Unit (3) Solutions, Acids & Bases

Solutions and colloids

Types of mixtures:
1- Homogeneous (solutions)
2- Heterogeneous (Colloids & suspension)

Solutions Colloids Suspension

-Their particles can't be -Their particles can be - Their particles can be
seen by naked eye or by seen by the electronic seen by the naked eye
the electronic microscope microscope only - Size of particles is
- Size of particles is less - Size of particles is more than 1000 nm.
than 1 nm. between 1 nm : 1000 nm

Examples: Examples 1-Aerosols 2- Examples

1-Table salt in water 2- Hair gel 1-Table salt in kerosene
Cane sugar in water 3-Mayonnase emulsion 4- 2-Cane sugar in kerosene
3-Cobalt (II) chloride in Blood 5-Milk 3- Cobalt (II) chloride in
water kerosene

Solution:
A homogenous mixture of two or more substances which are chemically unreacted.

Solvent: The substance which exists in greater amount in solutions.

Solute :The substance that exists in smaller amounts and dissolve in solvents.

** Solutions are classified according to :

1- The physical state of the solvent.

2- The ability to conduct electricity.

3- The degree of saturation.

1- According to the physical state of the solvent:

Some important concepts

Electronegativity: The ability of atom to attract electrons.

Polar bond: A type of covalent bond between two atoms in which electrons are shared
unequally (the greater atom carries a negative charge)

Polar molecule: A Molecule which has a bond carrying molecular positive charge and
another one carrying molecular negative charge.
The bonds in water molecules are polar because the negative charge (electronegativity) of
oxygen is greater than that of hydrogen. Thus, oxygen atom carries molecular negative
charge, while hydrogen atoms carry molecular positive charges.
 The angle between the two bonds of water molecule equals 104.5◦

2- According to the ability to conduct electricity

3- a) Electrolytes b) Non electrolytes

Electrolytes: Substances whose solutions or molten can conduct electric current via the
movement of free ions
Electrolytes are divided into:
Strong Electrolytes
Electrolytes that completely disassociate in water (all their molecules disassociate into ions)
which makes them high conductors of electricity
Examples:
Ionic compounds: sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Polar covalent compounds: Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(it conducts electricity if it's a solution, not in gaseous state)
When hydrochloric acid dissolves in water, positive hydrogen ions are produced and bond
with water molecules forming hydronium (H3O)+
+ -
HCl (g) + H2O (l)  H3O (aq) + Cl (aq)

Weak Electrolytes:
Electrolytes that partially disassociate in water (small no. of its molecules disassociate in
water) which makes them low conductors of electricity
Examples:
 Ammonium hydroxide (ammonia solution) NH4OH (Ionic compound)
 Acetic acid CH3COOH (vinegar) (polar covalent compound)

Non electrolytes: Substances whose solutions cannot conduct electricity because of the
absence of free ions

Examples on non electrolytes:

 Sugar  Ethyl alcohol (ethanol)

4- According to the degree of saturation

a) Unsaturated solution:
It is the solution that can accept more amount of solute at a certain temperature.

b) Saturated solution:
It is the solution that contains the maximum amount of solute at a certain temperature.
c) Supersaturated solution:
it is the solution that contains more amount of solute by raising the temperature of the
solution.
Preparation of a saturated solution from a supersaturated one:
1- By cooling 2- By crystallization
Solubility

The ability of a solute to dissolve in solvent or the ability of solvent to make solute dissolve
in it.

Degree of Solubility: The mass of solute dissolving in 100g of solvent at certain temperature
Factors affecting solubility
1- The nature of solvent or solute 2- The temperature

1- The nature of solvent or solute : (like dissolves like)

-Polar solvents like water dissolves ionic compounds like
( Na Cl – Na OH – Ni (NO3)2 ) and polar compounds like ( H Cl – NH3)
-Non polar solvent like benzene dissolves (methane – fats – oils) and also methane dichloride
dissolves iodine
2- The temperature
-Solubilty of most ionic compounds increases by increasing temperature
-Solubility of sodium chloride is nearly equal at different temperature
-Solubilty of some ionic compounds decreases by increasing temperature Like Ce2(SO4)3
selenium sulphate
 Concentration of the solution

Concentrated solution:
"It is the solution in which the amount of solute is large but not larger than the solvent"

Methods of calculation of the concentration of solutions

1- Percentage
2- Molarity (M)
3- Molality (m)

1-Percentage:

a- (volume - volume) percentage :

"it is the percentage of the volume of solute in 100 g ml of solution"

