Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Review

Planning and coordination of modular construction

Yaik-Wah Lim a, b, Philip C.H. Ling c, Cher Siang Tan c, Heap-Yih Chong d, e, *,
Ashwin Thurairajah f
a
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia
b
Centre for the study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM), Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction (ISIIC), Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia
c
School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia
d
School of Engineering Audit, Nanjing Audit University, Nanjing 211815, China
e
School of Design and the Built Environment, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
f
GreenRE Sdn Bhd, Jalan SS 5d/6, Selangor 47301, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite the advances of modular construction, the comprehensive understanding of its technical aspects in
Modular construction buildings is still limited, especially during the implementation process. This paper reviews the technical aspects
Building industry of planning and coordination of modular construction in the building industry. The unclear onsite and practical
Modular buildings
knowledge need to be clarified for the implementation process. It then leads to the questions on the status of
Technical aspects and requirements
research development and gaps of the technical aspects. One hundred and thirty papers were filtered and
Onsite
Planning analyzed through a systematic review. Four technical aspects of modular construction were found, namely (a)
Coordination feasibility aspects of modular construction, (b) types of construction or materials, (c) design and structural an­
Implementation alyses, and (d) construction planning. The findings render insightful references for the successful delivery of
Systematic review modular construction including its lifecycle analysis and sustainability needs. A research framework is also
developed to highlight the gaps and measures for future practice.

1. Introduction system or units [7]. To make clear the scope and classification, all these
prefabricated elements, systems and units have been referred broadly as
Modular construction is one of Modern Methods of Construction modules for the use in modular buildings in this paper. By stacking
(MMC). Generally, modular (or prefabricated) construction can be modules and connecting them together side-by-side or vertically in
described as producing standardized or prefabricated components of a buildings, this overall approach of modular construction is able to
structure in an offsite factory, then transported and installed them onsite address quality, productivity and coordination issues faced by the con­
[1]. The broad term of “modular construction” has been adopted in this ventional construction methods [3,8].
paper, although this term may also be used interchangeably with other Although modular construction is significantly more beneficial than
terms as per the overlapping offsite or onsite principles. It is because conventional construction methods, it is still limited to a few developed
their processes or systems can be different as per the range of practices in countries and, in general, its adoption rate is still low within the con­
their respective countries, such as offsite construction and offsite struction industry. Although several studies have been conducted on the
manufacturing in United Kingdom and Australia [2,3], Industrial challenges faced by modular construction, most of them were only
Building System in Malaysia [4] prefabricated prefinished volumetric limited in scope [9,10]. For example, some recent review papers focused
construction in Singapore [5,6], and so on. For instance, in the building on the challenges in high-rise modular buildings [8,11], sustainability
industry, modular buildings can be described as the end products of aspects of modular construction [3], lean principles in modular con­
modular construction. However, they can be formed by a range of struction [12], and the overall performance of modular buildings [13].
components that are pre-assembled in the offsite factory as per their There is still a lack of comprehensive reviews for technical aspects of
degree of prefabrication or three classes of prefabricated construction, implementation in modular construction. In which, technical aspects are
namely, 1D single elements, 2D panelized systems and 3D volumetric defined in this paper as onsite and practical knowledge for project

* Corresponding author at: School of Engineering Audit, Nanjing Audit University, Nanjing 211815, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.-Y. Chong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104455
Received 19 March 2022; Received in revised form 18 June 2022; Accepted 22 June 2022
Available online 1 July 2022
0926-5805/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

requirements that are necessary for overall planning and coordination of planning. Section 4 discusses the involvement of stakeholders and
modular construction. Hence, the research development of these tech­ research framework for addressing research gaps and challenges. Sec­
nical aspects (hereinafter referred as technical developments) requires tion 5 concludes the review by highlighting the contributions and lim­
further investigations, especially from the perspective of buildings that itations of the paper.
are relatively common for their application of modular construction in
the industry. 2. Review approach and strategies
The aim of this paper is then to provide a comprehensive review for
technical aspects of planning and coordination of modular construction Systematic review was adopted as the core review approach in this
in the building industry. The underlaying objectives are to (a) review the paper. It was supported by scientometric analysis as part of the review
current status of technical developments in modular construction, and process to identify the overall research trend and patterns of research in
(b) develop a research framework to address the gaps for onsite planning modular construction. This preliminary approach of scientometric
and coordination of modular construction in the building industry. A analysis is to ensure a quality and objective assessment of the published
systematic review approach was employed to narrow down the scope articles [14] as well as to provide some quantitative characteristics
and source of information for the review. In which, the non-technical before the detailed analysis [15]. Hence, the strategy of this review
aspects of modular construction would be excluded including but not would attempt to leverage the results of scientometric analysis first
limited to generic management actions, influential or success factors, before carrying out the detailed review and analysis via the approach of
and pure or non-empirical driven managerial strategies (including their systematic review.
benefits, challenges, constraints, etc.). This review is of significance in As per the need for the current status of technical developments in
identifying the required practical and technical knowledge for the suc­ modular construction, the academic publications collected were articles
cessful delivery and implementation of modular construction in the published recently or at least in the last five years at the time of writing
building industry. this review paper from August 2021. The articles were searched in the
Section 2 of this paper explains the approach of this review. Section 3 databases of SCOPUS first then Web of Science because these databases
presents the results and findings of this review and is subdivided into provide peer-reviewed indexed publications which are well-regarded by
several sub-sections including feasibility of modular construction, ma­ researchers worldwide. When searching the database of SCOPUS, the
terial selection, design and structural analyses, and construction keywords used were “modular construction” and “modular building”

Fig. 1. Overview of systematic review.

2
Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

separately in the fields of “Engineering”, “Energy”, and “Environmental construction industry.

