Basics of Writing 2

MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UMYERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF BASIC ENGLISH
BASICS OF WRITliVc,
H
Pnepared/Compiled md Edited by
Beniz AtikogM Pmar Tamkut
BASICS OF
WRITING
II
Prepared/Compiled and Edited by

Deniz Atikoglu & Pinar Tankut
Ankara 2007
Middle East Technical University
Department of Basic English
( FOREWORD
This second volume of Basics of Writing is intended to teach students

discourse writing at paragraph level and provide them with ample
practice. The book consists of seven units. The first unit gives general
information about the paragraph, and the second provides students with
the necessary language for interpreting graphs. The remaining five units
focus on different discourses.
The material in this book has been compiled from handouts, quizzes and
midterms, most of which were prepared at DBE for the Intermediate
group in the 2005-2006 academic year.
Although we have prepared the book with the Intermediate students in
mind, we believe that it can be useful for any level student who has
difficulty in discourse writing at paragraph level.
Deniz Atikoglu & Pinar Tankut

Ankara, 2007
( ACKNOWLEDGMENTS )
We wish to express our gratitude to Ay§en Karabag and Necmiye Turkan

for providing us with invaluable advice and materials. Our special thanks
are extended to Burcu Tumer, who prepared wonderful quizzes and
midterms, many of which have been used as tasks in the book. We would
also like to thank Josh Carney for tolerating our never-ending questions.
Additional thanks to everyone who has previously worked in the
Materials Development Unit.
Our continuing thanks to Steve Riva, and especially to Beth Dogan, for
their invaluable proofreading of the material. The book is undoubtedly
better for their efforts.
Finally, we are grateful to all our colleagues for their encouragement and
continuous support. We believe that without their support, it would not
have been possible to prepare this book.
D.A/P.T
( CONTENTS
UNIT 1 THE PARAGRAPH 1
UNIT 2 GRAPH INTERPRETATION 25
UNIT 3 ADVANTAGE-DISADVANTAGE 33
UNIT 4 CAUSE-EFFECT 53
UNIT 5 COMPARISON-CONTRAST 78
UNIT 6 PROBLEM-SOLUTION 105
UNIT 7 ARGUMENTATION 130
REFERENCES 162
( UNIT 1: THE PARAGRAPH ^
HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH
A PARAGRAPH is a small unit of writing that contains information about one idea.
There are two types of paragraphs: CONDENSED PARAGRAPHS and ESSAY

PARAGRAPHS. Although there are similarities between the two types, they
differ from each other in that a condensed paragraph is in fact the condensed
form of an essay. This book focuses on writing condensed paragraphs.
I n general, the topic of the paragraph is introduced in the INTRODUCTORY

SENTENCE. The following sentence states what is going to be discussed in the
paragraph. This sentence is called the TOPIC SENTENCE. The other sentences add
details to the topic. They are called SUPPORTING SENTENCES. Most paragraphs also
have a CONCLUSION, which states a conclusion or summarizes the ideas of the
paragraph. I t is the last sentence of the paragraph.
1
TASK 1: Read the following paragraph and complete the analysis.
Horror Films
Horror films attract audiences all around the world, and although there are
numerous examples of such films, it is not easy to make a horror film. There are
three important factors that should be present in a good horror film. One of
these factors is the atmosphere of terror. For example, there are usually screams
in the background or creepy music in scary movies. I n addition, the colors are
always dark and gloomy. The only vivid color is the color of blood: red. The setting
is another important factor in horror films. The story usually takes place in an old
castle or a big, run-down house full of ghosts. The most important factor in a
successful horror film is the characters. Victims are common people with whom
the audience can identify. On the other hand, villains, or bad men, have very
unusual characteristics with some interesting psychological problems. I n
conclusion, in order to make a successful horror film, the atmosphere, the setting
and the characters should be chosen carefully to scare the audience.
Introductory sentence:
Topic sentence:
Major 1:
Minor 1a:
U) Minor 1b:
0)
O
Major 2:
0)
U)
eg Minor 2a:
o
& Minor 2b:
&
3
W)
Major 3: _ _
Minor 3a:
Minor 3b:
Conclusion:
2
(I) THE INTRODUCTION
A. THE INTRODUCTORY SENTENCE

I n many cases, a paragraph needs an INTRODUCTORY SENTENCE before the topic
sentence. By giving background information, the writer makes a smooth entrance and
familiarizes the readers with the topic. This is particularly true in such discourses as
advantage-disadvantage, compare-contrast, problem-solution, and argumentation. Still,
you can include an introductory sentence whenever you find it necessary.
Please note that while condensed paragraphs need an introductory sentence,
/j\ essay paragraphs don't as essays already have introductory paragraphs that
serve this purpose.
e.g. There are a number of sources of energy available to us, and with the decrease
in fossil fuels, nuclear energy presents itself as an important source.
B. THE TOPIC SENTENCE

The TOPIC SENTENCE is usually, but not always, the sentence that follows the
introductory sentence. I t is the most important sentence of the paragraph because it
controls all the other sentences. The readers can predict what will be discussed in the
paragraph based on the topic sentence. You can think of the topic sentence as being in
control of the whole paragraph. I t shows readers which way they are going, just as a
t r a f f i c sign helps direct drivers.
An effective topic sentence does two things:

• I t introduces the TOPIC of the paragraph.
• I t contains a CONTROLLING IDEA that tells the writer's opinion, attitude, or idea
about the topic.
e.g. Nuclear power is our greatest hope for solving the energy crisis.
topic controlling idea
Nuclear energy is a huge threat to life on the planet.
topic controlling idea
A good topic sentence should not be too general or too specific. I f it is too general,
you will not be able to support the topic in one paragraph. I f it is too specific, you
won't have enough to write about in the rest of the paragraph.
Look at the following topic sentences:

Television is harmful.
This statement is too general to be developed adequately into one paragraph. There is
too much to say about the topic.
Violent scenes on tele vision affect children's psychology negatively.
This statement is too specific to be developed into a paragraph. There isn't enough to
say about the topic.
Watching television too much has several negative effects on children.
I t would be easy to support this sentence in one paragraph. I t is neither too general
nor too specific.
3
There are two types of topic sentences:
(a) CLOSED TOPIC SENTENCES: include only the topic and the controlling idea.
e.g.: There are three causes of roadway crashes.
(b) OPEN TOPIC SENTENCES: include the major points as well as the topic and the
controlling idea.
e.g.: Driver inattention, distraction, and fatigue are the three causes of roadway crashes.
A good paragraph may have a closed or an open topic sentence. I t is the writer who
should decide whether or not to include the major points in the topic sentence.
TASK 2: For each closed topic sentence below, draw a circle around the topic and
underline the controlling idea.
1. Television commercials are often insulting to women.
2. Being a twin has several advantages.
3. E-mail is a great way to stay in touch with your family and friends.
4. The new shopping mall has brought many economic benefits to our community.
5. The clothes we wear often reflect a lot about our personality.

TASK 3: Choose the best topic sentence.
1. . Solar-
powered cars are very expensive because of the high development cost of solar
batteries. I n addition, the cells of the solar batteries can store only limited
amounts of energy. Therefore, solar cars are not practical for driving on long trips.
The biggest problem is the constant need to recharge the cells. This is especially
difficult when one drives on cloudy days and at night-time.
a) Solar-powered cars are expensive
b) There are many advantages and disadvantages of solar energy
c) The future practicality of solar cars depends on overcoming problems with
solar batteries
d) Solar batteries are the key to understanding how solar energy can be used to
drive cars
2. .
Mercury is the hottest planet in the solar system because it is nearest the sun.
Mercury's surface is totally dry and it is so hot that there is no atmosphere. Venus
is the second closest planet to the sun. The hot atmosphere of Venus is similar to
that of Earth, but Venus is so near the sun that there are no bodies of water on its
surface. Earth, the third closest planet to the sun, has a cooler atmosphere that
sustains animals, plants and several bodies of water on its surface.
a) The three planets closest to the sun are Mercury, Venus and Earth
b) Surface and atmospheric conditions vary widely among the three planets
nearest the sun
c) The closer a planet is to the sun, the hotter it is
d) The surface and atmosphere of Earth are different from those of Mars and
Venus
3. . Last
weekend, for example, dozens of people had picnics on Harris Beach. They brought
a lot of food and many cans of soda and had a good time eating and drinking and
playing in the water. The picnickers put some of their trash in the containers in the
park, but they also left a lot of it on the ground. I n the evening, a seagull got
tangled in a plastic bag and suffocated to death. At night, a raccoon put its paw in
an open soda can and cut its leg badly. I t died in the morning.
a) Harris Beach is an ideal place for people to have picnics

b) Picnickers don't always put their trash away
c) Harris Beach is the natural habitat of different species of animals
d) Trash left on picnic areas injures and kills wildlife
5
4. . Most
importantly, girls are not encouraged to play with toys that build up the necessary
skills for problem solving. They are encouraged to play with toys that foster
language skills. Studies have also shown that teachers do not expect girls to be
good at math. Even female math and science teachers pay more attention to boys in
class. Finally, girls do not have many role models to look up to. Not very many math
and science teachers are women. When the media picture mathematicians and
scientists, they usually picture men.
a) Girls are a lot better than boys in language and social skills for several reasons.
b) There are several reasons why girls do not do as well in math and science as
boys do.
c) Although boys are generally better at math, some girls perform a lot better
than boys in science.
d) Despite their low rate in total student population, girls focusing on math do a
lot better than boys.
5. . First,
th
the increasing industrialization of the 19 century resulted in the creation of many
factory jobs, which tended to be located in cities. These jobs attracted many
people from rural areas. Second, there were many schools established to educate
the children of the new factory laborers. The promise of a better education
persuaded many families to move to the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people
established places of leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums,
theaters, and museums. For many people, these facilities have made city life appear
more interesting than life on the farm.
a) There are several factors that make rural areas ideal places to live in.
b) The decrease in rural populations caused many people to move to urban areas.
c) The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century has had a negative effect on
farming.
d) There are three main reasons that have contributed to the increase in urban
populations.
6. . The
summers in the Northern Aegean Region are warm. I t is never exceedingly hot.
Unlike the Southern Aegean Region, the humidity rate is lower in the north.
Therefore, it never becomes difficult to breathe. The winters, too, are mild. I t is
never too cold. Since the humidity rate is again lower in the winter than it is in the
south, even the coldest time of the year is not unbearable. To sum up, these
climatic features make the Northern Aegean Region a more convenient area to live
for the elderly.
a) The climates of Northern and Southern Aegean Regions are different from
each other.
b) The Northern and Southern Aegean Regions have a climate that attracts many
people.
c) The Aegean Region has a mild climate, making it ideal for elderly people.
d) The climate of the Northern Aegean Region is ideal for elderly people.
6
TASK 4: Write a suitable topic sentence for each of the paragraphs below.
First of all, some of the programs may affect children's psychology negatively. For
example, there are many police stories on televisions, in which people are killed
violently. Seeing such scenes may cause children to have violent tendencies.
Second, television can affect children's reading ability. Reading requires skills and
brain processes that watching television does not. I f children spend more time
watching television than they do reading, they will not develop good reading skills.
Finally, television might be a negative influence on children's social skills. I f
children spend a lot of time in front of the television, they will not have much time
left to socialize with friends. Growing up in front of the television, children may
grow into anti-social adults. Although it has an educational value, television does
have negative effects on youngsters.
2.
First of all Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access
to medical services at a reasonable price. I t also has a high standard of education.
Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue
studying at university. I n addition, Canada's cities are nice and clean. They have
many parks and lots of space for people to enjoy. To sum up, Canada is a desirable
place to live.
3.
First, they are fast. They can work with information much more quickly than
humans. Second, computers can work with lots of information at the same time.
Third, they can keep information for a long time. Finally, computers are almost
always correct. They are not perfect, of course, but they usually do not make
mistakes.
7
(II) SUBJECT DEVELOPMENT: SUPPORTING YOUR POINT
After you have stated your point in the topic sentence, you need to support it with
reasons, facts, statistics, and examples. As a writer, it is your job to provide enough
support to prove the point you made in your topic sentence. Your supporting sentences
should be as specific as possible. Supporting sentences that are unclear or that merely
repeat the point you made in the topic sentence are not effective.
I n terms of organization, there are two types of supporting sentences: major

