sensor slippage). that they will pass the PDD examination
c) Diagnostic Features - The physiological phenomena Effect of Countermeasure to the result of Polygraph
used in the numerical evaluation of PDD test data. Examination: Under some circumstances Polygraph
Examiners use the term feature(s) and countermeasures have been found to be effective, such
criteria/criterion interchangeably. as when the examinee had special training.
d) Homeostasis- Refers to a complex interactive
regulatory system by which the body strives to Categories of Countermeasures:
maintain a state of internal equilibrium. Being able to 1. General State Countermeasures – attempts to defeat
recognize an examinee’s homeostatic signature, for the polygraph examination by reducing the physiological
each of the recording systems being monitored and activity to test items. It diminishes the body’s response to
recorded, is truly essential to effective test data all polygraph questions. Examples are:
analysis. Examiners often use the following terms a. Drugs
interchangeably with homeostasis: physiological b. Meditation
norm, prestimulus baseline, resting state, and tonic c. Hypnosis
level. d. Fatigue or exhaustion
e) Latency-Refers to the period of time between
stimulus onset and response onset. Any physiological 2. Specific Point Countermeasures – attempts to defeat
response that begins following stimulus onset is said the polygraph examination by self-induction of
to display response latency. Response latency, physiological responses to particular questions.
depending upon its consistency, may enable an Examples are: a. Manipulated respiration
otherwise untimely response to be evaluated. b. Self-inflicted pain
Pronounced latency may be seen in all recording c. Covert tensing of muscles (ex. Anal sphincter
channels or in just one. An effective method for contraction)
assessing response latency is to look holistically at all d. Mental imagery
of the physiological data collected, channel-by- Examples of Countermeasures:
channel. A. Physical – class of countermeasures in which the
f) Question String- Refers to all of the questions posed examinee attempts to manipulate the polygraph
to an examinee between test commencement and recordings through the discreet use of movements. Some
test termination. of these movements are also used to induce pain.
g) Serial Position-Refers to the specific location of a a. breathing
question within a question string. b. pressing toe
h) Response Onset Window-Refers to the typical time c. hidden tack
period, from stimulus onset, where we would predict d. biting tongue
a physiological response to occur in order for that e. shifting position
response to be deemed timely. f. anti-perspirant
i) Spot Analysis- Spot analysis is a fundamental g. colorless nail polish
concept for assigning weighted values, by individual
recording channel, based upon comparisons between B. Cognitive - class of countermeasures in which the
a relevant question and the applicable comparison examinee attempts to affect the polygraph recordings
question(s). The TDA decision rules for a particular through self-manipulation of attention, memory and
emotion.
a. hypnosis
b. thought control

3. Pharmacological Countermeasures- class of

countermeasures in which the examinee attempts to affect
the polygraph recording through the use of ingested
drugs.
a. sedatives
b. ataractics

Countermeasures Solutions:
1. Anti-Countermeasures
Proactive measures used by examiners to block
or neutralize the countermeasure efforts of examinees.
For example, if the aim were to preclude the examinee
from pressing his toes against the floor during the test, an
anti-countermeasure may include elevating the
examinee’s feet from the floor so that this strategy cannot
be acted upon.
2. Counter-countermeasures
Reactive methods used to detect and neutralize
those efforts an examinee has engaged in while trying to
defeat the PDD examination. For example, if the
examinee tries to dissociate during testing, he could insist
that the examinee respond to the test questions with the
key word and the answer, thus ensuring attention to the
content of each question