Science” to ensure the widest coverage in the searching process. The Fig. 3 presents the classification of the publications based on year of
keyword of “modular construction” was meant for the generic coverage publication, which shows an upward trend from January 2016 until
of the construction approach; while “modular building” was meant for August 2021. We then started the review and analysis since August
the final outcome or end product of the construction approach in the 2021. This indicated a growing interest in modular construction among
building industry. Then, all filtered articles were counter-checked again the researchers worldwide, and further investigation is demanded. Fig. 4
in Web of Science to confirm any missing articles. Fig. 1 illustrates an shows that majority of the articles were published in leading peer-
overview of the systematic review process, including the steps of iden­ reviewed journals in the field of building construction, engineering
tification, screening, eligibility and inclusion [16]. For example, books, and/or sustainability such as “Engineering Structures”, “Automation in
theses, reports, and policy documents were not included. According to Construction”, “Journal of Building Engineering”, “Journal of Con­
the results of the first searching, a total of 1249 articles were found. struction Steel Research” and “Journal of Cleaner Production”.
Within these articles, the titles and abstracts were read and screened by The citations of the articles can demonstrate some understanding of
eligibility criteria and the related topics, as per the research area of the trend and research impact of this field. Table 1 shows the top 10
modular construction in the building industry. After excluding the ar­ cited documents among the filtered 130 articles. Most of the highly cited
ticles in different engineering disciplines or duplications, 176 publica­ articles were dominated by empircal and experimental studies as per the
tions were filtered. Finally, after more detailed screening, by the full text need for this review, namely, Fiorino et al. [17], Kamali and Hewage
using the same criteria, a total of 130 articles were chosen for the [18], Song and Sakao [19], Hong et al. [20], Chen et al. [21], and Hwang
review.

3. Results and findings 50

45
40
3.1. Scientometric analysis

No. of Articles
35
30
This section presents the results of scientometric analysis. Biblio­ 25
metric properties of all the collected articles were analyzed to investi­ 20
gate the current is okay state and evolution of knowledge surrounding 15
the topic of modular construction in the building industry. Fig. 2 illus­ 10
trates the co-authorship between the countries. The research leaders in 5
0
terms of number of publications on the topic are US, China, Australia,
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Canada, Germany, UK, South Korea, Hong Kong, Japan, and Singapore.
Year of Publication
This demonstrated the interest of developed countries in implementing
modular construction for more efficient, sustainable, and cleaner Fig. 3. Frequency of articles by year of publication.

Fig. 2. Co-authorship between countries.

3
Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Number of Article by Journal Published

Transportation Research Procedia
Thin-Walled Structures
Sustainable Cities and Society
Sustainability
Structures
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences
Procedia Engineering
Materials Today: Proceedings
Materials
Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology
Journal of Constructional Steel Research
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
Journal of Cleaner Production
Journal of Building Engineering
Journal of Architectural Engineering
International Journal of Construction Management
International Journal of Building Pathology and...
Heliyon
Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management
Engineering Structures
Engineering Failure Analysis
Energy for Sustainable Development
Energy & Buildings
Construction and Building Materials
Composite Structures
Buildings
Automation in Construction
Applied Sciences
0 10 20 30

Fig. 4. Frequency of articles by sources.

et al. [6]. Nevertheless, some of them were the review papers to address
Table 1
the contemporary issues of modular construction or modular buildings
The top 10 cited documents.
at that period of time, such as Kamali and Hewage [18], Lacey et al.
No Citations Article title Year Authors [22], Ferdous et al. [8], and Hu et al. [3].
1 159 Life cycle performance of 2016 Kamali M., Hewage Besides, the analysis of keyword co-occurrence was conducted to
modular buildings: A critical K. [18] study the main themes discussed in the publications. As presented in
review
Fig. 5, four preliminary groups were identified. The first group includes
2 139 Barriers to promoting 2018 Hong J., Shen G.Q.,
prefabricated construction in Li Z., Zhang B., “costs”, “manufacture”, “optimization”, “cost benefit analysis”, “con­
China: A cost–benefit analysis Zhang W. [20] struction industry, etc. The second group includes “structural design”,
3 130 A customization-oriented 2017 Song W., Sakao T. “buildings”, “design”, “structural systems”, “performance assessment”,
framework for design of [19] etc. The third group includes “structural analysis”, “stiffness”, “struc­
sustainable product/service
system
tural design”, “experimental study”. etc. The forth group includes
4 112 New advancements, challenges 2019 Ferdous W., Bai Y., “modular buildings”, “modular structures”, “structural performance”,
and opportunities of multi- Ngo T.D., Manalo etc.
storey modular buildings – A A., Mendis P. [8] These groups including the analysis of citations are merely to un­
state-of-the-art review
cover the overall and recent trend of the research in modular con­
5 94 Shake table tests of a full-scale 2017 Fiorino L., Macillo
two-story sheathing-braced V., Landolfo R. [17] struction. Yet, they are important to provide certain guidance in scoping
cold-formed steel building out the detailed review and analysis on technical developments in the
6 92 Structural response of modular 2018 Lacey A.W., Chen building industry as per the aim of the review. For example, the first
buildings – An overview W., Hao H., Bi K. group can be extended to the detailed analysis on the feasibility of
[22]
modular construction at the beginning stage of project development.
7 88 Development of performance 2017 Kamali M., Hewage
criteria for sustainability K. [23] Next, the second group can relate to the strategic management on the
evaluation of modular versus right type of modular construction or structural systems after the
conventional construction feasibility aspect. The third group is quite straightforward for the
methods
technical design and analysis of modular construction. The last group
8 84 Key constraints and mitigation 2018 Hwang B.-G., Shan
strategies for prefabricated M., Looi K.-Y. [6] can be extended to the actual implementation and planning for modular
prefinished volumetric construction into the end products onsite as modular structures or
construction modular buildings. The detailed process of systematic review is dis­
9 79 Sustainability perceptions of off- 2019 Hu X., Chong H.-Y., cussed in the following section.
site manufacturing stakeholders Wang X. [3]
in Australia
10 78 Experimental study on interior 2017 Chen Z., Liu J., Yu
3.2. Systematic review
connections in modular steel Y. [21]
buildings
This section is the core review and analysis of the filtered articles
based on the approach of systematic review. Four technical aspects of