supporting sentences and minor supporting sentences. The MAJOR SUPPORTING
SENTENCES are the main details that tell us about the topic sentence. The MINOR
SUPPORTING SENTENCES tell us more about the major supporting sentences.
TASK 5: Put the sentences into the correct order and identify the topic sentence,
the major and the minor supporting sentences.
Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry

and science.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as clean and shiny today

as the day it was made twenty-three centuries ago.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to
corrosion, or rust.
Gold, a precious metal, is valued for two important characteristics.
The most recent application of gold is in astronauts' suits.
Each major supporting sentence has at least one or two minor supports. The number of
major supports must match the controlling idea in the topic sentence. For example, in
Task 5 two characteristics were listed; the two major supports reflect this by defining
these characteristics. Minor supports can be examples, definitions, statistics, facts, or
explanations. They serve to clarify what has been written in the related major support.
8
UNITY, COHERENCE & COHESION
UNITY
A very important element of a good paragraph is UNITY. Every good paragraph has
unity, which means that in each paragraph only one main idea is discussed.
Furthermore, every supporting sentence in the paragraph must be directly related to
the main idea (i.e. the topic sentence). Do not include any information that does not
directly support the topic sentence.
TASK 6: Read the following paragraph, and find the irrelevant sentence, that is,
the sentence that does not support the topic sentence and disturbs the unity of
the paragraph.
The convenience and economy of small cars account for their popularity. They are easy
to park quickly and take smaller parking spaces. Small cars are also a means of
conserving energy because they use less gas than big cars. Small cars are inconvenient
and uncomfortable on long trips, however, because of their limited passenger and
trunk space. They are also more economical to operate and maintain, and they cost
less. Because of all these advantages, the demand for cars remains high.
TASK 7: Find the three irrelevant sentences in the paragraphs below.
(a) (1) METU is one of the best universities in Turkey because of the high quality
education that it offers and the many facilities available on the campus. (2) Every
year, thousands of students apply to METU but only a small percentage of these
students are accepted. (3) METU owes its high quality education to the teaching
staff and the technology that it uses in education. (4) I n addition, METU has the
best-paid professors in the country. (5) Most of the teaching staff are well-
educated and follow the latest research. (6) There are many books on the latest
research techniques. (7) METU has several facilities that the students can use for
free-such as tennis courts, a sports center and a library. (8) The university has
several computer labs where the students can access lots of information. (9) To
summarize, the high quality education and the facilities available make METU the
dream of many students preparing for the University Entrance Examination.
The irrelevant sentences are , , and .
9
(b) (1) Excessive exercisers can be identified by an obsession for spending long hours
exercising and insistence on exercising despite pain and injury. (2) Exercising is one
of the best ways of keeping f i t and in good bodily shape and socializing. (3)
Excessive exercisers consider exercise to be more important than anything else in
their lives and spend most of their free time exercising. (4) Their devotion of most
of their free time to physical workout may result in a lack of attention to their
families. (5) More and more people are getting family memberships for fitness
clubs in order to ensure good physical health for the whole family. (6) Exercise
extremists also tend to keep on exercising even when they suffer conditions which
might lead to permanent physical damage. (7) Today, sports medicine has become a
field of expertise providing treatment and consultation to both professional and
amateur athletes. (8) The extremists often amplify or worsen their injuries, and
become depressed when injured and forced to stop exercising. (9)Despite these
consequences, some people still go on exercising excessively.
The irrelevant sentences are: , , and .
(c) (1) There are three main reasons why people choose to do bodybuilding. (2) The
f i r s t reason is that they want to be healthy, f i t and live a longer life. (3) Moreover,
they want to be married with children and grow old with them and lead a healthier
life. (4) Studies show that people who bodybuild live three to five years longer. (5)
Another reason why they take up bodybuilding is to have a better appearance. (6)
Girls always try to look more beautiful; similarly, men also look after themselves.
(7) They believe that having muscles improves their appearance and therefore,
develops their social environment. (8) A final reason is that bodybuilding provides
employment opportunities for its practitioners. (9) At present, there is a low level
of unemployment and many new jobs are appearing due to expanding markets and
foreign investment. (10) Having a f i t and healthy body increases the chance of
being hired, especially in work that requires physical effort. (11) I n conclusion,
bodybuilding has a lot to offer in terms of health, appearance and job
opportunities, and thus, will continue to attract people.
(d) (1) Participating in sports activities has several benefits. (2) First, more and more
people are becoming aware of the health hazards of excessive exercising. (3) I t is
a way of teaching people to control aggressive feelings. (4) This is especially useful
for children who do not know what to do with their excessive energy. (5) Sport also
teaches people to work together. (6) Athletes participating in individual sports
often have a strong sense of competition. (7) People who take part in team sports
are usually better at cooperating with their colleagues. (8) One other benefit of
sport is that it helps to make society safer by teaching people to obey rules. (9)
There are, however, people who claim that sport encourages aggression and does
nothing to control it. (10) Obeying the rules of sports games naturally builds up a
sense of respect to social rules and values. (11) These benefits make sports an ideal
pastime.
10
COHERENCE
Another element of a good paragraph is COHERENCE. A coherent paragraph is made up

of sentences that have been ordered according to a principle. The principle changes
depending on the type of paragraph you are writing. The three types of ordering are
chronological, spatial, and logical order.
TASK 8: The following sentences are not in the correct order. Number the
sentences in the most logical order. Note that there is more than one way to
order the sentences.
Men usually dressed themselves at home, on trips, and on the battlefield.
I t was easier to fasten the ladies' clothes if the buttons and buttonholes
were reversed.
By studying portraits and drawings of clothes with buttons, historians have

traced the reasons why men's clothes button from right to left, while women's
button from left to right.
For women it was different.
Men found it easier to have clothes that buttoned from right to left.
Wealthy women had female servants who dressed them.
The practice began in the fifteenth century.
This is the reason why men's clothes button from right to left and women's from
left to right.
Maids faced the buttons head on.
11
ENUMERATION
ENUMERATION is a useful tool in arranging supporting sentences in a logical and

cohesive manner. I n most discourses, the topic sentence contains the ENUMERATOR
which shows a general class. I n the rest of the paragraph, this general class is broken
down into its members or parts by listing.
Read the following paragraph:
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First,
there are books on all subjects, both in English and in many other languages. These
books are . . . . Second, there are reference works, which include encyclopedias,
dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth, and which must be . . . . Third, there
are periodicals—magazines, newspapers, pamphlets—which are . . . .
I n this paragraph, "kinds" is the enumerator, and the listing signal are "First,"
"Second," and "Third" have been used in order to break it down to its parts.
Remember that enumerators are valuable keywords. They help you to show the reader
what you are listing or enumerating. By organizing your paragraphs more clearly using
enumerators, you help the reader to follow your train of thought more easily.
Writers frequently wish to make a list of other things besides "kinds." The following
are some other enumerators that they may want to talk about:
classes categories factors

parts divisions differences
elements subdivisions similarities
characteristics causes solutions
aspects effects (dis)advantages
Useful Language
First, . . .
first
noun
Second, . . . second
The enumerator is noun phrase
third
Third, . . . noun clause
final
Finally, . . .
12
COHESION
Another characteristic of a good paragraph is COHESION. When a paragraph has
cohesion, all the supporting sentences "stick together" in their support of the topic
sentence. The methods of connecting sentences to each other are called COHESIVE
DEVICES. Cohesive devices include:
• linking words (e.g. first, then, however, in front of, behind)

• personal pronouns (e.g. he, her, it, they, them)
• the definite article (the)
• demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
• relative pronouns (e.g. who, which, that)
• synonyms
By using cohesive devices, you will naturally join some of the sentences together. This
makes your writing style more mature.
TASK 9: The following paragraph lacks cohesion because it does not have linking
words, definite articles, or demonstrative pronouns. I t also repeats nouns instead
of using personal pronouns or synonyms. Rewrite the paragraph to make it
cohesive.
Preparing to Travel
Traveling to a foreign city can be fun, but traveling to a foreign city requires some
planning besides getting a passport. Buy a phrase book and learn a few key phrases in
a foreign language. Using phrases demonstrates a willingness to learn about the
people who live in a foreign city. Read about a city beforehand. Read about what
places in a foreign city you would like to see. Get a feeling for a foreign city and for
weather so that you can pack appropriate clothes. Check your camera. Make sure
that your camera is in good working order and that you have lots of film. Get yourself
a good pair of walking shoes. Make sure you start wearing a good pair of walking shoes
a month before you leave so that the pair of shoes becomes comfortable enough.
Taking a few precautions before you leave can make your trip to a foreign city more
enjoyable.
13
TASK 10: Go back to Task 8 and write a full paragraph using the sentences.
Remember to take unity, coherence, and cohesion into consideration.
TASK 11: Choose the best supporting sentence for the paragraphs below.
1. The job of a nurse isn't always enjoyable or easy. .

They often work at night or at weekends, too, so they usually don't have enough
time to spend with their families. I n addition, the job isn't well-paid.
a) Nurses have to work long hours
b) Most nurses work in modern hospitals
c) Nurses, together with doctors, help sick people
d) Some hospitals provide accommodation for nurses
2. I n modern life, corn has many uses. .

Corn is also hidden in many other foods: cookies, bread, or beef. A large part of
the corn production in the United States, in fact, goes to feed beef cattle.
However, corn is not just a food. I t is also used in the production of all kinds of
things, from glue to hand lotion and paint. Recently, manufacturers have begun to
use corn to make a new type of plastic for garbage bags. I n many places, cars are
now powered by a mixture that contains ethanol, a fuel made from corn.
a) For some civilizations around the world, corn is a symbol of life

b) Scientists are working on kinds of corn that can be cultivated in dry or very
hot areas
c) Millions of tons of corn are produced around the world every year
d) We eat corn in many forms, from popcorn to corn oil, corn flour, and corn syrup
3. Species become endangered for a wide variety of reasons. .

For example, many tropical forests, the habitats of thousands of species, are being
destroyed at an irreversible rate, threatening many species with extinction.
Overexploitation, that is, the utilization of a species at an excessive rate, is
another reason for the endangerment of species. Among many examples of severe
overexploitation, the case of the great whales stands out as one of the most
dramatic. By the middle of the 20th century, unrestricted whaling had brought
many species of whales to incredibly low population sizes. Still another factor
threatening species is pollution. Pollution resulting from industrial activities in
particular has threatened many species, including the African Wild Dog and the
American Peregrine Falcon, with extinction.
a) Habitats in which many different species live are always undergoing changes to
which species must adapt.
b) First, each animal and plant species has a native environment called the habitat,
where it grows naturally.
c) The destruction of habitats, or native environments, by human activities is the
most important reason.
d) Some species fail to react quickly to rapid changes in their habitats while
others quickly adapt to them.
15
4. Although downhill skiing and figure skating are both winter sports, they are totally
different. For downhill skiing you
have skis, plastic boots, and poles. For figure skating, you have leather boots and
steel blades. Secondly, the places in which they are performed are different.
Skiing is performed on snow, while skating is performed on ice. Finally, the figures
performed are different. I n downhill skiing, you mainly make left and right turns
down a hill. I n figure skating, you do figure eights, dance steps, jumps and spins. All
in all, downhill skiing and figure skating are two very different winter sports.
a) Firstly, the competitors in skiing are much faster than skaters.
b) Firstly, skiing is an outdoor sport, whereas skating is not.
c) Firstly, the equipment used in these sports is different.
d) Firstly, the material used in the equipment is different.
TASK 12: Mark the best choice which has the best supporting sentence
combination for the blanks in the paragraphs below.
(a) Extreme athletes can avoid risks of injury and even death by taking certain
precautions. (1) . They should purchase the best equipment available,
with safety warranty and quality certificate, if possible. Extreme athletes who use
good quality equipment are much less likely to suffer serious injuries than the
users of cheaper and less secure equipment. Also, they are advised to make use of
safety gear to protect their bodies in case of an accident. (2) . Those
who do not use such safety gear are faced with the risk of suffering permanent
physical conditions at a much higher rate than the ones who use safety gear. To
sum up, an extremist had better take "better be safe than sorry" as a catchphrase
and practice it for the sake of his or her well-being.
i) Today, now that extreme sports have become popular, safety gear is easily found
in most department stores in addition to specialized extreme sports stores.
ii) Most of them modify the equipment they use in order to attain higher
performance.
iii) Designing safety gear with different features to meet the needs of male and
female extreme athletes has recently been proven to be a necessity.
iv) Even if extremists take safety precautions, they are still faced with serious
risks of injury and fatality.
v) These athletes can avoid accidents and injuries by using high-quality equipment.
vi) Extremists can minimize the risk of serious injuries by wearing safety gear
such as helmets and elbow and knee-pads.
Mark the best choice.

