English Morphology
Unit4
Characteristics of the Morpheme
´ The morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in English. One or more morphemes give
us a word.
v Manage + ment = management
v Intend + ing = intending
v dis + locat + ion = dislocation
v in + depend + ent + ly = independently
v un + gramma + tic + al = ungrammatical
´ Morphemes could either be free or bound. A free morpheme has a dictionary meaning.
Content words are examples of free morpheme. Bound morphemes do not have any
meaning independently except being attached to a free morpheme.
The Word in English
´ The word is defined in the dictionary as a single unit of language that has meaning and can
be spoken or written. Words are classified as a certain word – class – noun, adjective, verb,
adjective, adverb, article, preposition, or pronoun as a result of the role it plays in context.
´ A major difference between the morpheme and the word is the fact that the morpheme is
the unit immediately below the word while the word is the unit next in rank on hierarchy to
the morpheme.
´ Also, meaning in the language starts with the unit called ‘word’ whereas the morpheme
maintains non-meaningfulness except for the free morpheme which also qualifies to be
called a word.
Word Classes in English
´ Words are classified as parts of speech in traditional grammar because of the role
they play in a sentence. In modern grammar called word classes.
´ In English, prominence is given to function (that is, what the particular word is
doing in the sentence) more than mere classification.
1. The boxer was defeated in the third round (Noun).
2. The bus driver rounded the corner at 12 noon (Verb).
3. The earth has been proven to be round (Adjective).
4. He showed the president round the two teams. (Adverb).
5. The old woman tied a girdle round her waist. (Preposition).
Nouns
´ A noun is the name of any word that can stand as the subject or object of any sentence.
There are basically four types of nouns. These are:
1. Common Noun: This is the name of any class of persons, places, or even things. For
example, man, woman, room, table, etc.
2. Proper Noun: This is the name of a particular thing or person. For example, Ali, James,
Mary, New York, etc.
3. Abstract Noun: This type of noun denotes qualities or concepts. For example, joy,
goodness, beauty, etc.
4. Collective Noun: This type of noun names a group of things, a whole set, or a collection of
people or things. Their membership is by the common features displayed. For example,
staff, congregation, crowd, electorate, etc.
Verb
´ A verb is that part of a sentence which indicates an action or a state of being carried out by
the subject. It is mandatory in a sentence.
1. Lexical verbs: These are also called main verbs or full verbs because they carry lexical
meanings. All lexical verbs are capable of going through the six forms of a verb
1 base or base infinitive form e.g. Go, dance, sing
2 third person singular Form (-es) goes, dances, sings
3 continuous form (-ing) going, dancing, singing
4 past tense form went, danced, sang
5 participle form gone, danced, sung
6 to infinitive form (to + base) to go, to dance, to sing
Verb
´ Rgular verbs: It has the same form for the past tense (-ed).
Base Past Past participle
Jump Jumped Jumped
Work Worked Worked
Walk Walked Walked
Stop Stopped stopped
´ Irregular verb changes form to form its past tense and past participle.
Base Past Past participle
Ring Rang Rung
take Took Taken
Give Gave Given
Forget Forgot forgotten
Verb
2. Auxiliary verbs: Verbs called auxiliary verbs are so named because they need the presence
of lexical verbs to operate in a sentence. By their name, they are supporting or helping verb.
´ There are two major types of auxiliary verbs
1. Primary Auxiliary Verbs: these are three and they are: BE, HAVE and DO; the three of
them have their sub-forms.
Be Have Do
Finite forms Am, is, are, Has, have, had Do, does,
Was, were did
Non-finite Be, being, Have, having
forms been
Verb
2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: They are also known as secondary and they reflect or indicate the
mood of the speaker in a sentence.
Can I can drive ability
Will I will drive Intention
May You may drive Premission
Must He must drive compulsion
Can Could
Will Would
May might
ought No past tense
Adjective
´ An adjective is a word that describes, qualifies, or tells us more about a noun or pronoun.
v Examples are beautiful, interesting, big, small, round, new, etc.
Ø Attributive Adjectives: the adjective comes before the noun they describe
• Shade has a beautiful dress.
• The brown bag has been stolen.
Ø Predicative Adjectives: The adjective comes after the nouns they describe as in these
examples:
• Shade’s dress is beautiful.
• That leather bag is brown.
Adverb
´ An adverb is a word class that modifies a verb. In other words, it offers more information
about a verb, or the action expressed by the verb.
1 The girl runs fast. Modifies runs
2 He danced well yesterday. Modifies danced
3 The lecturer often teaches. Modifies teaches
´ Morphologically, adverbs can be formed from adjectives by adding (-ly) to such adjectives.