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Fig. 5. Keyword co-occurrence with 4 preliminary groups.

the overall planning and coordination of modular construction were methods and low standardization [28]. These deficiencies can be
found and extended from the literature synthesis based on the above- reduced by improving the design guidelines, training skilled workers,
mentioned groups, namely, (a) feasibility aspects of modular construc­ increasing the interest from investors, better transportability, and more
tion, (b) types of construction or materials, (c) design and structural reliable connections between modules [8]. Usage of construction ro­
analyses, and (d) construction planning. Their respective keywords and botics in modular construction can also be beneficial; a well-designed
focuses of the articles had been further analyzed and categorized as per integrated system was demonstrated in Yang et al. [119].
the technical developments of modular construction in the building in­
dustry as shown in Table 2. A couple of articles were excluded in the 3.2.1.2. Stakeholder challenges. The construction industry has faced
analysis as per their unfit scope and contents for this review. difficulties in increasing the adoption rate of modular construction
Generally, the technical aspect of feasibility of modular construction across the globe. Some of the barriers were identified in the research
is to assess the benefits and viability of modular construction for various conducted in the countries that had practiced modular construction for
stakeholders including cost implications at the outset of the project decades. From the SWOT analysis conducted in the US, the major hin­
development. Then, type of construction, design and structural analyses drances of modular housing were: uncertain market demand, codes and
are subsequent technical issues and challenges that need to be addressed regulations, negative perception by the public and economies of scale
during the planning stage. The technical aspect of construction planning [33]. In Singapore, a low adoption rate of modular building was caused
is crucial for effective implementation of modular construction during by ineffective onsite storage, high upfront payments, and logistical is­
the construction process. Fig. 6 illustrates an overview of the scope of sues [3]. From a survey conducted among manufacturers and contrac­
technical aspects of modular construction. tors in Malaysia, the major barriers were the high initial cost and lack of
technical expertise [26].
3.2.1. Feasibility aspects of modular construction Some research has suggested mitigation measures to help resolve the
The selection of construction methods, either conventional or challenges when choosing the modular method. For instance, one study
modular, is largely dependent on the benefits and shortcomings of identified that over 70% of the failures occurring in modular construc­
different methods. This section compares modular and traditional tion are due to one of the four factors: poor variability management,
methods, as well as the stakeholder challenges, cost benefits and policies poor stakeholder and supply chain management, lack of knowledge, and
relating to modular construction in the building industry. late commitment [37]. With the improvement of the aforementioned
factors, together with better standardization and benchmarking during
3.2.1.1. Comparison with conventional methods. The benefits and short­ mass production, modular construction can be improved significantly
comings of modular construction have always been compared to con­ [32]. Other strategies proposed to improve modular construction
ventional methods, as the stakeholders wish to have some insight into include collaboration between stakeholders, BIM adoption and training
the effects of adopting it, from different perspectives. For example, they of the project team [6].
can refer to case studies of modular construction adopted in many
countries including China, Hong Kong, Russia, and the US, covering 3.2.1.3. Cost benefit. When compared to other construction methods,
affordable residential housing projects and commercial hotel buildings modular construction seems more cost-effective in the long term, how­
[25]. When compared to traditional methods, modular construction was ever, there would be large initial investment costs involved. The general
more environmentally friendly and cost effective [34]. In a study con­ cost breakdown of a modular building would comprise: materials
ducted in the UK, a modular house can cost 22% less compared to a (including steel and concrete) (26–60%), labor (17–30%) and trans­
conventional building, which is favorable for affordable housing pro­ portation (10%) [20]. When compared to panelized construction, the
jects [38]. Besides this, modular construction can half the construction modular approach was only 11% more cost effective [24]. Other
period [40], as demonstrated by the rapid construction of hospitals research, comparing reinforced concrete construction using cast in-situ,
during the pandemic emergency. However, some major hindrances precast and modular approaches, showed that modular construction was
faced by the modular construction industry include immature policies most efficient when considering quality, time, cost and safety [39].
and regulations, deficiency of expertise, the domination of traditional Another cost factor for modular construction was overseas fabrication,

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

as there may be restrictions on factory site selection or difficulty in

obtaining raw materials in the local area. Although the total cost of

articles
overseas fabrication was usually higher compared to local fabrication,

No. of
the better solution of importing overseas-fabricated components and

27

18

68

36
then assembling them into large modules at a local site has been pro­

[54,56,57,95–109]
posed, to be more cost-effective [123]. An optimization model can help
to achieve balance between the total cost and the functional perfor­

[42,53–58]
mance of the floor plan [136].