a) Blank 1: v; Blank 2: iii
b) Blank 1: ii; Blank 2: i
c) Blank 1: v; Blank 2: vi
d) Blank 1: ii; Blank 2: iv
16
(b) The I M F does not provide healthy solutions for developing and underdeveloped
countries. Firstly, the decisions about which countries and under what conditions
these countries may borrow money are made by rich countries. (1) .
Moreover, the I M F will only lend money to countries if they agree on certain
conditions. However, these conditions increase poverty. Another drawback is that
the livelihoods of people in poorer countries are destroyed by unfair competition
from foreign goods and services. (2) . For example, local food
restaurants reduce their prices to be able to compete in the food market. Lastly,
the I M F does not give good financial advice. Countries which have followed its
advice have suffered by having to deal with unemployment, inflation and
devaluation. Furthermore, they are still trying to cope with the consequences. I n
summary, the I M F tries to help countries develop economically but unfortunately,
it only causes more financial problems.
i) Rich countries, including the USA, France and Germany, have very strong
economic growth.
ii) Poor countries have little say about loans and the conditions attached to them.
iii) Borrowing money means having more cash flow; therefore, these countries
increase their wealth.
iv) As foreign investment enters a country, local investment tries to keep up with
the competition.
v) However, people are not willing to compete with foreign investment.
Mark the best choice.

a) Blank 1: i; Blank 2: ii
b) Blank 1: ii; Blank 2: iv
c) Blank 1: iii; Blank 2: iv
d) Blank 1: i; Blank 2: v
17
TASK 13: Provide one or two supporting sentences for the following paragraphs.
(a) Cats are popular house pets because they are clean and inexpensive to feed. Cats
are known for their cleanliness. They spend hours grooming themselves so they do
not need to be washed. Moreover, they never make a mess in the house since they
are careful creatures. Cats are inexpensive to feed.
I n conclusion, if you are considering adopting a pet, a cat would be a good choice.
(b) Young people should live alone for some time before they get married because they
should learn how to run a house and how to manage their money. Living alone before
getting married is necessary because young people have to learn how to take care
of the household chores. Youngsters, especially boys, must know how to wash the
dishes, do the cleaning, the cooking and the shopping. They should be ready to
undertake such responsibilities as keeping the house tidy and sharing the
housework with the people they live with. Living alone before marriage also teaches
young people how to manage their money.
To summarize, in order to learn how to run a house and how to manage their money,
young people should live alone for a certain period of time before they start to
share their lives with somebody else.
18
( I I I ) THE CONCLUSION
The last sentence of a paragraph is the CONCLUDING SENTENCE or the SUMMARY

SENTENCE, depending on the writer's choice. I t signals the end of the paragraph and
leaves the reader with important points to remember. The paragraph can be finished
by reaching a conclusion or by summarizing the main points in the paragraph. The
summary sentence can also be a restatement of the topic sentence.
Notice the difference between the two final sentences in the following paragraph:
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the same
emotional meaning. Take, for example, the words "stingy" and "frugal." They both mean
"careful with money;" however, to call a person "stingy" is an insult, while the word
"frugal" has a much more positive connotation. Another such pair of words is "slender"
and "skinny." While "slender" has a positive connotation, meaning "thin, delicate and
slim," "skinny" means "having unattractive thinness," and thus, has a negative emotional
meaning. Finally, there are the words "aggressive" and "pushy." I n some cases,
aggressiveness is a preferred trait because it means "having or showing determination
and energetic pursuit of your ends." "Pushy," on the other hand, has a negative
connotation, as it denotes someone who is disagreeably aggressive or forward. In
conclusion, one should be careful in choosing words because many so-called synonyms
are not really synonymous at all. / To sum up, although synonyms seem to have
identical meanings, they have different connotations.
The first provides a conclusion. The second re-states the topic sentence.
TASK 14: Choose the best conclusion for the paragraph below.
Poetry is an art form that scares many students who study literature. The
struggles of life are so tightly compacted into stanzas, crafted into lines, and
plainly, boldly written across the page that the reader has to read between the
lines to find the hidden meanings and make sense out of the rhymes. For many
students, poetry is a mirror reflection of life that laughs at weakness, shyness,
and imperfection in its writers. Poetry is truly a harsh art form. I t uses sharp
words that are intended to be loaded with meaning, and the feelings it conveys are
strong and fierce. .
a) Poetry can deal with a number of different issues, including politics, love and
nature.
b) Still, for those who have the courage and spirit, poetry is a passionate love.
c) Poems can differ in length, but length does not affect the strength of the
emotions.
d) Poetry has always been a popular form in literature in all parts of the world.
19
TASK 15: Provide a conclusion for the following paragraphs.
1. Science-fiction books are very enjoyable to read for two main reasons: they have
interesting stories and they broaden the reader's horizons. To begin with, science-
fiction books usually cover very interesting stories which take place in the future
or on other planets. For example, Frank Herbert's famous series, Dune, takes place
on a desert planet where there is almost no water. There are also giant worms
living on this planet. Such an unusual atmosphere entertains the reader. Secondly,
science-fiction books broaden the reader's horizons. They not only narrate unusual
lifestyles on distant galaxies, but also raise a lot of political, philosophical,
economic or environmental issues as well. Dune, for example, is a series that makes
the readers think about such problems and use their imagination.
2. Skiing is an unpopular sport because it is dangerous and expensive. To begin with,

every year, many skiers are injured or even die as a result of skiing accidents.
Furthermore, skiing involves the danger of avalanches. A skier can easily get
stranded in the mountains and die of cold. I n addition to being dangerous, skiing is
very expensive due to the equipment required. A pair of skis, boots, and goggles
cost a fortune. Moreover, skiing resorts are mostly luxury places. Typically, a night
at such a resort costs about $100.
20
TASK 16: Write the letter of the appropriate item next to the corresponding
term. Be careful, there are TWO extra sentences.
1. Topic Sentence a) The construction of an extensive underground

system linking the city center to its suburbs
2. Major Support 1 would ease the traffic load in the city.
3. Minor Support 1 b) For instance, four people living in Umitkoy and

working in the city center can form a group
4. Major Support 2 and get one car owner to drive the other three
to work on certain days of the week.
5. Minor Support 2
c) The traffic problem in big cities can be solved
6. Conclusion
by building rapid transport systems and by car
pools.
d) Then people living in the suburbs and working

in the cities will travel to work a lot more
quickly and safely, without causing or
suffering a traffic jam.
e) To sum up, the traffic problem in cities can be

solved with the joint efforts of the citizens
and the municipalities.
f) The construction of underground systems,

however, often takes a long time and cost a
lot.
g) Car pooling, an arrangement in which car

owners take turns driving their cars to work
and back home, is also effective in easing the
traffic load in big cities.
h) Car pooling, however, is not a common practice

as people go to work at different hours of the
day.
21
TASK 16: Write the letter of the appropriate item next to the corresponding
term. Be careful, there are TWO extra sentences.
1. Topic Sentence a) Punishing the student through grading or

disciplinary measures can be applied as a
2. Major Support 1 solution to the problem of cheating.
3. Minor Support 1 b) I n brief, although punishment is a more

commonly used approach, cheating can
4. Major Support 2 effectively be dealt with through education.
5. Minor Support 2 c) Students who don't cheat may not always get
high grades.
6. Conclusion
d) Two common approaches to solving the
problem of cheating are punishment and
education.
e) Educating the students about the personal

and academic harms of cheating is another
solution.
f ) I f the student receives a zero or a dismissal

as a punishment, he will quickly learn that
cheating will not help him get through school.
g) Teachers should, therefore, make sure that

those who don't cheat are rewarded.
h) Not only can this solution prevent the act

but it can also be effective for a longer
period of time as honesty will be a learned
behavior.
22
TASK 18: Read the information and do the task that follows.
Ankara:
- formerly Angora
- capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after Istanbul
- west central Turkey
- population: 3,582,000 (2003)
Transportation: Climate: continental—hot summers and cold winters

- well developed The hottest months are July-August and the coldest
- not expensive month is January.
- takes a short time
Some of Turkey's largest construction companies are based in Ankara, as

are important defense industries such as the joint Turkish-American venture
TUSA§ Aerospace Industries, Incorporated. Other industries in the city
manufacture metals, defense equipment, tractors and agricultural
machinery, lumber, furniture, and other forest products, food products (e.g.,
pasta, flour, vegetable oil, dairy products, sugar, beer and wine), cement and
bricks, paint, and carpets and textiles. Agriculture and livestock breeding are
also economically significant.
Ankara is an important commercial and Cost of Living:

industrial city. It also serves as the marketing - relatively low flat rents
center for the surrounding agricultural area. - food not so expensive
Before becoming a capital, the city was - places to eat for every budget
famous for its long-haired goats and their - cheap entertainment facilities
wool.
Ankara is home to:

- universities (e.g., the Middle East Technical University (METU),
Hacettepe University, Ankara University)
- libraries (e.g., the National Library)
- museums (e.g., the Archaeological Museum and the
Ethnographical Museum)
- cinemas (e.g., Kizilirmak, Cinemax)
- theaters (e.g., §inasi Sahnesi, Buyuk Tiyatro)
- shopping malls (e.g., Armada, Arcadium)
23
Write a paragraph of 8-10 sentences to answer the question "What makes Ankara
a suitable place for students to live?" using the relevant information given below
and/or your own ideas. Give two reasons only. Be careful; not all the information
given below is relevant.
I n your paragraph, make sure:
• you write a title, an introductory sentence, a topic sentence, major and minor supporting
sentences, and a conclusion,
• all the ideas are relevant to the topic,
Pay attention to:
• the content,
• the organization,
• the accuracy of the language.
24
( UNIT 2: GRAPH INTERPRETATION
WHY CHARTS & GRAPHS?

Tables, charts, and graphs are convenient ways to show data. Their
purpose is to show and compare changes and relationships, and to
bring facts to life. They are an economic way of presenting
information. I n academic writing, graph interpretation is essential
and commonly used, as graphs provide credible and factual support
for the writer's argument.
When writing paragraphs, a writer can introduce information from graphs or research
in the following ways:
Recent research conducted/carried out in 2005

shows
The latest/2005research undertaken at Cambridgem University illustrates
A recent/ 2005survey/study represents
indicates
Recent research conducted in Italy, which is depicted/illustrated in Graph 1,
25
TYPES OF GRAPHS
There are three basic graph forms: the LINE GRAPH, the BAR GRAPH, and the PIE
CHART (or CIRCLE GRAPH).
LINE GRAPH
A line graph is used to show continuing data: how one thing is affected by another.
e.g.:
The change in the pulse rate of a person over time
Useful language
Direction Verb of Change Adv. Adj. Noun of Change

rise rise
UP T increase increase
climb gradually gradual
go up slowly slow
slightly slight
fall sharply A sharp fall
DOWN i decline decline
steeply steep
decrease rapidly rapid decrease
dip abruptly abrupt dip
drop drop
go down
level out leveling out

LEVEL o not change no change
remain steady
• The trend in ... was upward/downward/flat.