The volume of solute

(Volume- volume) Percentage = The volume of solution
100 x
** The volume of solution = the volume of solute + the volume of solvent

b-(mass-mass) percentage:
"it is the percentage of the mass of solute in 100 g of solution"

The mass of solute

Mass-mass percentage = 100 x
The mass of solution The mass of solution = the mass of solute + the mass of solvent

1- Molarity:
Molarity: The no. of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of solution

The measuring unit of Molarity (M) is mol/L or Molar (M)

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 No. of moles (mol) Volume of solution (L)
Molarity (M)
=

Example :-
Calculate the molar concentration of sodium chloride solution if the mass of dissolved
sodium chloride (NaCl) equals 117g and the volume of water equals 320 mL

Solution:-
One mole of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g
The no. of moles dissolved in 320 ml. of water = 117/58.5 = 2 mol. 320 ml = 0.32 L
The molar concentration of the solution = no. of moles / volume of solution
= 2 / 0.32 = 6.25mol/L

Example (2):-
Calculate the Molarity of sugar solution C12H22O11 if the mass of dissolved sugar equals
85.5g and the volume of solution equals 0.5L (C=12, H=1,O=16)

Solution:-
The molar mass of sugar = 12x12 + 22x1 + 16x11 = 342g The no. of sugar moles = 85.5/342
= 0.25 mol

The molar concentration = the no. of moles / volume of solution

= 0.25 / 0.5 = 0.5 mol./L

2- Molality:

Molality (m): The no. of moles of solute dissolved in one kilogram of solvent

The measuring unit of Molality equals mol/kg

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 The no. of solute moles The mass of solvent (kg)
Molality (m)
=

Example
Calculate the Molality of a solution prepared from the dissolution of 20g of sodium
hydroxide NaOH in 800g of water H2O (Na=23, O=16, H=1)

Solution:-
The molar mass of NaOH = 23+16+1= 40g
The no. of moles in 20g of NaOH = 20/40= 0.5 mol. 800g of water = 0.8 kg
The molality of the solution = the no. of moles / the mass of solvent
= 0.5 / 0.8 = 0.625 mol/kg

Collective properties of solutions

"They are the properties whose values depend only on the number of solute particles per unit
volume of solution and not on the type of solute"

They are: ( Vapour pressure - freezing point - boiling point )

1) Vapor pressure:
Vapor pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapour when it becomes in state of equilibrium
with the liquid inside a closed container at constant temperature and pressure

 Vapour pressure depends on the temperature of the liquid

(when the temperature increases, both of the evaporation rate and vapour pressure
increase)
 Vapour pressure depends on the no. of the solution molecules, not its properties and
structure

Give reasons:

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Vapour pressure of a pure solvent is higher than the vapour pressure of the solution at the
same temperature.

Because:
1- the number of solvent molecules exposed to vaporization process is greater than that of
solution

2- the attraction force among the solvent molecules is lower than that of the molecules of
solution.

2) Boiling point elevation

Natural boiling point: it is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals
the atmospheric pressure.

 Natural boiling point can prove the purity of liquids

 The boiling point of pure water is 100◦C , but it increases in other solutions (such as salt
solution) G.R ?

because the solute particles decre3ase the no. of water molecules escaping from the surface
of water, which decreases vapour pressure. Therefore, water molecules need more energy
which increases the boiling point

Measured boiling point: it is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
equals the pressure acted on it.

G.R: the boiling point of solution is higher than the boiling point of pure solvent

-Because the vapour pressure of solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

-Boiling point depends on the no. of the solution molecules, not its properties and structure

G.R: the boiling point of 0.2 M aqueous solution of sodium chloride is equal to the boiling
point of 0.2 M aqueous solution of potassium nitrate.

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-Because each of them produces the same number of moles of ions in the solution.

3) Freezing point depression

The freezing point of a solution is less than the freezing point of the pure solvent

 Adding nonvolatile solutes to solvents decreases the solutions freezing points

- because they increase the attraction forces between the solute particles and the solvent
molecules, which prevents the solvent from turning into solid state

 Salts are put on roads in winter to prevent them from freezing, which decreases the rate of
the occurrence of car accidents

 The decrease of freezing points depends on the no. of the particles of the solute, not their
structures

 When adding one mole of glucose sugar (180g) to 1000g of water, the resulted solution
freezes at -1.86◦C (not at zero degree as in pure water)

because dissolution process produces one mole of particles

 When adding one mole of sodium chloride (58.5g) to 1000g of water,

2 moles of ions (one mole of sodium ions and another on of chlorine ions) are produced,
which doubles the decrease of freezing points to be = 2 x -1.86◦C = - 3.72◦C

Exercise: Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing one mole of calcium chloride
CaCl2 and 1000g of water

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 Suspensions

They are non homogenous mixtures whose solid particles precipitate and can be
distinguished by naked eye or microscope (the solute and solvent don't mix).