[130–138]
[40–42]
2021
3.2.1.4. Policy. Another factor that greatly affects the readiness of in­
dustry players to participate in modular construction is government

[11,13,35,47–49,51,52,75–94]
policy. Singapore, which is regarded as being the country with the
highest adoption rate, has a more-developed policy system for modular
construction [36]. National goals, technical specifications, incentives,
regulations and support related to modular buildings have all been
implemented in a well-designed manner to enable the industry to move
[35,122–129]
[9–11,31–39]

toward modular construction with less confusion and doubt. Incentive

policies and standardization can help to promote modular construction
[47–52]
2020

[29]. In fact, one of the main factors causing the low adoption rate in
China is the fact that there are insufficient policies and regulations [28].
[3,8,12,74,119–121]

3.2.2. Type of construction or materials

There are varied types of modular construction to be considered at
[12,67–74]

the outset of the coordination and implementation process. The material

[8,29,30]

used to construct modular buildings has to be selected for the specific

2019

purpose of modular construction, i.e., it has to be lightweight and easy to

transport and handle on site. In this context, a modular house using
lightweight steel is superior, as it can be constructed faster, with more
[6,20,27,28]

[22,62–66]

[114–118]

consistent quality control and less wastage than a conventional house.

2018

3.2.2.1. Lightweight steel. By only using high strength bolts as connec­

tors, an assembled-type steel modular house shows good deformation
[46,111–113]

capacity and higher stiffness, fulfilling the code for low rise buildings in
[17,45,46]

[84]. Compared to conventional hot-rolled steel, the use of cold-formed

[19,23]

[21,61]
2017

steel in modular buildings can significantly reduce the project cost (by
up to 23%), while providing better story shear and story drift; at the
same time, the environmental and social impact is also reduced [54].
[43,44,59,60]

Using cold-formed steel can reduce the total weight per meter length by
[18,110]
[24–26]

[43,44]

up to 24%, without compromising the structural capacity [42]. Incor­

2016
Year

porating cold-formed steel into modular buildings also has the potential
to provide lighter members with up to 65% improvement in flexural
capacity, when using an optimized section [51]. Under European project
Integration with digital technology; project optimization;
Lightweight steel; concrete and steel-concrete composite;

INNO3DJOINTS, a hybrid modular system, consisting of a cold-formed

logistical considerations; environmental sustainability
Multi-story construction; connection design; seismic
Comparison with conventional method; stakeholder

steel column and horizontal truss jointed by a plug-and-play connec­

tion, was developed and tested and it was shown that this system can
response; collapse mechanism; fire resistance

achieve faster execution time with similar cost [107].

3.2.2.2. Concrete and steel-concrete composite. Aside from bare cold-

timber and steel-timber composite

formed steel, concrete material can also be used in modular buildings.

Categorization of articles based on the technical aspects.

challenges; cost benefit; policy

Often used in traditional construction, a modular concrete structure can

provide better performance, in terms of cost, quality and time, compared
to regular cast in-situ or even precast methods [39]. A case study of a 40-
story building with modular concrete walls and core, showed that the
Keyword/Focus

structural system was capable of fulfilling the Hong Kong code re­
quirements for wind loading [99]. Steel-concrete composite can be used
in connection with modular construction, by fulfilling some design re­
quirements, such as concrete strength, geometrical dimension, and bolt
distance [57]. Some of the aspects which need to be improved, for the
use of steel-concrete composite in high-rise modular buildings, have
Types of construction or
modular construction

been addressed, including lightweight modular units, longer span units,

Construction planning
Design and structural
Feasibility aspects of

faster joint instalment, and higher lateral stability and robustness in

Technical aspect

high-rise construction [74].

materials

analysis

3.2.2.3. Timber and steel-timber composite. Timber modular buildings

Table 2

can be attractive for a project where the construction timber is

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Fig. 6. Overview of the scope of technical aspects of modular construction.

accessible. A timber structure system can be designed to fulfil the load formation, in which the current codes also overestimate its ductility
requirements in accordance with Portuguese Standards, for example [97]. Research on mid to high-rise modular buildings has been con­
[50]. A timber column can be reinforced using fiber reinforced polymer ducted to investigate the performance of their structural system. The
(FRP) to achieve a 69% increase in strength and a 436% increase in wind performance of an 18-story modular building with a concrete core
stiffness [53]. A timber structure with well-designed connections can showed that it could fulfil design specifications, with a viscoelastic
withstand lateral seismic loading during an earthquake event [55]. By damper installed that further increased the hysteretic performance by
choosing appropriate connections, a prefabricated steel-timber hybrid 25% [49]. A 20-story modular steel building has also been tested with
structure can achieve an acceptable seismic response during finite five different module layouts, to compare their seismic responses. The
element simulations and provide lightweight properties at the same time results of the failure analysis showed that the intermediately staggered
[43]. Isolated steel-timber composite flooring has also been developed module can provide the most favorable mode of inter-story drift [81]. In
and the bearing capacity and stiffness have been tested by experimental Singapore, a simplified translational spring model was proposed to
and finite element analysis, using both mechanical connections and model the load transfer behavior of a 40-story Prefabricated Prefinished
epoxy resin [45]. Compared to bare cold-formed steel, the steel-timber Volumetric Construction (PPVC) building [103]. Besides this, in an
composite beam showed 20% greater bending strength [58]. In fact, a attempt to utilize modular construction in a high-rise building, a 40-
modular timber building can be coupled with floor isolation and a re- story modular building was modeled in finite element software, using
centering technique, to provide more than 50% improvement in a hybrid coupled wall system and a precast shear wall as the main lateral
seismic protection [48]. The use of timber modular buildings can also force resisting system, and was found to withstand very rare earthquake
help to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, especially as the story height and wind loading in Hong Kong [52] [79].
increases [135].
3.2.3.2. Connection design. Connections are critical to the structural
3.2.3. Design and structural analyses design for modular construction in the building industry. Of the papers
The design and structural analyses of modular buildings were studied in this review, a total of 31 papers discussed the connections,
different from the traditional building method as there is a major dif­ with up to 27 papers focusing on inter-modular connections. Inter-
ference in how the building components connect and interact with each modular connections must consider the installation mechanism, safety
other. This section describes the common issues concerning modular and workability, load transfer path, and seismic performance under
buildings, including multi-story considerations, connection design, dynamic environments. Different types of inter-module connections
seismic response, collapse mechanisms and fire resistance. were studied and compared in previous research [13] [94]. Table 3
shows the selected connections that are from the more recent findings in
3.2.3.1. Multi-story construction. As the height of buildings increases, this field.
the difficulties in constructing modular buildings become more chal­ Modular buildings are constructed by stacking individual modules
lenging. From the publications reviewed, 26 papers discussed the tech­ and connecting them with inter-modular connections for effective load
nical aspects of multi-story design of modular buildings to tackle the transfer. The modular connection should be externally accessible, for
issue in high-rise construction. safe and easy access to the connection points, but without compromising
Regarding the structural performance of modular buildings, the structural integrity [8]. Hence, it is important for the connection to be
ductility and strength of a modular system will be reduced as the height easy to install and to require minimal on-site work, for increased project
of the modular building increases [101]. Besides, a high rise modular safety and less labor time. For instance, a new type of frame-supporting
building would need special consideration as it is more vulnerable to modular building was proposed using removable modules slotted into a
structural damage under severe earthquakes, due to the column hinge permanent structural frame by a rail system, which is more flexible in