... fluctuated slightly/wildly.
... hit/reached a peak.
26
m
TASK 1: Study the graph and complete the sentences that follow.
1. Between 1940 and 1950, cigarette smoking
2. Between 1960 and 1970, there was in

cigarette smoking.
3. Between 1965 and 1970, cigarette smoking
4. Between 1976 and 1978, there was in

cigarette smoking.
5. Between 1988 and 1992, cigarette consumption .
27
TASK 2: Match the graphs below with the statements describing them.
(a) Numbers fell steadily.
(b) There was a steep rise in customer numbers.
(c) There was a slight dip in customer numbers.
(d) Customer numbers leveled out.
(e) Customer numbers dropped dramatically.
(f) Customer numbers hit a peak.
(g) Customer numbers fluctuated slightly.
(h) There were wild fluctuations in customer numbers.
28
BAR GRAPH
A bar graph is used to show relationships between groups. Bar graphs can be drawn
horizontally or vertically. This type of graph is very useful for comparing two or more
similar items. The items being compared do not need to affect each other. I t ' s an
efficient way to show differences.
Here, we are comparing sales between

different quarters of the year. I t is
quite easy to see that the best sales
occurred in the second and third
quarters.
TASK 3: Look at the bar graph below and put the phrases A-O in the appropriate
spaces in sentences 1-15, which follow. When you fill in the blanks, you will have
obtained the necessary language used in interpreting bar graphs.
A. only 30 percent selected

B. reason behind students
choosing
C. as opposed to 75
percent
D. can be divided
E. was carried out
F. was five percent more
than
G. more students quoted
H. is given as
I . is
J . with approximately
K. compared with modern
teaching methods
L. at 95%, 90% and 90%,
respectively
M. reasons why
N. which influences
students
O. bottom
29
1. The chart shows 11 first-year students from overseas chose a particular
university.
2. Good language support comes , at 20 percent.
3. Language of instruction is top of the survey, 95%.
4. At 95 percent of the sample, language of instruction is the main a university.
5. The survey of 1,000 first-year overseas students at universities in the UK.
6. Good language support, at 20%, is the factor least when making a choice
about which university to attend.
7. Language of instruction a reason by nearly five times as many students as

good language support, at 95% and 20%, respectively.
8. The top three reasons are language of instruction, quality of teachers, up-to-date
teaching facilities, .
9. According to the graph, the main reason the language of instruction.
10. The various factors into two groups, namely those related to teaching and
non-teaching.
11. While around 95 percent of the students gave the language of instruction as the
main reason for choosing a university, modern teaching methods.
12. The cost of accommodation, at 80 percent, tuition, at around 75 percent.
13. Eighty percent of the sample mentioned the cost of accommodation as a reason for
choosing a university, for tuition.
14 . the cost of accommodation and tuition than location, at 80% and 75%,
respectively.
15. Good language support was stated by only 20 percent of the sample as a reason for
choosing a university, , at 30 percent.
30
PIE CHART (CIRCLE GRAPH)
A pie chart is used to show how a part of something relates to the whole. This kind of
graph is used to display percentages effectively. I t enables the reader to see how
things are divided among different groups.
e.g.:
Monthly Expenses
Chart Area
3% Council Tax Food

5% 14%
The division of monthly household expenses in Britain
TASK 4: Look at the pie chart above and fill in the following paragraph using the
verbs in the box in the correct form.
account comprise make spend
I n Britain, monthly household expenses are divided into various areas. The largest
expenditure is on mortgage, which (1) up 35 percent of the monthly
expenditure. This is followed by food and holidays, which (2) 14 percent
each. Moreover, 8 percent of the monthly income (3) on entertainment
and 6 on clothing. Last but not least, tax, petrol, and utilities (4) for 12
percent of the total expenditure.
31
TASK 5: Study the following pie charts that illustrate the changes in American
spending patterns between 1966 and 1996 and fill in the blanks with a
phrase/word from the box. When you fill in the blanks, you will have obtained the
necessary language used in interpreting pie charts.
US Spending Patterns, 1966 - 1996
made up for plunged increased dramatically comprised

approximately the same accounted for rising from
made up by two thirds remained relatively unchanged
Consumption patterns have been seriously affected by developments in technology and

social trends. Cars and computers are two products that people have increasingly spent
more money on. I n addition, eating out has become more common. As can be seen in the
charts above showing US spending patterns, people spent most of their money on food and
cars in both the years 1966 and 1996. Food and cars (1) the two
biggest items of expenditure in both years. Together they (2) over
half of household spending. However, food, which (3) 44% of
spending in 1966, dropped (4) to 14% in 1996. On the other hand,
spending on eating out doubled, climbing from 7% to 14%. Similarly, the outlay on cars
doubled, (5) 23% in 1966 to 45% in 1996. There was a significant
change in other areas, too. The proportion of salary spent on computers
(6) , up from 1% in 1966 to 10% in 1996. However, as computer
expenditures rose, the percentage of outlays on books (7) from 6%
to 1%. Some areas (8) : Americans spent (9)
amount of their salary on gasoline and furniture in both years. I n conclusion, increased
amounts spent on cars, computers, and eating out were (10) by drops
in expenditure on food and books.
32
( UNIT 3: ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE )
THE ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE PARAGRAPH

We write about advantages and disadvantages to critically assess a concept, action,
event, etc. and make decisions or recommendations based on this assessment.
Discussing the aspects of a topic in this way and writing them down alongside a
recommendation often helps us to clarify in our minds what it is that we value most and
what the best choice to make on a matter might be.
WEB-BASED TRAINING
Web-based training (WBT) is the latest alternative to traditional face-to-face instruction,
and it affects the learners, instructors, and institutions in different ways. Although WBT
poses a few limitations, it offers many advantages to the learners. The first of these
advantages is that it offers geographic independence, that is, the ability to access courses
virtually anywhere. Moreover, learners have temporal independence, which means that they
can work at their own pace, and when they feel it is convenient to do so. The final advantage
is that WBT is learner-centered because it requires learners to become responsible for
their own learning and encourages them to explore on their own. The disadvantages of web-
based training, on the other hand, seem to be less significant when compared to the
advantages. One of the disadvantages is low-speed connections. Learners who have only one
phone line and a low-speed connection could find it difficult to download information. The
cost of network access could also be a disadvantage, as learners who work at home must
have Internet and e-mail access through their Internet service provider. I n conclusion,
although web-based training has a few disadvantages regarding practicality and cost, it is
obvious that the advantages are far greater and that WBT should definitely be considered
as an option for learners, since it is learner-centered and provides independence.
http://itrs.scu.edu/instructors/dlustig/lustig/student/Dlearning/DistanceLearning/Melissa.htm
33
Analysis
Topic sentence:
Advantages:
Bridging sentence:
Disadvantages:
Conclusion:
Generally, advantage/disadvantage paragraphs follow the pattern below. However,

there may be paragraphs which mention only the advantages or only the disadvantages.
I n academic writing, the writer should be as objective as possible; therefore,
mentioning both aspects is preferred.
Title
Introductory Sentence
Introduction
Topic Sentence
Advantages (OR) Disadvantages
- - bridging sentence - -
Disadvantages (OR) Advantages
Conclusion
34
Read the following sentences from the paragraph in Task 1, and notice that the f i r s t
sentence is the introductory sentence and the second sentence is the topic sentence.
e.g.: Web-based training is the latest alternative to traditional face-to-face instruction,
and it affects the learners, instructors, and institutions in different ways. Although
WBT poses a few limitations, it offers many advantages to the learners.

I n the advantage/disadvantage paragraph, the introductory sentence is generally
employed to provide a smooth entrance to the topic. This can be done by using
techniques such as defining the topic, providing background information on the topic,
or both.
e.g.: Web-based training is the latest alternative to traditional face-to-face
instruction, and it affects the learners, instructors, and institutions in
different ways. (background info)
Web-based training, which is education or training delivered over the net,
affects the learners, instructors, and institutions in different ways. (definition)
I n some cases, the writer may need to include his/her purpose in writing an
advantage/disadvantage paragraph. The purpose is to inform/persuade the reader
about the positive and negative aspects of a concept, action, event, etc.
e.g.: Parents should be cautious before buying a cellular phone for their children.
Parents should not be hesitant to buy a cellular phone for their children.

The topic sentence should address the specific topic and mention that there are
several advantages and/or disadvantages to the topic.
e.g.: Parents should be cautious before buying a cellular phone for their children. Clearly,
cell phones have many advantages; however, there are also numerous disadvantages.
Parents should be cautious before buying a cellular phone for their children.
Cell phones have numerous disadvantages.
Parents should not be hesitant to buy a cellular phone for their children. Cell
phones have numerous advantages.
Some writers prefer to include an assessment of the advantages and disadvantages in
the topic sentence, while others prefer to assess them in the conclusion.
Compare the topic sentences below:
e.g.: The idea of going overseas for university study is an exciting opportunity for
many people. However, while it may offer some advantages, it also has various
disadvantages for students.
The idea of going overseas for university study is an exciting opportunity for
many people. While it may offer some advantages, it is probably better to stay
home because of the difficulties a student inevitably encounters living and
studying in a different culture.
Note that the second topic sentence includes the writer's assessment.
35
TASK 2: Write the advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail.
Advantages of using e-mail Disadvantages of using e-mail
TASK 3: Write a two-sentence introduction (an introductory sentence + a topic

sentence) to your paragraph about the advantages and disadvantages of e-mail.
(II) SUBJECT DEVELOPMENT
After writing the introductory sentence and the topic sentence, you need to develop
the advantages and disadvantages by giving explanations or examples, or describing
results. You can either mention the advantages f i r s t and then the disadvantages, or
vice versa. I t is up to the writer to decide whether to write the advantages or the
disadvantages first. The number of advantages and disadvantages depends on the
writer's final recommendation. I t is necessary to include a bridging sentence between
the advantages and disadvantages in order to achieve a smooth transition.
TASK 4: Decide which points from the list in Task 2 to include in your paragraph
and provide explanations and examples to support them. Write them in the
appropriate box below.
Advantages / Disadvantages Explanation & Examples
- BRIDGING SENTENCE -
Advantages / Disadvantages Explanation & Examples
Useful Language
When you begin to use the ideas you have developed above in full sentences, you should
avoid using the same phrases over and over. You can achieve this by using a variety of
expressions in your writing.
TASK 5: Which words/phrases in the box below are alternative ways of referring
to (a) advantages, and (b) disadvantages?
a drawback (of) an obvious benefit (of) a negative aspect (of)

an argument in favor of a frequent/common criticism (of) a good
point
an objection (to) the downside (of) a positive aspect (of)
37
(a) Advantages:
(b) Disadvantages:
Together with the alternatives for "advantage" and "disadvantage" mentioned above,
you should connect your ideas with linking phrases.
TASK 6: Put the linking expressions from the box in the correct category below.
This is because... I n other words, I n spite of these