Adjective Adverb
1 easy + ly easily
2 careful + ly carefully
Types of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of place: This kind of adverb tells us where an action takes place. Hence, it
answers the question where? For example,
1. I saw him there. (where did I see him?)
2. The man searched everywhere. (where did the man search?)
3. The thief hid the money somewhere. (where did the thief hide the money?)
2. Adverbs of time:
´ This type of adverb tells us when an action takes place. Thus, it answers the question
when? For example,
1. The match will end soon. (When will the match end?)
2. My father traveled today. (when did my father travel?)
3. The plane leaves for New York tomorrow. (when will the plane leave for New York?)
Types of Adverbs
3. Adverbs of Manner
´ This type of adverb modifies a verb by telling us how the action of the verb was carried
out.
1. The girl sang sonorously. (how did the girl sing?)
2. The team played well. (how did the team play?)
3. The students politely greeted their president. (how did the students greet their
president?)
4. Adverbs of Frequency
´ This type of adverb only indicates the rate of occurrence or the frequency of the occurrence
of an action. For example,
1. He usually goes to school late.
2. Politicians always tell lies.
Types of Adverbs
5. Adverbs of Degree
´ This type of adverb only intensifies or de-intensifies the action of the verb it modifies. For
example
´ This food is so delicious that he ate two plates
´ That load is too heavy for you to carry.
´ I almost forgot to say my prayers.
Comparative Adverb
Ø Some adverbs are compared in the same way with adjectives
Adverb Comparative Superlative
Soon Sooner Soonest
Late later Latest
Adverb Comparative Superlative
Quickly More quickly Most quickly
Carefully More carefully Most carefully
Kindly More kindly Most kindly
Diligently More diligently Most diligently
Comparative Adverb
Ø Some adverbs have a peculiar way of comparing:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
badly worse worst
little less least
Ø Some adverbs cannot be compared at all:
so, ever, never, now, then, too …etc.
Pronoun
´ A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun earlier mentioned in a sentence. This is done to
avoid unnecessary repetition of nouns in a sentence.
1. Personal Pronouns: They are about the most important subclass of pronouns and exhibit
four features:
a) Number: Number subdivides personal pronouns into two: singular, that is, singular
pronouns He, I, it …etc. and plurality, that is, plural pronouns they, we …etc.
b) Gender: - This subdivides personal pronouns into three: masculine pronouns for male –
He; feminine pronouns for female – she; and neuter pronouns for non-living things and
non-humans – it.
Pronoun
c. Case – This subdivides personal pronouns into
three: subjective for subjects; e.g. I, we, etc;
objective for objects; e.g. us, her etc., and
genitive which subdivides into two – adjective
e.g. my, our etc., and possessive e.g. mine, hers,
ours etc.
d. Person: - This subdivides personal pronouns into
three: 1person – the speaker(s); e.g. I we 2nd
person – the person spoken to or the listener e.g.
you, and 3rd person – the person or thing referred
to or spoken about.
Pronoun
2. Indefinite Pronouns: They do not refer to particular things or persons. In other words, they
refer to an indefinite number of people or things.
Most indefinite pronouns are used in the singular number.
´ Everybody is invited to my birthday party.
´ No one knows tomorrow except God.
´ Anything you offer me is good.
´ Someone is not telling the truth in this matter.
´ Each of the players is a champion.
´ Someone should tell this woman to shut up.
Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronouns: They are so named because they refer to another element (pronoun or
noun) earlier mentioned within the clause. In most cases, personal pronouns + self (for
singular) and + selves (plural) give us reflexive pronouns.
Most indefinite pronouns are used in the singular number.
´ The boy killed himself.
´ The students carried out the assignment themselves.
´ Can’t you solve that riddle yourself.
´ Nigerian politicians destroy democracy themselves.
Pronoun
´ 4. Relative Pronouns: These usually link adjectival or relative clauses or rank-shifted
clauses to their antecedents. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the noun that comes
before it. They include who, whom, that, which, whose, what.
´ This is the man whose daughter eloped with a man.
´ The bag that was stolen has been found by the police.
´ The old man who was rushed to the hospital is Mary’s grandfather.
´ The bag which you gave me has lost its value.
´ The man whom we mistook for the Pastor is the Pastor’s friend.
Pronoun
´ 5. Interrogative Pronouns: These are pronouns that we use to ask questions. They
include:- who, whom, why, when, where, which, what, whose. They usually start
interrogative sentences, and these sentences end with a question mark.
´ Who stole my bag?
´ Where are you now?
´ Whose are those pairs of shoes?
´ Which of the items is yours? Why did you do it?
Pronoun
6. Demonstratvie Pronouns: They are pronouns that point out the location of what they
represent. They are, ‘this’ for singular and near object, with ‘these’ as the plural; and ‘that’ for
singular and far objects with ‘those’ as the plural.
´ This is my house.
´ These are my houses.
´ That is a duster.
´ Those are fine cars.
Preposition
A preposition is a word that has the responsibility of showing the relationship that exists
between two elements, especially, nominals in a sentence. They include in, on, for, from, to,
under, around, about, with, by, below, etc.
´ The bird is on the tree.
´ We boarded the bus at the New York bus stop.
´ The match will kick off at 4 pm.
´ You have the honor of choosing between the two oranges.
´ He has lived in America for four years.
´ The ball went over the bar.
´ I met him by the gate this morning.
Conjunction