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Table 3 exhibits enhanced seismic performance with greater flexural resistance,

Inter-module connections reviewed in this study. rotational stiffness, flexural deformation, and ductility [86]. A post-
Reference Connection type Illustration tensioned tie rod inter-module connection was proposed to minimize
site work for easier assembly; isolated testing showed that this connec­
[78] Rail system
tion exhibited greater initial load-slip stiffness and its shear, axial and
moment-rotation behavior can be represented by a simplified model
[70,88]. Another tenon-connected inter-module connection can resist
earthquakes in accordance with Australian requirements, but the design
[75] Plate connector should be improved to withstand more extreme earthquakes, such as
those specified in the New Zealand standard [102]. A plug-in self-lock­
ing inter-module connection, that can be installed mid-column, was
proposed by Dai et al. [69] and its seismic performance was tested. The
splice connection is capable of transferring vertical loads with a satis­
[21] Plug-and-play connection
factory tolerance for imperfections in the full-scale testing of a corner-
supported modular building [95]. Since there are many types of inter-
modular connection available for engineers to choose from, a Modular
Integrating System (MIS) has been developed for choosing the most
suitable inter module connection, to improve the installation process,
construction tolerance and structural integrity of modular buildings
[70] Post-tensioned connection
[62].
Discontinuities in the connections of modular buildings will often be
linked to structural weak spots, especially during a seismic event. Nu­
merical analysis of multiple inter-module connections found that the
translational stiffness of the vertical inter-module connections is the
[89] Rotary inter-module largest contributor to seismic performance in modular buildings [76].
connection However, seismic testing of the connections for an assemble-type light-
steel modular house showed better ductility than conventional con­
nections and the design can fulfil the Chinese code [83]. Steel inter-
module bolted joints can achieve good ductility, moment capacity and
energy dissipation in a seismic event, by incorporating a resilient layer
[86] Hunched connection [72,105].
Some of the research work that has been carried out, focused on
other connections within modular buildings. When investigating
different interfacial connections in a corner-supported modular build­
ing, it was found that the failure modes of the laminated beams (floor
beams of the upper module and ceiling beams of the lower module) were
largely dependent on the interfacial connection between beams [91].
Aside from the interfacial connection, an embedded steel column-to-
terms of the removal or renewal of existing modules [78]. An innovative foundation connection was tested through an experiment and finite
connection which can be installed from inside a modular building has element analysis under dynamic loading [77]; the embedded length of
also been developed and tested under dynamic loading, to obtain its the steel column was formulated.
loading capacity and failure mechanism [75]. Welding can also be Some of the limitations of existing connections have been high­
avoided as the quality of the weld is highly dependent on workmanship. lighted in several research papers. The existing inter-module connec­
The inter-module connection can be installed as a beam-to-beam bolted tions of a typical container-like modular building can only withstand an
joint, to allow access to the installation from inside the module via an 8-degree frequent earthquake or 7-degree rare earthquake under the
opening in the wall panel [21]. A fully bolted beam-column connection Chinese code specification in a finite element simulation. This indicates
for a modular steel building can be constructed with less workmanship that more robust connections are necessary in earthquake regions
and easier serviceability, compared to welding [100]. Besides this, a exposed to higher intensity events [87]. The theoretical formulation for
post-tensioned inter-module connection for a vertical column can strength and stiffness in existing codes of practice, such as Eurocode
replace on-site welding with the same lateral resistance as a typical 1993-1-8, could be improved to give a more accurate representation of
welded connection [63,73]. Although welding is avoided, a more inter-module connection [80]. Research has also found that the effective
aesthetically pleasing bolted connection can still be designed with length factor of the column in modular construction is different from
improved ductility [64]. An interlocking inter-module connection using that in a conventional structure, particularly in a corner-supported
a welded plate, but only requiring an on-site bolted assembly, has also modular building, due to the different load mechanism of inter-
been proposed by developing a simplified model, in terms of its shear, module connections [104]. The semi-rigid inter-module connection of
axial and moment-rotation behaviors [98]. a modular building required a different formulation for critical buckling
In recent years, various types of inter-modular connections have load and effective length factor of columns because there is disconti­
been designed to cater for more sophisticated construction scenarios. A nuity along the column, compared to conventional framing [109].
new rotary inter-modular connection has been tested in a full-scale
experiment [71,89,93]. Its rotational and lateral stiffness were ob­ 3.2.3.3. Seismic response. The seismic resistance of modular buildings is
tained with a simplified model and formulation for the tensile and also important, especially in earthquake-prone regions. Together with
shearing bearing capacities was developed. A cross-shaped plug-in connection design, seismicity was the main focus of the research into the
connection with haunch bracing was developed to achieve more precise structural perspectives of modular buildings, with 31 papers discussing
installation [96]. This connection can also improve bearing capacity by it.
79%, while reducing the residual deformation under cyclic loading (by Design can be related to the vibration response under dynamic load.
95%). A full-scale experiment showed that a hunched connection