(dis)advantages,
A common example of this is when. Moreover, I n addition, Owing
to.,
This results i n . ,so... On the other hand, For instance, that is
Nevertheless, To demonstrate, Because o f . , so . that Even
though.,
Another (dis)advantage to...is t h a t . Furthermore, While there are many.,
Addition:
Exemplification:
Cause & effect:
Contrast & concession:
Clarification:
TASK 7: Now, using the ideas from Task 4 and the language from Tasks 5 and 6,
fill out the body of your paragraph.
38
A writer can finish an advantage/disadvantage paragraph by using either a concluding

sentence or a summary sentence.
1. A CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Reaches a conclusion by assessing the advantages and

the disadvantages, and may also make a recommendation
2. A SUMMARY SENTENCE: Rewrites the introduction.
e.g.: The above-mentioned points clearly show that cell phones are a must for
children in today's world.
As the disadvantages of using cell phones outweigh the advantages, parents
should think twice before buying one for their children.
I n conclusion, although web-based training has a few disadvantages regarding
practicality and cost, it is obvious that the advantages are far greater and that
W B T should definitely be considered as an option for learners, since it is
learner-centered and provides independence.
TASK 8: Write the conclusion of the paragraph you wrote in Task 7.
39
PRACTICE
TASK 1: Read the following article and do the tasks that follow.
ELECTRONIC MONEY
1 Electronic money —or digital money— refers to cash and related transactions
implemented using electronic means. Typically, this involves the use of computer
networks, such as the Internet, and digitally stored value systems. Electronic Funds
Transfer ( E F T ) is one example of electronic money. I t is also a collective term for
financial cryptography and technologies enabling it.
2 Interestingly, the use of digital cash has been relatively low-scale so far. One rare
success has been Hong Kong's Octopus card system, which started as a transit
payment system and has grown into a widely used electronic cash system. Another
success is the Canadian Interac network, which, as of the year 2000, surpassed cash
as a payment method for retail in Canada.
3 I n today's world, however, most money is electronic, and tangible cash is beginning to
become less and less frequent. With the introduction of internet banking, debit cards,
online bill payments, and internet business, paper money is becoming a thing of the
past. Banks now offer many services through which a customer can transfer funds,
purchase stocks, or contribute to their retirement plans without having to handle the
physical cash or checks. Customers do not have to wait in lines, and this provides a
hassle-free environment. Debit cards and online bill payments allow for the immediate
transfer of funds from an individual's personal account to a business account, without
any actual paper transfer of money. This offers a great convenience to many people
and businesses alike.
4 Although there are many benefits to digital cash, there are also many significant
disadvantages. These include fraud, failure of technology, and the loss of human
interaction. Fraud over digital cash has been a pressing issue in recent years. Hacking
into bank accounts and the illegal retrieval of banking records has led to a widespread
invasion of privacy, and has promoted identity theft. There is also the issue related to
the failure of technology involved in digital cash. Power failures, loss of records, and
undependable software often cause a major setback in promoting the technology.
Moreover, the loss of human interaction that often occurs when digital cash is used to
its fullest potential creates concern. People in their 50s and 60s today have been
reluctant to embrace the many advantages of digital cash. Thus, the increasing use of
digital cash seems to have deterred a large segment of society from embracing the
technological advantages.
5 So what about the future of electronic money? The main focus of digital cash is being
able to use it through many means such as secured credit cards or linked bank accounts
that would be generally used over the internet to a secure micro-payment system. A
company named DigiCash, for instance, is currently working on creating an e-cash
system that would allow an e-cash holder to purchase electronic coins that will secure
anything that is purchased and will properly direct the goods to the purchaser's
location. Still, it is difficult to predict what the future of electronic money will bring
besides providing a more secure environment. We will have to wait and see.
r
40
A. What do the following refer to in the text?
1. I t (para. 1) :
2. This (para. 3) :
3. These (para. 4) :
B. Find words in the text which mean the following. Do not change the form of
the words and write one word only.
1. exceeded/outdone (para. 2) (v) :
2. urgent/critical (para. 4) (adj) :
3. acquisition (para. 4) (n) :
4. accept/welcome (para. 4) (v) :
5. discouraged (para. 4) (v) :
C. Mark the following statements True (T) or False (F).

1. The Octopus card system implemented in Hong Kong is the only successful
example of electronic money so far.
2. There is a steady decline in the use of actual money.
3. The project DigiCash will provide people with a more secure shopping
environment.
D. Answer the following questions.
1. Write two actions that customers can take using electronic banking services.
2. How do debit cards and online bill payments facilitate a more convenient
environment?
3. What are the consequences of acts of fraud in electronic money?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages electronic money?
Advantages Disadvantages
41
E. You are writing for the journal Money Matters. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words on the advantages and disadvantages of electronic money. Use the relevant
information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
42
TASK 2: Read the following article and do the task that follows.
MIDDLE CHILDREN AND THEIR POSITION I N THE FAMILY

by Dr. Kevin Leman
Middle born children will tell you that they usually didn't feel all that special while growing up.
The first-born had his spot - carrier of the family banner and responsible for everything. The
last-born had his comfortable little role, but the middle-born had no distinctive place to call his
own...
Middle-borns just seem to be overlooked, and maybe that's why there are so few pictures of
them in the family photo album. There may be hundreds, seemingly thousands, of the first-
born. And the baby of the family will make sure she attracts enough attention to fill a few
album pages. For some strange reason which I have confirmed by polling middle-born children
around the world, however, there are seldom pictures of the middle child. Even in these few
photos, she is squeezed again between the older sibling and the younger sibling. I t seems that
they are usually forgotten in the middle of the crowd, with the older siblings taking greater
responsibilities and attracting praise and appreciation and the youngest ones drawing all the
care and attention that the parents have to give.
Another thing that can be said of the middle-born children is that they typically place great
importance on their peer group, where they find the interest they miss at home. The middle
child is well known for going outside the home to make friends faster than anybody else in the
family. When the middle children feel like a fifth wheel at home, many of them tend to be the
social lions of the family. While first-borns typically have fewer friends and enjoy being inside
the home most of the time, middle children often have many friends, and find happiness outside
the house. Middle children somehow compensate the lack of attention at home by developing
into popular individuals within their circle of friends.
Middle children have a propensity to leave home f i r s t and live farther away from the family
than anyone else. I observed a dramatic illustration of this tendency when I was a guest on
Oprah Winfrey's show. The subject that day was sibling rivalry. Three charming young women,
all sisters, were among the guests, and we quickly learned that the first-born and the last-born
were residents of the Eastern state where they had grown up. They had settled down near
their parents and other family members. But the middle child had moved to the West Coast.
I suppose she could have gotten another two thousand miles farther away by moving to Hawaii,
but her point was still well made. Middle children are the ones who will most often physically
distance themselves from the rest of the family. I t ' s not necessarily because they are on the
outs with everyone else. They simply like to do their own thing, make their own friends, and live
their own lives. They are more detached from the family than the other siblings.
All of this is not to say that middle children totally ignore their siblings or the rest of the
family. One common characteristic of the middle child is that she is a good mediator or
negotiator. She comes naturally into this role because she's often right in the middle, between
big brother and little sister, whatever the case may be. She naturally develops problem-solving
skills, especially against problems in personal relationships, and gains a better sense of insight
into others. She is also better than anyone else at empathizing with the problems of others.
And because she can't have Mom or Dad all to herself, she learns the fine art of compromise.
Obviously, these skills are assets in adult life, and middle children often become the best
adjusted adults in the family.
43
You are writing for the Psychology Today magazine and, you are asked to write a
paragraph of 180-220 words on the advantages and disadvantages of being a
middle child. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift
sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
44
DISTANCE EDUCATION VIA THE INTERNET

Distance education via the Internet is education that takes place when the instructor
and the student are separated by space or time and the gap between the two is
bridged through the use of Internet and computer technology. The decision to further
your education through distance learning is an important one. I t is a convenient and
cost-effective way to broaden your skills and increase your employment opportunities.
Before deciding to receive distance education, however, it is important to find out
about its positive and negative sides.
One convenience that distance education offers is accessibility. No matter where you
are, it is possible for you to access your course materials and assignments. Also, online
classes offer solutions to physical accessibility problems that some disabled people
face when taking traditional classes. You don't have to worry about gaining access to a
classroom or sitting in uncomfortable desks. Instead, you can use your comfortable
furniture in your home while enjoying free movement. I n the case of video-
conferencing you also have the chance to receive real-time on-line instruction. I f the
lessons are given through video-conferencing over the Internet, however, the students
need to have Internet access at scheduled times and the necessary audio and video
tools in order to be able to interact with the teacher and the other students in the
class. This makes video-conferencing via the Internet a bit costly. I n some other
forms of on-line instruction, students have the chance to follow the lesson at any time
of the day. I n these forms, the lessons are kept on the institution's web site in video
format. The inconvenience of this form, however, is that it does not allow teacher-
student interaction. Thus, it would not be too wrong to say that communication can be
more difficult when using distance learning. The convenience of the learning
environment in distance education can come at the cost of developing a relationship
with the instructor. The learning materials are often mass-produced in this setting as
well, which also fails to account for differences in learning. I t ' s important to realize
that distance learning is different from the learning environments many grew up in. I t
does involve a level of self-direction that may be difficult for some to maintain. Still,
being able to learn from home and at your own pace and convenience is a real benefit to
those who have other responsibilities. Another convenience involves the financial cost.
Generally, an online education program is not as expensive as traditional education.
There are no expensive course materials you have to purchase - what you have paid at
registration is inclusive of the course material as well. Also, you do not have to pay
extra money for accommodation, as in the case of students coming from different
cities or countries, nor do you have to pay for transportation. As for availability,
documents, transcripts, live discussions and training materials are all archived and
recorded so that they can be retrieved via mail, e-mail or the school's website for
reading, downloading, and printing. I n the case of traditional education programs, these
opportunities usually do not even exist.
I n the light of the aforementioned points, the choice of whether to consider distance
education via the Internet is a personal one and it is a decision that needs to be taken
after careful consideration of one's conditions, needs and expectations.
45
A. Study the graph below and comment on the three most popular reasons for
choosing distance education in not more than three sentences. Do not forget to
mention the source. Write your sentences on the lines provided.
Main reasons for choosing distance education
learning
environment
transportation
convenience
financial
convenience
schedule flexibility
availability
accessibility
20 40 60 80 100
%
Source: American Association for Distance Education, 2005
46
B. You have a friend who is considering distance education to improve his career
chances, but cannot afford to attend a university. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words discussing the advantages and disadvantages of distance learning in order to
help your friend decide whether distance education is a good alternative or not. Use
the relevant information and/or your own ideas. You may also make use of the
graph. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
47
TASK 4: Read the following information and do the tasks that follow.
GENETICALLY-MODIFIED FOODS
GM foods (Genetically-modified foods) are crops that have DNA spliced into them
from other species. I n other words, a certain gene with the desired qualities is taken
from another organism and injected into them. The aim is to make them more resistant
to particular insects or herbicides and to help the food keep fresh longer. They then
cost less to grow, or can be grown more efficiently with higher yields.
The appearance of genetically modified foods in the marketplace has resulted in a
firestorm of public debate, scientific discussion, and media coverage. A variety of
ecological and human health concerns come with the new advances made possible by
genetic modification. The following are responses by leading researchers to the
question, "What are the advantages and disadvantages of GMF?"
• Prof. E. Ann Clark, University of Guelph, Canada
Genetic modification methods have the potential to create unanticipated dangers on
our health which could be difficult to test. Genes that are injected into an organism
can affect unintended traits of the target organism as well as the intended trait. I t
is not unlikely that unintended side effects could occur in food safety traits.
• Dr. Liz Dennis, CSIRO Plant Industry, Australia
Gene technology and genomics have potential benefits to the environment. Transgenic
plants in agriculture, in horticulture, and in plantation forestry are likely to have very
significant positive effects. Gene technology will change crop management - at least
partially replacing chemicals with built-in disease- and stress-protection mechanisms.
Another positive aspect of genetic modification is that crops with defined health
benefits will become available. An example of this is "golden rice" - rice genetically
modified to produce enhanced levels of vitamin A. Such technologies offer solutions to
dietary deficiencies that affect millions of people for whom rice is the staple diet.
Developing vaccines in plants is very attractive and appears to be quite feasible - for
example, people may be immunized against measles or other diseases by eating
bananas. This technology may make a big difference to the health of the developing
world.
• Katherine DiMatteo, Organic Trade Association, USA
GMF offers many environmental disadvantages. The major concern is that genetic
engineering could permanently alter ecosystems. Once genetically altered plants and
animals are introduced into the environment, they may endanger species and potentially
reduce biological diversity. A Cornell University study has shown that pollen from
Bacillus thuringiensis-engineered corn killed monarch butterfly larvae. Entomologists at
Iowa State University have reported similar effects with genetically engineered corn
in the field.
Although there have not been reported health problems linked to GMF, there are
concerns that the possible transfer of new and unidentified proteins from one food to
another may trigger allergic reactions to the altered food. Allergenicity could cause
problems that would be difficult to detect. There has been no research on whether
genetic engineering changes the nutritional content of food, or on the human safety of
consuming genetically engineered foods. Long-term effects are also unknown. Further
study is needed.
48
• B. K. Ndimba, Durham University, UK
The greatest disadvantage is the escape or mutation of foreign genes to other plants
in the surrounding environment. I see no direct advantage to the environment from
GMF crops.
I f GM farming is aimed at replacing or reducing pesticide use, there is a great
benefit to humans and harmless insects such as butterflies and ladybirds from
reducing their exposure to harmful chemicals.
• Prabhjeet Singh, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong
Some of the many health advantages of GMF include edible vaccines, which can help
curb various diseases in developing countries. Nutritionally improved crops with a
higher content of proteins and vitamins can supplement the nutritional requirements
of the poorer population. For example, GMF that contains sweet proteins like
thaumatin will be good for people with diabetes, and GMF that has greater iron
content can be especially beneficial for people susceptible to anemia.
• Senthil Subramanian, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong
GM crops with enhanced pest resistance greatly reduce the use of chemical
pesticides, the residues of which can negatively affect the environment. GMF that
are engineered to produce vaccines against human and animal diseases can also
reduce the amount of antibiotics that enters the environment in the form of animal
waste.
GMF technology is capable of producing food crops with enhanced nutrient content
and also nutrient balance. For example, it is possible to engineer fruits and grains
with higher concentrations of calcium, iron, vitamins A and C, and more protein with
essential amino acids. Other possibilities are GMF with antipathogen proteins and
products to keep us healthy and protect us from food pathogens, such as aflatoxins.
The most obvious economic advantage is higher yields due to the enhanced qualities
of GM crops to defend themselves. Genetically engineered crop plants reduce the
use of pesticides and storage costs, and the cost of cultivation and environmental
damage.
49
50
A. You are writing for the journal Biotech News. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words on the advantages and disadvantages of GM Food on the environment to
raise awareness on the issue. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas.
Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
51
B. Now write another paragraph of 180-220 words on the advantages and
disadvantages of GM food on people's health to raise awareness on the issue.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
52
( UNIT 4: CAUSE / EFFECT ANALYSIS )
THE CAUSE/EFFECT-ANALYSIS PARAGRAPH
C A U S E - A N A L Y S I S : I n a cause-analysis paragraph, the writer usually wants to