- The diameter of each precipitated solid particle equals 1000 nm.

-The components of suspensions can be separated using "filter papers" .

- The process of separating between the components of suspensions is known as "Filtration

process"

Examples of suspensions:-
1- Water and oil mixture
2- Water and chalk mixture 3- Water and sand mixture

Acids & bases

Colloids: Non homogenous mixtures whose particles don't precipitate and they are hard to
be separated using filter papers

 the diameters of the particles forming colloids range from 1 nm to 1000nm) Colloidal
systems
Colloids are classified according to the dispersed substance and the medium of dispersion
 The dispersed substance is the suspension in the colloid, while the medium of dispersion
is the medium which contains the dispersed substances

Dispersed substance Medium of dispersion Colloid

Gas Liquid Some kinds of creams

Gas Solid Some kinds of sweets

such as gelatin and
jelly

Liquid Liquid Milk and Mayonnaise

Liquid Gas Aerosols (hair sprays)

Solid Gas Dust in air

Solid Gas Blood – hair gel –
starch in water -
paints

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Colloids are prepared by two methods

1- Diffusion method: We fragment substances into small pieces of sizes equal to those of
colloids. Then, we add them to the medium of dispersion and stir the mixture

2- Condensation method: We add small particles to greater suitable molecules by means of

some chemical process such as Oxidation, Reduction and Hydrolysis

Theories which defines acids and bases

The Arrhenius theory (1887)

Swedish scientist Arrhenius put this theory

Arrhenius acid: The substance which disassociate in water producing one or more positive
hydrogen ions (H+)

Arrhenius base: The substance which disassociate in water producing one or more negative
hydroxide ions (OH-)

Explanation:-
The electric conductivity of aqueous solutions of acids and bases is due to the presence of
ions in them, when sodium chloride dissolves in water, it produces negative chlorine ions
and positive hydrogen ones

HCl(aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)

 Sodium hydroxide disassociates in water producing positive sodium ions and negative
hydroxide ones

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

 The first to discover the disassociation of acids and bases into ions was Arrhenius.
Disassociation process has different types:-

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 H2SO4  H+ (aq) + HSO4 - (aq)

HCIO4  H + (aq) + CIO4 - (aq)

KOH (aq)  K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Ba (OH)2 (aq)  Ba 2+ + 2OH- (aq)

 In this theory, acids should contain hydrogen atoms, and bases should contain hydroxide
group (as shown in the previous equations). The Arrhenius theory helps us explain
"Neutralization reactions" – the reaction of acids with bases forming water and salts

NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O

Remarks on the theory

1- Polar water molecule contains oxygen atom carrying molecular negative charge, while
hydrogen atoms carry molecular positive charge. Therefore, water molecule will be affected
by the ions in the aqueous solution one way or another. Scientists discovered recently that
protons (positive hydrogen ions) cannot exist freely in aqueous solutions because they bond
with water molecules forming hydronium ions (H3O +)

2- some bases (such as ammonia) form alkaline solutions although they don't contain any
hydroxide ions in them

The Bronsted-Lowry theory (1923)

In 1923, The English scientist "Thomas Lowry" and Danish scientist "Johannes Bronsted"
formulated their theory about acids and bases.

Bronsted-Lowry acid: The substance which lose positive proton (Hydrogen ion)
(Proton donor)

Bronsted-Lowry base: The substance which gains positive proton (Hydrogen ion) (Proton
acceptor)

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According to this theory, we can say that acid is the substance that gives proton to base, and
base is the substance that takes proton from acid (which means that the reaction is the
transfer of proton from acid to base)

A− + HA + B
HB+

Acid Base Conjugate base conjugate acid

When an acid loses a proton, it turns into a "conjugate base", whereas when a base gains a
proton, it turns into a "conjugate acid"

Conjugate base: The substance formed when an acid loses a proton

Conjugate acid: The substance formed when a base gains a proton

 When we dissolve HCl in water, Hydrochloric acid solution is an acid because HCl gives
protons to water. Therefore, water is considered as base because it gains protons from HCl
acid

 Ammonia is considered as Bronsted-Lowry base because it accepts protons (proton

acceptor) from compounds

Scientist Gilbert Newton Lewis stated that:-

Lewis acid: The substance that accepts an electrons pair or more.

Lewis base: The substance that donates an electrons pair or more.