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The vibration responses of a volumetric modular steel unit were panel was found to be up to 75% higher than a conventional floor panel,
experimentally tested at full-scale by Rashidi et al. [90], and the finite by introducing the presence of a cavity in the panel design [106].
element model was generated to propose an Equivalent Strut Macro- Another aspect to be considered in the fire resistance of a modular
Model, which considered the effects of wall infill on the dynamic building is the panel material. Modular buildings using glass fiber
properties of modular units. The formulation of the natural vibration reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites and, although they have lower
frequency of a modular building, which is essential in wind load and density and more flexibility than conventional materials, they are more
seismic analysis, was validated with good agreement to finite element susceptible to fire hazards. Research has found that, by adding 5% of
analysis [60]. When Fathieh and Mercan [59] inspected a four-story organic clay into the polymer, the composite panel can fulfil the fire
modular building, it was found that the first story module was sus­ requirements under European Standard EN 13501 [44]. However, only
pected of plastic deformation due to the limited redistribution of inter­ 6 papers were found in this review that discussed fire resistance,
nal forces. therefore more effort should be made to consider this aspect of modular
The seismic resistance of a modular building is largely governed by building design.
both the connection design and stressed-skin design of the shear wall.
When designing a modular building, the stiffening effect of a corrugated 3.2.4. Construction planning
steel wall cannot be ignored, as the lateral stiffness of the modular frame The construction phase is different from conventional methods in
alone was only less than 5% of the overall stiffness of the corrugated that there is more transportation, lifting and inspection work on site.
plate-strengthened wall panels [66]. Testing of a simplified numerical These activities require detailed attention and, with the help of tech­
model of a four-by-four bay, four-story modular steel building found that nology, the workflow for modular construction has become smoother.
increased diaphragm flexibility in the modular building would result in This section considers the integration of modular construction with
different inertial forces and inter-story drift, compared to existing codes digital technology, project optimization and logistics.
of practice [65]. When testing a steel plate shear wall (SPSW), an
enhanced flat SPSW under cyclic loading exhibited ductility and good 3.2.4.1. Integration with digital technology. In recent years, digital
energy dissipation [67]. Besides this, the SPSW can also be corrugated technology, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) became
for higher lateral stiffness. The effect of opening on corrugated SPSW popular in the industry and has been incorporated into modular con­
were investigated under seismic loading. Although the opening would struction [122,128,139]. BIM enables project stakeholders to monitor
reduce the wall stiffness, the ultimate strength and energy dissipation of construction progress by integrating construction technologies, such as
the wall may still be better than a wall without an opening [61]. A high- artificial intelligence (AI), drone, big data and 5G [40]. The utilization of
efficiency analysis model was also developed, to predict the dynamic BIM in modular construction can be dedicated to different project ac­
response of corrugated SPSW, both with and without an opening [92]. tivities for best efficiency [128]. By integrating BIM and 3D laser scan­
SPSW can be infilled with a concrete core to become a modular steel- ning into modular construction, quality inspection time can be reduced,
concrete composite shear panel, in which the seismic response can be on-site reworking can be avoided, and more reliable construction data
tested in a scaled experiment and its shear capacity derived [56]. could be provided [122]. 3D scanning can shorten the time required for
In addition to incorporating SPSW into module design, an integrated the energy simulation to within 24 h [112]. Such early design planning
modular system can be designed to help the module remain in place can be beneficial as, by evaluating the dimensional and geometric
during a seismic event. In order to improve seismic performance of tolerance of a modular construction, with consideration given to initial
modular buildings, an innovative wall track slider system has been costs and associated risks, total project cost could be reduced [111].
developed and tested, showing that the track could become rougher with Using BIM has also been proved to shorten 74% of construction time and
a loading cycle during an earthquake scenario, helping to stabilize the save 7% of overall cost, together with reduced environmental impact
module [108]. Furthermore, seismic-resistant modular panels, termed [113]. Although BIM can be used to optimize the modularization of the
‘SCMP-RHDs’ (self-centering modular panels with replaceable hysteretic building design, users must take note that the required input data has to
dampers), have been developed and the numerical analysis showed that be translated into the format supported by the software [110]. The
the structure can be re-centered during a maximum earthquake event adoption of other digital technology (such as virtual reality, artificial
[85]. intelligence, and photogrammetry) is encouraged because it can
improve effective modular construction [125].
3.2.3.4. Collapse mechanism. Aside from the number of modules that
can be stacked vertically, the collapse mechanism of high-rise modular 3.2.4.2. Project optimization. Apart from BIM, some computer algo­
buildings is also crucial in risk assessment. Progressive collapse of rithms can be written to optimize certain tasks in modular construction.
corner-supported modular buildings was generally caused by the shear For example, the logistical supply chain configuration of a modular
failure of horizontal connections between modules in the damaged bays construction can be optimized using multi-stage stochastic program­
and adjacent bays, using pinned connections could be sufficient to ming, resulting in lower costs with less associated project risk, such as
achieve acceptable robustness [82]. The collapse resistance of a modular reduced air pollution, noise and vibration from less lorry traffic
building can be increased by some mitigation measures, including [116,121,129]. The volume of construction waste can be reduced by
increased corner size and vertical ties, usage of wall bracing, inter- 2.0% to 8.5% via an optimization algorithm developed on the Rhinoc­
module connections with sufficient rotational stiffness, a stronger edge eros 3D–Grasshopper platform [115]. The balance between carbon
module and an increased number of modules per floor [68]. The footprint and economic cost can be achieved, as demonstrated by
coupling action between beams in two adjacent stories can also increase another two-period, multi-objective optimization model [138]. A semi-
the bearing capacity and stiffness of modular buildings due to the optimum lift planning algorithm was developed by Bagheri et al. [130]
presence of interfacial forces [47]. which can reduce total cost by 50% by optimizing the lift configuration
with minimum relocation; this also led to less idle time and a shorter
3.2.3.5. Fire resistance. As most modular buildings use steel as the project period, reducing overhead costs. Another automated algorithm
predominant material, the fire resistance of modular buildings requires has also been developed to optimize crane planning by calculating the
more attention than conventional concrete structures at the design optimized path and lift sequence, most-feasible crane positions and
stage. It was found that the fire resistance of a steel-framed module can potential risks for different crane configurations [114].
be improved by using staggered, slotted-perforation cold-formed steel The optimization of modular construction scheduling is vital to
joists [42]. The fire resistance of a modular light-gauge steel frame floor maximizing both its economic and environmental benefits. By adopting