discover the reasons why a situation exists or the reasons why a change has occurred
in a situation.
E F F E C T - A N A L Y S I S : An effect is the result of a cause. An effect-analysis

paragraph explains the main effects that result from a cause. I n effect-analysis, the
writer simply answers the question "What are the effects/results of this cause? "
C A U S E - A N D - E F F E C T A N A L Y S I S : This type of paragraph is different from both

cause-analysis and effect-analysis in that it requires the writer to describe a sequence
in which each step is both a cause and an effect. That is, each step in cause-and-
effect analysis is directly caused by the preceding step. This type of analysis can also
be related to certain types of process analysis.
I n this unit, you will be writing either cause-analysis or effect-analysis paragraphs.
53
Cause/Effect-Analysis paragraphs follow this pattern:
Title
Introductory Sentence (optional)

Introduction
Topic Sentence
Cause # 1 (or) Effect # 1 (Major 1)

Minor 1a
Minor 1b
Minor 2a
Minor 2b
Minor 3a
Minor 3b
Conclusion
TASK 1: Read the following cause analysis paragraph and complete the analysis.
WILL SOCCER EVER MAKE I T ?

Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world. However, it will never be as
popular in the United States as other big spectator sports for three reasons. The
biggest reason for soccer's failure as a mass-appeal sport in the United States is that
it does not conform easily to the demands of television. Basketball, for example,
succeeds enormously in America because it has regular time-outs, which are ideal for
television commercials. Soccer, on the other hand, with the exception of its half-time
break, has no time-outs; it entails constant running back and forth, with only a few
seconds of downtime when a goal is scored, and that happens seldom, sometimes never.
The second reason that soccer is not so popular is that Americans love their violence,
and soccer does not provide it in the way that American football and hockey do. I n
soccer, there are brief moments of violence, but fans cannot expect the full-time
menu of bone-crushing carnage that American football and hockey can deliver minute
after minute, game after game. I n soccer, players are actually singled out and warned
with embarrassingly silly "yellow cards" for acts of violence and duplicity that would be
smiled at in many other American sports. The third reason for soccer's lack of
popularity is that it is just too difficult to score in soccer. America loves its football
games, with scores like 49 to 35, and a professional basketball game with scores below
100 is regarded as a defensive bore. I n soccer, on the other hand, scores like 2 to 1, or
even 1 to 0, are commonplace and apparently desirable. I n fact, even games that are
still scoreless at the end of regulation time often happen. I n conclusion, although
soccer is a great sport and deserves increased attention and popularity, it will never
make it big in the United States.
54
Analysis
Topic sentence:
Cause 1:
Cause 2:
Cause 3:
Conclusion:
GLOBAL WARMING
The gradual warming of the earth's atmosphere is known as the Greenhouse Effect.
Some scientists warn that global warming will cause dramatic changes in the world.
First of all, because of the increase in temperatures of up to 10° F by the end of the
21st century, which some believe has already begun, there will be changes in existing
patterns of agriculture. Such fertile areas as the US Great Plains may become deserts,
while the now arid lands in Saudi Arabia may become grain-producing farmland.
Secondly, since rainfall patterns will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish.
Experts predict, for instance, that the rice fields in Southeast Asia will someday
require irrigation to sustain crops. Changes in water levels will also be responsible for
altered living patterns. Coastal areas, such as Florida and the Netherlands, will
experience such a dramatic rise in water levels that they will fall well below sea level
and become uninhabitable. I n other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will fall;
consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with energy supplies and a
ready means of transportation. Since most experts on the Greenhouse E f f e c t are
convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan now for how to best cope with a
changing world.
Analysis
Topic sentence:
Effect 1:
Effect 2:
Effect 3:
Conclusion:
56
Read the following sentences from the paragraphs in Tasks 1 and 2, and notice how the
f i r s t sentences provide a general introduction to the topic. The second sentences are
the topic sentences.
e.g.: Soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world. However, it will never be as
popular in the United States as the other big spectator sports for three reasons.
The gradual warming of the earth's atmosphere is known as the Greenhouse Effect.
Some scientists warn that global warming will cause dramatic changes in the world.

The introductory sentence presents the topic and helps the writer make a smooth
entrance. I n the cause/effect-analysis paragraph, whenever the writer feels that
starting the paragraph directly with a topic sentence would be suitable, s/he can omit
the introductory sentence.

I n a cause-analysis paragraph, the topic sentence should address the effect/result and
mention that it has several causes/reasons. Similarly, in an effect-analysis paragraph,
the topic sentence should address the cause/reason and mention that it has several
effects/results. Alternatively, you can write an open topic sentence, in which the
causes or the effects are listed.
e.g.: Migration to urban areas in Turkey has several causes. (closed T.S.)
Better housing, high-quality education, and lucrative job opportunities are the
main reasons why people in Turkey migrate to urban areas. (open T.S.)
e.g.: Malnutrition has serious effects especially on children. (closed T.S.)
A weakened immune system, impaired growth, and life-long developmental
disorders are the three main effects of malnutrition on children. (open T.S.)
Useful Language
causes of
There are several effects o f j e t lag.
three
There are four main reasons why people commit crimes.
several
several
Air pollution has many effects on the health of children.
a few
The effects of ozone exposure on people include nose and throat irritation,
headaches, and chest pain. *
The three reasons why scientists are sometimes incomprehensible are bad
communication skills, lack of understanding, and arrogance. *
* Notice that these are open topic sentences, i.e., they include the major points as well as the topic
and the controlling idea.
Remember to use parallel structure while listing the major points in an open topic sentence. That is,
use the same grammatical form in all items in the series: nouns with nouns, singulars with singulars,
plurals with plurals, actives with actives, passives with passives, etc.
57
When writing a cause- or effect-analysis paragraph, it is necessary to decide on the
order of causes/reasons or effects/results.
A. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS
1. IMPORTANCE METHOD
First cause/effect = least important
Last cause/effect = most important (or vice versa)
This method is used if the writer believes that the causes or effects vary in
importance.
2. DEVELOPMENT METHOD
First cause/effect = least developed (less detailed explanation)
Last cause/effect = most developed (more detailed explanation) (or vice versa)
This method is used if the writer believes that the causes or effects are equal in
importance, but the amount of information that the writer has varies in quantity.
3. LOGICAL METHOD
First cause/effect = f i r s t in natural sequence
Last cause/effect = last in natural sequence
This method is used when some natural sequence, such as time or space, presents itself
to the writer.
B. ENUMERATION
When writing a paragraph, one should provide a smooth transition between major
supports. This can be achieved by using enumeration. Enumeration is the use of
sequence markers to highlight the connection between ideas.
Useful Language
First(ly) / First of all

Second(ly) / Next,
Third(ly) / Then, + sentence
Last(ly) / Finally,
The first / One

The second / Anoth er / Th e n ext cause / reason is noun / noun phrase
The third / Still ano ther / T h e next effect / result is noun clause
The last / The final
most essential
most important
The primary cause/reason is noun / noun phrase
largest effect / result is noun clause
chief
etc.
58
C. USEFUL LANGUAGE
causes
produces
leads to causing
results in producing
brings about bringing about
Unemployment crime. Drug use and inflation occur, crime.
gives rise to leading to
C E C E
contributes to contributing to
is the reason for resulting in
is responsible for
is caused by
is produced by
is brought about by as a result of
Crime results from drug use. Crime occurs mainly because of drug use.
E is a/the result of C E d ue to C
is the effect of
is a consequence of
is due to
follows from
accordingly,
therefore,
consequently,
I n some areas, water levels will fall; for this reason, these areas will not be able to support industry.
C because of this, E
thus,
hence,
59
be so great
happen so fast
dry out so much land
The rise in temperature will destroy so many crops that agricultural patterns will change.
C cause such terribl e damag e E
cause such extended droughts
cause such a severe heat wave
D. USING STATISTICS IN THE SUBJECT DEVELOPMENT

I t is not necessary to use statistics as minor supports in the subject development if
the writer uses examples that are common knowledge. However, if the writer wants to
develop causes or effects that are not common knowledge, statistical information may
be used. Remember that tables, charts, and graphs are convenient ways to support
your argument.
Recent research conducted/carried out in 2005

shows
The latest/2005research undertaken at Cambridge, University
illustrates that ...
A recent/2005survey/study represents the consumption of...
indicates
Recent research conducted in Italy, which is depicted/illustrated in Graph 1,
60
TASK 3: Read the following paragraph. Then, mark at least four places where you
could insert pieces of information from the statistics that follow.
WHY CRIME I S INCREASING I N COLOMBIA
Inflation and lack of job opportunities are the main factors that have produced an
increase in the crime rate of Colombia. Inflation is a big problem in Colombia because
many people who work do not make enough money to live or to educate their children.
The lack of job opportunities is another main cause of the increase in crime.
Unemployed people have no way to get food or even a place to live because the
government does not provide any social services for the poor. I n conclusion, the
government must stabilize the currency and build factories to employ people so that
the crime rate will drop.
(1) Major crimes (murder, robbery, assault) have increased 185% since 1997.
(2) I n 2000, there were two million unemployed Colombians (8% of the population).
(3) A good education costs 6,000 Colombian pesos ($120) per month per child; only
middle- and upper-income children attend school.
(4) The average Colombian makes a salary of about 13,000 pesos per month ($250).
(5) The inflation rate in 1990 was 14%, and 26% in 2000.
(6) 80% of Colombia's unemployed live on the streets of towns and cities.
(7) The average Colombian family has an income of 18,000 pesos per month ($360),
$350 of which is spent for survival (food, clothing, shelter).
(8) 55% of all major crimes are committed by unemployed people.
(9) 25% of all major crimes are committed by workers who make less than 13,000
pesos a month.
61
There are numerous methods of writing a conclusion for cause/effect-analysis