 When a positive hydrogen ion (H+) binds with a negative fluorine one (F-), Hydrogen ion
is regarded as "Lewis acid" because it accepts an electrons pair, while the fluorine ion is
regarded as "Lewis base" because it donates an electrons pair.

H+ + F- HF

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 Classification of acids & bases

A-Acids (The strength – the source – the basicity)

1- Acids can be classified according to the degree of their ionization in water (strength)
into:-

Strong acids: They are acids which completely ionize in water (all their molecules
disassociate in water into ions). Their solutions are high conductors of electricity (strong
electrolytes) due to the presence of ions in them
Examples:-
1- Nitric acid (HNO3)
2- Hydrogen iodide acid (HI) 3- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
4- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 5- Hydrobromic acid (HBr) 6- Perchloric acid (HCIO4)

Weak acids: They are acids which partially ionize in water (some of its molecules
disassociate into ions). Their solutions are low conductors of electricity (weak electrolytes)

Examples:-
 Acetic acid (vinegar) CH3COOH
Acetic acid ionizes in water into hydronium ion and acetate ion
CH3COOH + H2O  CH3COO− + H3O+

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N.B: There's no relation between the strength of an acid and the no. of hydrogen atoms in its
molecules.

Ex: H3PO4 acid is weaker than HNO3 acid

2- Acids can be classified according to their sources into:-

Organic acids: They are acids of organic origin (animal-plant) which are extracted form
living organisms
Examples:-
1- Formic acid (CH2O2) 2- Acetic acid
3- Lactic acid
4- Citric acid
5- Oxalic acid (H2C2O4)

Mineral acids: They are acids which don't have any organic origin. They are formed from
nonmetal elements (chlorine, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Oxygen…etc)3
Examples:-
1- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 2- Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 3- Perchloric acid (HClO4) 4-
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) 5- Nitric acid (HNO3)
6- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

3-An acid can be classified according to no. of hydrogen atoms in its molecules (the
basicity of acids) into:-

Monobasic acid: It gives away one proton (hydrogen ion) when reacting with one molecule
of base

Examples:-
1- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 2- Nitric acid (HNO3)
3- Formic acid (HCOOH) 4- Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

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Dibasic acid: It may give away two protons (hydrogen ions) when reacting with two
molecules of base
Examples:-
1- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 2- Carbonic acid (H2CO3) 3- Oxalic acid ( H2C2O4)

Tribasic acid: It may give away three protons (hydrogen ions) when reacting with two
molecules of base
Examples:-
1- Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 2- Citric acid (C6H8O7)

B-Bases (strength – molecular structure)

1-Bases can be classified according to their degree of ionization in water (strength)
into:-

Strong bases: Bases which completely ionize in water and considered as strong electrolytes
Examples:-
1- Potassium hydroxide (KOH) 2- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 3- Barium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2

Weak bases: They are bases that partially ionize in water and considered as weak
electrolytes
Examples:-
1- Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)

2- Bases can be classified according to their molecular structure into:- Metal oxides:-
1- Iron oxide (FeO) 2- lead oxide (PbO)
3- Calcium oxide (CaO)
4- Magnesium oxide (MgO)

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5- Sodium oxide (Na2O) 6- Potassium oxide (K2O)

Metal hydroxides:-
1- Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) 2- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
3- Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
4- Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 5- Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Metal carbonates (or bicarbonates):-
1- Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 2- Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3 ) 3- Sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3)
4- Potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
 Bases which dissolve in water producing negative hydroxide ions are called "Alkalis"
 We can say that all alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis

Determination of acids & bases

There are two methods to determine the acidity or basicity of a solution

1- Indicators
They are weak organic acids or bases whose colours change by the change of the kind of
solution

The indicator In acids In bases In neutral

solutions
Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue Green
Phenolphthalein Colourless Fuchsia Colourless
(pink)
Litmus paper Red Blue Purple

2- Hydrogen exponent PH
A method for determining the type of solution in numerical values ranging from 0 to 14.
Papers and digital devices are used to measure the pH of solutions

 If the pH of a solution is less than 7, so its acidic

 If the pH of a solution equals 7, its neutral
 If the pH of a solution is greater than 7, so its basic
 Salts

Salts: They are chemical compounds which are formed by the combination between the
positive ion of metal or radical (Cation) and the negative ion of non metal or radical (Anion)
.

Cation: A positive ion of the base .

Anion: A negative ion of the acid .