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

the concept of ‘Lean Production’ in Singapore PPVC, simulation showed 4.1. Current status of modular construction
that the project would benefit from reduced processing times, increased
resource utilization, decreased work-in progress (WIP) levels, improved The study of modular construction has increased substantially in
process efficiency and increased labor productivity [120]. Besides, by recent years [35] and majority of the research works were conducted in
optimizing the modular construction by giving consideration to the developed countries such as the US, China, and UK. Compared to
production period and area constraints, the simulation showed that the traditional construction methods, modular construction could achieve
bottleneck in the production process can be eliminated, leading to better balance in its overall performance, in terms of time, cost and work
increased efficiency and shorter production periods [127]. Multi- quality [39]. The modular approach could help to alleviate the current
objective optimization can help to decrease the project duration and housing supply shortage as it can provide affordable houses at less cost
labor costs in the production line [133]. Some critical tasks, such as and at a faster pace [38]. This is particularly relevant for projects where
heavy lifting by mobile crane, can be optimized for the shortest path the housing needs to be provided in bulk over a short period, such as
with the cost, collision and worker safety concerns validated as in the post-disaster shelters or hostel dorms; modular buildings could be more
case study by Kayhani et al. [132]. A breakthrough in crane operations attractive and more efficient. Besides, modular construction is also
and planning research in modular construction was proposed, to becoming popular in high-density cities such as Hong Kong and
improve the efficiency of modular construction, including its usage in Singapore. Some government policies and incentives would also pro­
congested or dynamic construction, clash prediction for multi-crane mote the use of modular construction in the industry [36].
erection, risk management, automation using robotics, and real time From a technical design standpoint, high rise modular buildings
schedule optimization [41,124,131]. (more than 20 stories) become more feasible, as demonstrated in the
different case studies [52,103]. The use of cold-formed steel sections
3.2.4.3. Logistical considerations. Another unique aspect to pay atten­ could reduce the overall module weight without compromising on
tion to in modular construction is the logistical arrangements of the strength [84]. Some new, bolted inter-modular connections have been
modules. It is crucial to have efficient logistics as the transportation cost developed to avoid the need for welding and provide easier installation
was listed as the largest hindrance in prefabricated construction in China but with acceptable structural capacity [21] [69]. Developments in
[31]. With transportation limitation being the major aspect that controls connections and wall panel design have helped modular buildings to
module dimensions, the need for experienced personnel for trucking and withstand seismic events [83,85]. The fire resistance of modular build­
suitable crane selection, location, lifting and positioning were essential ings could also fulfil international standards [44]. Besides, the de­
to deliver more effective modular construction [134]. The transported velopments in computing and the latest technology have improved the
modules will have been subjected to vibration due to the movement of planning and execution of modular construction projects. The efficiency
lorries on uneven roads. The maximum allowable acceleration acting on of modular construction has been improved with the integration of the
the module transported on truck trailers was analyzed numerically latest digital technology, such as BIM and 3D scanning [112,113,122].
[117]. Research found that the critical speed for the module ranged With the development of computing algorithms, construction waste can
between 41 km/h and 79 km/h. The same research also found that be reduced and crane optimization (for lower scheduled risks) can be
plasterboard was more prone to significant damage or irreversible achieved [130,132]. With respect to environmental sustainability, a
damages [126]. The disturbance of a module during transportation modular building would have lower embodied energy and greenhouse
could cause up to 8 mm displacement in module components and lead to gas emissions [30]. With suitable design and insulation, a modular
crack damage on the module [137]. The environmental impact would house can reduce energy consumption but maintain satisfactory comfort
also be affected, as the carbon reduction in modular construction is [27]. These advantages can help the owner to have lower operational
closely related to the transportation distance [30]. costs without compromising on living quality.