paragraphs.
1. Mentioning ways to stop the causes or effects, ways to continue them, or ways to
cope with them (ADVICE)
e.g. Most bike accidents are due to equipment failure, weather conditions, and
biker carelessness. ( T S ) . . . .
The number of bike accidents could be greatly reduced if bikers checked
their equipment, rode in good weather, and practiced biking safely.
(Concluding Sentence)
2. Evaluating the causes or effects and/or clarifying/simplifying their meaning for

the reader (EVALUATION)
e.g. Soccer will never be as popular in the United States as other sports like
American football, basketball, hockey, and baseball for three reasons. (TS). . . .
I n conclusion, although soccer is a great sport and deserves increased
attention and popularity, it will never make it big in the United States.
(Concluding sentence)
3. Rewriting the topic sentence with or without its major supports (SUMMARY)
e.g. There are several reasons why girls do not do as well in math and science as
boys. ( T S ) . . . .
I n summary, several factors work together in the home, in schools, and in the
society at large to discourage girls from doing well at math and science.
(Summary sentence)
62
PRACTICE
WHAT I S OBESITY?
1 Many people are concerned about their weight. Society emphasizes being thin, and
heavier people often are very aware of their weight and how they are seen by others.
We hear in the news that more and more people are becoming overweight and obese—
but what does this mean?
2 Obesity means having too much body fat. I t is generally determined by calculating your
body mass index (BMI), which measures weight for height and is stated in numbers. To
determine your BMI, your weight in kilograms is divided by your height in meters, and
squared. I f your BMI is 25 to 29.9, you are overweight but not to the point of being
obese. A BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese in adults, which means you are at a
higher risk for certain health problems than those with a lower BMI.
3 Many factors are involved in determining why some people are heavier than others and
how much risk they have for developing other health conditions. Some of these factors
are genetic—if either of your parents is obese, you are more likely to be obese—and
others are related to your culture, environment, and behavior. Basically, you gain
weight when you take more calories than your body consumes through its normal
functions. I f your metabolism tends to be slow, you are more likely to store excess
calories in the form of fat. This means you probably need to work harder to lose
weight. Likewise, the risk is higher for people whose fat intake makes up more than 30
percent of their daily calorie intake. Studies show that people who get 20 to 30
minutes of exercise most days are less likely than sedentary, or inactive, people to be
obese. Your obesity risk is even lower if you combine an active lifestyle with a low-fat,
low-calorie diet. The psychology of the person is another determining factor. Many
people eat in response to negative emotions such as boredom, sadness, or anger. Some
people overeat when they feel stressed out or depressed. Research shows that about
30 percent of obese people are overeaters. Overeating temporarily relieves the stress
of negative feelings. Unfortunately, it is usually followed by feelings of guilt, shame,
disgust, and depression.
4 Whatever the reason is, one thing is for sure and that is obesity is unhealthy. Obese
people do need to be convinced of the benefits of losing weight. Although it might
mean some sacrifice, displaying self-discipline, and taking less of some pleasures
previously taken in abundance, it is worth going through the process. I f you are obese,
you are more likely to develop type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure, coronary artery
disease, stroke, and sleep apnea, among other conditions. When you lose weight, your
risk for these conditions is reduced. Furthermore, there are psychological and cultural
consequences of being obese. The emphasis our society places on thinness may result in
low self-esteem, a poor body image, depression, and eating disorders.
5 Because obesity is a chronic disease, it requires long-term management. Treatment
focuses on losing weight to improve or eliminate related health problems rather than
to achieve an ideal weight. I t consists of modifying your eating habits and physical
activity, and monitoring your behavior, that is, discovering what triggers you to eat.
Medication and surgery may be used if this treatment is not effective. Treatment also
covers the psychological and social components of obesity. Stress management and
counseling may be helpful, too.
63
1. others (para. 1) : other
2. it (para. 3) :
3. it (para. 4) :
4. this treatment (para. 5) :
B. Find words in the text that mean the following. Do not change the form of the
words and write one word only.
1. uses (para. 3) (v) :
2. more than needed (para. 3) (adj.):
3. great quantities (para. 4) (n) :
4. improving (para. 5) (v) :
1. A person with a BMI of 23 is at a high risk for certain health problems.

2. Overeating is the best tool to overcome stress and negative feelings.
3. Obese people suffer from social pressure, too.
4. Achieving the ideal weight is the main concern of obesity treatment.
5. Stress management and counseling are a must in obesity treatment.
1. What factors determine obesity?
2. What are the disadvantages of having a slow metabolism?
3. What reduces the risk of obesity?
64
E. Write a paragraph of 7 - 9 sentences about the two main causes of obesity,
using the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences
directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
65
F. Write a paragraph of 7 - 9 sentences about the two main effects of obesity,
using the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences
directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
66
ARE VEGETARIANS ECCENTRICS?
Even today in our ecologically sound, environmentally aware world, a declaration of

vegetarianism is often met with expressions of surprise. These expressions are more
often accompanied by raised eyebrows. Even as mouths express polite interest, eyes
are saying that a vegetarian is a crank, someone to be regarded only with suspicious
curiosity or distrust.
Perhaps attitudes exemplified by these gestures and expressions were justifiable 30

or 40 years ago, when the "hippy" movements of the '60s and early '70s were just
breaking. Then, vegetarianism was relatively new and had strong links with the "drop-
out" culture. Certainly, members of older generations still treat the vegetarians of the
21st century with a similar sort of suspicion and intolerance. However, today,
vegetarians can be found everywhere in all walks of life. As more information becomes
available, more and more people are consciously turning to a meat-free diet. Their
reasons for doing so are many, and the potential benefits are even more numerous.
I n a society where health and fitness have become an obsession, the exclusion of meat,
with its links to several diseases such as heart disease and arthritis is becoming
common among individuals who care about what they put into their bodies. I n the same
way, there are those who are concerned about the quantities and types of chemicals
and steroids that are used in intensive farming to raise levels of productivity, quality,
and, consequently, profitability. Calves and lambs grow at very fast rates as various
treatments are administered both orally and intramuscularly. Logically, chemicals
introduced into animal flesh are then consumed further up the food chain. Studies
have indicated that growth-hormone treatments and vaccines administered to animals
intended for human consumption may be responsible for a variety of disorders,
including serious hormonal imbalances and hyperactivity in children.
Increasing awareness of modern farming techniques and methods is also changing

perspectives and attitudes on a more humanitarian level. Calves are deprived of light
and allowed insufficient floor space in order to produce the meat that society
recognizes as delicious. Hens have their natural routine disturbed by exposure to
artificial periods of day and night. There are those who will not eat meat simply
because they cannot stand the animals' suffering. To some people, it seems that the
best way to protect themselves and protest what is going on is to boycott the product.
Vegetarians are not setting themselves up as ideals; they are simply satisfying their
consciences and expressing their concern. A vegetarian isn't necessarily an eccentric.
A vegetarian is someone who doesn't eat meat.
67
A. Write an open topic sentence for a paragraph that would deal with the possible
effects of administering hormones to animals.
B. You have been asked to write about vegetarianism for the popular weekly magazine
Food & Culture. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words about why people become
vegetarians, using the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift
sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
68
WHAT I S POVERTY?
Poverty can be defined in numerous ways. Early development practitioners relied mainly
on estimations of average per capita income to evaluate the extent of poverty in a
population. More recent definitions regard people who survive on under US $1 a day as
being in extreme poverty. Poverty can also be defined in terms of deprivation of basic
necessities. Poverty is not just a lack of a high income or material goods. When poverty
arises, people cannot feel secure, since crime rates increase as a result of low incomes.
People cannot have access to adequate nutrition. Children cannot receive proper
education. Nor can the society make use of good and sufficient health services. This
worldwide problem, from which millions of people suffer, is a result of various factors.
The material loss and human suffering caused by wars is a major problem that paves
the way for poverty. For example, from 1990 to 1993, the period encompassing
Operation Desert Storm, average per capita income in Iraq fell from $3,500 to $761.
This drop in average income represents a striking drop in the well-being of the average
Iraqi citizen. The war also deprived Iraqi people of the use of the country's
infrastructure and social services, such as health care and access to clean water.
Natural phenomena also play an important role in the emergence of this serious
problem. People who rely on fruits and vegetables they produce their own consumption
are often affected by natural phenomena, which can cause either plentiful or fruitless
cycles. During the fruitless periods, many families lack sufficient resources to meet
their minimal nutritional needs. Also, natural disasters, such as hurricanes and
earthquakes, devastate communities. Natural disasters cause poverty by their
destruction. I n addition, in order to recover from the devastation, governments
allocate a large sum to reconstruction, which deepens poverty.
Corruption is another factor giving rise to poverty. When leaders are not accountable
to those they serve, but use the money for their own benefits instead of using it for
development projects, they make poverty inevitable. I n other cases, leaders reward
political support by providing services to their followers, which again means poverty
for certain other groups.
One of the major sources of poverty throughout the world is social inequality. Social
inequality often arises from sex, religious, and racial discrimination. Inequality works
by categorizing individuals according to their sex, religion, or race. South Africa, for
example, experienced such a form of discrimination in the past, when different rights
and social spaces were assigned to whites and blacks. Using skin color to automatically
determine the opportunities available to individuals in each group kept the latter group
in poverty.
I n the modern world, poverty is a problem that can be eliminated. People who suffer
from the consequences of poverty can enjoy a better life under standards equal to
those in richer parts of the world. All it takes is international cooperation and
mobilization of all opportunities with the best intentions.
69
A. Explain two of the effects of poverty mentioned in the text using your own
words in not more than 2-3 sentences.
B. You are a student in the Department of Sociology studying the worldwide

problem of poverty. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words about three causes of
poverty, using the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift
sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
70
WHAT HAPPENS TO CHILDREN?

Parents who are going through a divorce often believe it is in the best interest of the
children to shield them from the stress of the situation. But regardless of their
parents' good intentions, children often find themselves caught in an emotional
whirlpool during these times. Instead of protection, they need support and
reassurance. Avoiding the issue only adds to the stress. Parents need to help their
children understand that the family will learn to adapt to new schedules, new
environments, and new ways of communicating. Only then will progress be made to
relieve some of the problems accompanying stress.
Children's reactions to divorce vary depending on certain aspects. To begin with,
approval and love from both parents affect children deeply. Unless they feel that they
are still loved, they can easily have psychological problems due to this insecurity. I n
addition, parents should be open to discussing the divorce with their children.
Otherwise, there is a risk that the child blames himself. Economic hardship may also
lead to different reactions. Although the child may favor one of the parents, he/she
can go through the ordeal of living with the other one just because of the difference
in the parents' salaries.
Similarly, there are certain factors that pave the way for stress in children. Firstly,
the family they have always known will be different. One of the biggest fears of
children is change. With divorce, changes will occur in many household responsibilities.
Who is expected to do what at home may change. Children may have to adjust to new
schedules, new responsibilities, and mealtime and bedtime routines. They may no longer
have contact with some friends and extended family members, such as grandparents or
cousins. Then comes loss of attachment. Children are already naturally attached to
parents, brothers, sisters, and even pets. Changes in the amount of contact with any of
these can cause some distress. Fear of abandonment also disturbing to children.
Children fear that if they have lost one parent, they may lose the other. They may
blame themselves, feel unlovable, or feel in danger. They worry about who will take
care of them and even who will pick them up from child care or after school.
Arguments and tension between parents may also make children feel guilty, angry, and
alone. Trying to make the children take sides or turn against the other parent creates
confusion in them and places them in the middle of an adult struggle. I t is important to
let the children make up their own minds about their parents.
Studies show that divorce is indeed a source of stress for children, and it can result in
a decline in overall well-being. There have been mixed and inconsistent results
comparing children's post-divorce adjustment by age, but most counselors indicate
that the children who cope best with divorce are those who continue to have a stable,
loving relationship with both parents and regular, dependable visits from the non-
residential parent.
71
A. Explain how children feel after the divorce of their parents in not more than 2-3
sentences.
B. You are a student in the Department of Psychology studying the problems that
children with separated parents face. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words about
three causes of stress for children whose parents have been divorced, using the
relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
72
Middle Children and Their Position in the Family