Salt formation:
1- The reaction of metals with diluted acids:
Metals which come before hydrogen in chemical activity series replace it in its diluted acids
solutions forming salt and hydrogen gas

Active metal + diluted acid  Salt of acid + Hydrogen Zn(s) + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2 (g)

2- The reaction of metal oxides with acids:

This method is usually used in the case of the difficult of the reaction of metal with acid due
to the danger of reaction or the decrease of metal acitivity

Metal oxide + Acid  water + salt of acid CuO(s) + H2SO4  CuSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

3- The reaction of metal hydroxide with acids:

This method is valid in the case of soluble metal hydroxides, which are form Alkalis

Acid + Alkali  Salt + Water

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)

Neutralization reaction: The reaction of acids with alkalis forming water and salts

The importance of neutralization reactions:

They are used in chemical analysis process in order to calculate the concentration of an acid
or alkali using acids and alkalis with known concentrations in the presence of suitable
indicators.(Titration)

4- The reaction of metal carbonates (or bicarbonates) with acids:

Stable carbonate acid salts can be replaced by stable acids forming the new acid salt and
carbon dioxide gas. This reaction is used to test acidity

Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

 Naming of salts (Nomenclature)

 A salt is formed when the negative ion (anion) of an acid binds with the positive ion
(cation) of a base forming salt. Thus, the chemical name of a salt is composed of two terms
(Such as sodium chloride and potassium chloride)
 The 1st term of salt chemical name describes the negative ion of acid (Anion) while the 2nd
term describes the positive ion of base (Cation)
 The chemical formula of a salt depends on the valency of the anions and cations forming
them

The following table mentions some acids, their structures, and the salts prepared by
them:

The acid Anion Salts prepared by acid

Nitric acid HNO3 Nitrates NO3 - - Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
- lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2
- iron nitrate III Fe(NO3)3
Hydrochloric acid HCl Chloride Cl- - Sodium chloride (NaCl)
- Magnesium chloride MgCl2
- Aluminium chloride AlCl3
Acetic acid CH3COOH Acetate CH3COO- - Potassium acetate CH3COOK
- Copper acetate
(CH3COO)2Cu
- Iron acetate III (CH3COO)3
Fe
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sulphate (SO4)-2 - Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
Bisulphate - Sodium bisulphate NaHSO4
(HSO4)- - Copper sulphate CuSO4
- Copper bisulphate CuHSO4
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Carbonate (CO3) - Sodium carbonate Na2CO4
Bicarbonate - Sodium bicarbonate
(HCO3) Na2HCO4
- Calcium carbonate CaCO3
- Magnesium bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2

We notice from the previous table that:-

1- Some acids have two kinds of salts because their molecules have 2 hydrogen atoms
(dibasic acids) , Dibasic acids (such as sulphuric and carbonic acids) have two kinds of salts
because the molecules of each of them have 2 hydrogen atoms.
-Tribasic acids (such as phosphoric acid) have three kinds of salts because their molecules
contain 3 hydrogen atoms

2- The names of salts which contain hydrogen in their anions are called "bi "
"Hydrogen "
 HSO4- can be called "Bisulphate" or "Hydrogen sulphate"

3- Numbers II and III indicates the valency of the metal bound to the anion of the acid, (Such
numbers are written in cases of multivalent metals – metal having more than one
valence such as iron)

Remember
Valence: The no. of electrons gained, given, or shared by atoms
The valence of metals: The no. of electrons that metal atoms lose during chemical reaction
The valence of nonmetals: The no. of electrons that nonmetal atoms gain or share during
chemical reaction
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4- The acidic anion of salts is written on the right, while the basic cation is written on the left
 NaCl (the basic cation in this salt is Na and written on the left, while the acidic anion
is Cl and written on the right)

5- In the case of organic acids (such as acetic acid) the anion of acid is written on the left
(such as Potassium acetate CH3COOK)

Solubility of salts
 Some salts dissolve quickly in water, some of them dissolve in hot or cold water. There
are also salts that don't dissolve in water

Salts Solubility of water

- Salts of sodium, potassium and They dissolve in water
ammonium
- Nitrates They dissolve in water
- Sulphates They dissolve in water (except for
calcium, barium, lead and silver
sulphates)
- Bicarbonates They dissolve in water
- Carbonates They don't dissolve in water (except for
sodium, ammonia and potassium)
- Chloride They all dissolve in cold water
- lead chloride (PbCl2) dissolves in hot
water
- Mercury (HgCl2 ) and silver chloride
(AgCl) don't dissolve in water

Aqueous solutions of salts are different in their properties:-

 They may have acidic effect if the acid is strong and the base is weak such as
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
 They may have basic effect if the acid is weak and the base is strong such as
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

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 They may be neutral if the strength of the acid and base are equal such as
Acetic acid CH3COOH Sodium chloride NaCl

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