3.2.4.4. Environmental sustainability. One of the factors used to promote 4.2. Research framework
the adoption of modular construction in the industry is better sustain­
ability compared to conventional methods [35]. From an environmental A research framework is developed to highlight the critical gaps and
perspective, modular building was believed to be capable of reducing measures for the technical aspects of modular construction in the
energy and pollution during construction. A modular building has better building industry, as illustrated in Fig. 7. The framework is based on the
life cycle energy performance compared to a conventional building [18]. recent technical aspects and research developments of modular con­
The use of nanotechnology in the building envelope can improve energy struction from the coordination and implementing process, including
saving and indoor visual comfort of a modular building [46]. The form certain implications in modular buildings. First of all, from the
of the building in a modular house would not affect overall building perspective of the feasibility study, this review discovered that the
energy performance, as studies suggest that larger windows and better current policies of modular construction in different countries are
thermal insulation will have a greater effect [27]. Modular construction immature and not comprehensive. One of the major challenges faced by
can reduce the greenhouse gases emission by 8.4% [30]. However, the modular construction is immature policy and regulation [18,28]. De­
environmental impact is not the only concern in the construction in­ velopers, builders, designers or even end-users who interested in
dustry. During a survey of construction practitioners, economic con­ modular buildings do not have a clear direction due to the lack of a
siderations are the governing factors for the industry, when choosing nationwide framework. The support from government is essential for the
either a modular or conventional approach. The same study also showed transition toward modular construction. National roadmaps, policies
an increased attention to social sustainability, compared to environ­ and regulations need to be drafted, updated, and improved occasionally
mental concerns [23]. to suit the vibrant technological developments and changes in the in­
dustry. Some subsidies or incentives must be provided, to remove the
4. Discussions financial barriers that prevent developers from adopting modular
building methods [4]. A well-established regulatory framework is
In this section, the current status of modular construction is high­ necessary, which should cover all necessary codes, regulations and
lighted. Different perspectives of stakeholder involvement in delivering approval requirements for all key stakeholders.
modular construction are discussed in a holistic manner. Subsequently, a Subsequently, during the design stage of modular construction, the
research framework is proposed to articulate the gaps and future current material research into modular buildings, most of the studies
research directions. focused on the structural behavior of the material. Studies on other
intrinsic properties of the materials (including density, thermal comfort,

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Y.-W. Lim et al. Automation in Construction 141 (2022) 104455

Fig. 7. Research framework for modular construction in the building industry.

acoustic insulation, and corrosion) are still limited. These properties can establish the dedicated design standard for modular buildings [11]. This
affect user comfort in modular buildings and, in the long term, may guideline can greatly simplify the structural design of modular buildings
degrade the structural performance of the modules; this is a suggested in a systematic manner, increasing the confidence of stakeholders and
topic for further study [54]. With the increased of the interdisciplinary making modular building design universal across the world.
research in this field, more advanced materials (such as glass fibers or Then, during the construction stage, a smoother BIM incorporation is
carbon nanotubes) can be considered when designing modules. Inte­ suggested throughout the process. The introduction of BIM in modular
gration of timber in modular buildings can help to reduce greenhouse construction needs to be more refined, as its adoption is still hindered by
gas emissions [130]. The design of modular buildings should also inconsistency in the data and many parameters require manual input
consider user comfort, such as visual, acoustic and thermal comfort with [110]. An algorithm needs to be written for BIM software, for the
suitable material selection [38]. Moreover, some new connections have automatic correction of errors during data translation and auto-
been proposed to improve the workability and seismic performance of completing missing information from existing databases or cloud stor­
modular buildings. However, most of them have only been tested under age; this concept has been visualized in previous study [141]. The BIM
computer simulations or scaled-down experiments. The actual efficiency software programmer can cooperate with the architect or engineer
of the connections in real world situations could differ from the pre­ involved to develop a tailored BIM software variant for modular con­
dictions and, thus, require validation via actual testing [43,75]. More struction. Moreover, the optimization algorithms developed in many
full-scale physical testing needs to be carried out on new connection research works were limited to a specific type of modular buildings,
designs. Such connection testing could be beneficial for both structural which cannot be representative for construction worldwide [127]. These
and cost analysis, as the validation testing can help to limit over­ algorithms cannot cater for unpredicted scenarios that differ from the
designing the connections, as suggested in previous literature [22]. The ideal condition assumed during the development of each particular al­
results and other design considerations of the connections can be tabu­ gorithm, the assumption would have been made to restrict the param­
lated so that engineers or designers can select the most suitable eter variation that required a lot of computational time. The algorithms
connection for different types of modular building, based on the re­ developed should be tested with more case studies in different countries.
quirements of each project, i.e., stacking height, total sustained loading, These optimization algorithms can also consider more factors, such as
risk of earthquake and strong wind, workability, or aesthetics. Apart weather forecasts and logistics, to improve the accuracy of the algo­
from that, there were only a few papers that studied the structural rithms and be more-suited to different kinds of scenarios, as suggested
integrity of modules during transportation, which is crucial, as any by many studies [34,118,127].
impact on the module will potentially deteriorate its initial design ca­ In general, some analyses of the modular buildings were limited to
pacity [137]. The enhancement of a module during transport and the certain stages of project development, in which the life cycle analysis
installation should be studied, in order to reduce the induced damage by was not considered completely [142]. The cost and sustainability anal­
the logistics and crane operations. The protection of each module, ysis of modular building should cover until the end of the cycle, e.g.,
particularly plasterboard, has to be considered in order to prevent crack demolition. The analysis of building performance during operation
damage during transportation [132]. More research should focus on stages is important to give a better representation of modular con­
minimizing the vibration on the module or reinforcing the main struc­ struction, when compared to traditional methods, for a building owner
tural components in the module. The reduction factor also needs to be to make decision during the planning stage [138]. Similarly, all di­
included by engineers during the design stage, for the overall strength of mensions of sustainability of modular buildings need to be considered
the modules. Besides, the absence of a recognized design standard has collectively. As the stakeholders and the public are more concerned with
also decreased the interest of stakeholders in adopting the concept of the economic and social viewpoint, the environmental sustainability of
modular building [140]. The engineering practitioner can help to modular buildings has to be studied by the interaction between a social

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