by Dr. Kevin Leman
Middle born children will tell you that they usually didn't feel all that special while growing
up. The first-born had his spot - carrier of the family banner and responsible for
everything. The last-born had his comfortable little role, but the middle-born had no
distinctive place to call his own.
Middle-borns just seem to be overlooked, and maybe that's why there are so few pictures
of them in the family photo album. There may be hundreds, seemingly thousands, of the
first-born. And the baby of the family will make sure she attracts enough attention to fill
a few album pages. For some strange reason which I have confirmed by polling middle-born
children around the world, however, there are seldom pictures of the middle child. Even in
these few photos, she is squeezed in between the older sibling and the younger sibling. I t
seems that they are usually forgotten in the middle of the crowd, with the older siblings
taking greater responsibilities and attracting praise and appreciation, and the youngest
ones drawing all the care and attention that the parents have to give.
Another thing that can be said of middle-born children is that they typically place great
importance on their peer group, where they find the interest they miss at home. The
middle child is well known for going outside the home to make friends faster than anybody
else in the family. As the middle children feel like a fifth wheel at home, many of them
tend to be the social lions of the family. Middle-borns often have a strong sense of
leadership and become very good organizers within their peer groups. They are the ones
who come up with great ideas. While first-borns typically have fewer friends and enjoy
being inside the home most of the time, middle children often have many friends, and find
happiness outside the house. Middle children somehow compensate for the lack of
attention at home by developing into popular individuals within their circle of friends.
Middle children have a propensity to leave home first and live farther away from the
family than anyone else. I observed a dramatic illustration of this tendency when I was a
guest on Oprah Winfrey's show. The subject that day was sibling rivalry. Three charming
young women, all sisters, were among the guests, and we quickly learned that the first-
born and the last-born were residents of the Eastern state where they had grown up. They
had settled down near their parents and other family members. But the middle child had
moved to the West Coast, where she had started a whole new life. From her gestures and
the way she expressed herself, it was obvious that she had grown into a self-reliant and
independent young lady at a relatively early age.
I suppose she could have gotten another two thousand miles farther away by moving to
Hawaii, but her point was still well made. Middle children are the ones who will most often
physically distance themselves from the rest of the family. It's not necessarily because
they are on the outs with everyone else. They simply like to do their own thing, make their
own friends, and live their own lives. They are more detached from the family than the
other siblings.
All of this is not to say that middle children totally ignore their siblings or the rest of the
family. One common characteristic of the middle child is that she is a good mediator or
negotiator. She comes naturally into this role because she's often right in the middle,
between big brother and little sister, whatever the case may be. She naturally develops
problem-solving skills, especially against problems in personal relationships, and gains a
better sense of insight into others. She is also better than anyone else at empathizing
with the problems of others. And because she can't have Mom or Dad all to herself, she
learns the fine art of compromise. Obviously, these skills are assets in adult life, and
middle children often become the best adjusted adults in the family.
73
You are writing for the Psychology Today magazine and you are asked to write a
paragraph of about 180 words on two or three positive effects of being a middle
child on personality. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not
lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
74
ECONOMICS AND GOVERNMENTS: WHO CALLS THE SHOTS?
1 Why do you think it is that a small, privileged group of people who live in developed countries waste food,
drive enormous cars that consume huge quantities of petrol, take 45-minute hot showers, and buy
consumer goods daily, while the majority of people in the world go to bed hungry, don't own a car, have
little or no access to hot water and no disposable income? Why, too, do the people of many countries
walk miles to collect drinking water that other countries would not even consider fit to wash their dogs
in? Why in many countries do children as young as five or six years old have to work like adults instead
of going to school and playing games in their spare time?
2 I f one acknowledges the inequality that exists in the world, the next logical step is to question the
reasons behind it. There needs to be an exploration of cause and effect and a questioning of the powers
that control the circumstances of people in all countries. Usually, governments are expected to find
solutions to economic problems, which may give rise to poverty, child labor, poor working conditions, and
low pay. Governments are meant to consider and address such problems.
3 But do governments actually control their countries? Do governments have real power on the global
stage? What forces lie behind governments? According to some historians, researchers, and economic
theorists, it is not individual governments that hold power; it is actually the World Bank and/or the
International Monetary Fund. Debt servicing (i.e., interest payments on money lent to entire countries) is
the largest single controlling factor on the planet.
4 According to some economic analysts, servicing debt to the so-called First World countries has meant
the end of the borrowing countries in the form of eroding social, economic, and environmental conditions.
These claims are supported by the following argument: the banks charge interest rates that cannot ever
be paid. Some countries have been paying back loans for 30 years and so have paid the initial debt back
many times over. Further, many countries are actually re-borrowing money from the same banks in order
to pay that bank their interest payments. I n other words, the World Bank and the I M F lend money to
pay themselves back. I n these instances, the lenders make decisions that affect the government policies
of the countries in debt. Thus, it may be argued that national autonomy is seriously affected by debt
servicing.
5 There are striking instances where IMF and World Bank policies are said to have led to wide-ranging
problems. I n countries such as Indonesia, the Congo, Peru, and Colombia, deforestation has increased
due to loans from the World Bank and other sources, as environmental issues become totally
insignificant in the face of huge debts. There are, as well, problems directly concerning people. I n
Indonesia, 40 million people, which is 20 percent of the population, have slipped below the poverty line.
Health budgets have dropped by 10 percent in the Philippines and Thailand. Domestic violence is up by
seven times in Korea. Throughout Asia, suicides referred to as I M F suicides' have increased by about 50
percent. I n Morocco, a riot resulting from the huge increases in the cost of staple foods like wheat,
bread, and cooking oil killed several hundred people. A dramatic example of how people's security is
wiped out by debt is the Peruvian worker with a minimum wage. He worked 17 minutes to earn a kilo of
rice in 1980, and had to work more than two hours for the same amount only five years later. Today the
situation is even worse.
6 On the other hand, there are those who argue that IMF and World Bank lending policies have brought
enormous benefits to countries that were barely developed. Their economies were lagging far behind
the First World nations', and their populations had little opportunity for any sort of industrial
development. Without assistance and funds from these lenders, many countries could never have
enjoyed the economic prosperity that industrialization and investment can bring.
7 There is evidence to support both positions. Solutions for difficult problems like those described are
neither simple nor easy to discover. However, programs that concentrate on self-reliance, community
action, production of local goods, and reduced debt for poor governments by allowing longer times to pay
back or by canceling interest payments altogether could be, and presently are, a starting point.
75
1. such problems (para. 2) :
2. these lenders (para. 6 ) :
B. Find words in the text that mean the following. Do not change the form of the
1. worsening (para. 4) (adj) :
2. basic (para. 5) (adj) :
C. Answer the following questions.

1. Why are countries that have received loans unable to repay and eliminate their debts?
2. What term is used to define the policy that makes poorer countries dependent on
international monetary organizations?
3. What does deforestation in Congo and some Latin American countries prove?
4. I n which country have I M F policies had a significant negative effect on family life?
5. What should an ideal economic program focus on?
D. Fill in the blanks according to the information in the text.
I n poorer parts of the world, young children who are supposed to be at school
even in their free time; and people drink water that
is considered .
E. According to the writer, what is the largest single controlling factor in the
world? How does it control governments? How does the debt spiral work? Explain in
4 - 5 sentences.
76
F. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words discussing the effects of the IMF and
the World Bank on the countries dependent upon them.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
77
( UNIT 5: COMPARISON & CONTRAST )
THE COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGRAPH
Comparing and contrasting are very common in academic writing. The purpose of
comparison is to show how people, places, things, or ideas are similar, and the purpose
of contrast is to show how they are different.
There are many reasons for comparing and contrasting two people, things, places, or
ideas. For example, in a political science class, one might compare and contrast two
leaders to show which one was more successful at implementing economic reforms. I n a
literature class, one might compare and contrast two short stories to show which one
is liked better. I n an engineering class, one might compare and contrast two methods
of combustion to show which one is more efficient.
With compare and contrast, therefore, the aim is not just to point out the similarities
and differences, but to persuade, explain, or inform the reader. Think of comparison
and contrast as a method of development—not a purpose for writing. While it is true
that comparison/contrast paragraphs should include both points of comparison and
contrast, it is important to note that one can also write either comparison or contrast
paragraphs; that is, paragraphs that emphasize only the points of similarity or
difference between the selected subjects. The choice depends on the purpose of the
writer.
Note: Though the terms "comparison" and "contrast" are thought to have distinct
meanings, similarities and differences, respectively, in everyday language the word
"compare" is often used to express both similarities and differences.
79
Comparison/contrast paragraphs follow one of the following patterns:
Title
Introductory Sentence (expressing the purpose & sometimes the audience)

Introduction
Topic Sentence
Method I : POINT-BY-POINT Method I I : BLOCK 1 Method I I I : BLOCK 2

(by subject) (by similarity/difference)
(A) Point of comparison/contrast (Major 1)
1. Subject 1 (A) Subject 1 (Major 1) (A) Similarities/Differences
2. Subject 2 between S u b j e c t s 1 & 2 (Major 1)
All points of
(B) Point of comparison/contrast (Major 2) comparison/contrast
1. Subject 1
2. Subject 2 --bridging-- --bridging--
(C) Point of comparison/contrast (Major 3)

(B) Subject 2 (Major 2)
1. Subject 1
(B) Differences/Similarities
2. Subject 2 All points of
between S u b j e c t s 1 & 2 (Major 2 )
comparison/contrast
Conclusion
HUMANS AND CHIMPS

Although humans and chimpanzees do not seem very much alike at f i r s t glance, they
share a number of remarkably similar characteristics, which may shed light on our
evolutionary history. First of all, the skeletons of humans and chimpanzees are quite
similar; both species possess five fingers on each hand, including a movable thumb,
which makes the hand capable of grasping objects. Although chimpanzees prefer
traveling on all fours, they are able to walk upright like humans. Another similarity is
that female chimpanzees have fewer young than other mammals, and humans do, too.
The young of the chimpanzee species, similar to human young, are born after a
gestation period of about 9 months and then stay with their mothers for several years,
a period which permits them to learn what they need to know in order to survive. Of all
the similarities between the two species, perhaps the most notable is the way they
communicate. Although the sounds which are made by chimpanzees do not really
resemble those made by humans, many experts believe that there is a real similarity in
the way both species can use abstract symbols to communicate meanings. Humans
communicate with each other through words; likewise, it is believed that chimpanzees
can be taught to communicate by means of signs, another variety of abstract symbols.
Moreover, chimps seem to possess the ability to learn a rather large vocabulary of
signs and then to put these signs together in entirely new combinations—an ability
which closely resembles what humans do with words. I n other words, humans can be
creative in the way they communicate, and so can chimpanzees. I n conclusion, the
similarities between humans and chimpanzees in their skeletal systems, offspring, and
the way they communicate strengthen the theory of evolution.
80
Analysis
Method I : POINT-BY POINT

Topic sentence:
(A) Point of comparison - Similarity #1:
(B) Point of comparison - Similarity #2:
(C) Point of comparison - Similarity #3:
Conclusion:
81
COLUMBUS AND THE MOON

The human impulse to explore has been with us since the beginning of history, and though many
changes have come in the last 500 years, certain aspects of exploration have remained surprisingly
stable. Christopher Columbus's voyages of discovery to the New World in the 15th century and the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Moon landing in 1969 are similar in several
ways. Columbus's voyage to America in 1492 was a government project. The government was the
Spanish Court of Ferdinand and Isabella. Spain was engaged in a sea race with Portugal. Moreover,
the voyage was the first of its kind made possible through new technology. The race in 1492 was to
create the first shipping lane to Asia. The Portuguese expeditions had always sailed east, around
the southern tip of Africa. Columbus decided to head due west, across open ocean, a scheme that
was possible only thanks to a recent invention—the magnetic ship's compass. Until then, ships had
stayed close to the great land masses even for the longest voyages. Furthermore, the expedition
was not one but a series of voyages. Columbus had to keep coming back to the Spanish Government
with his hand out, pleading for refinancing. Like Columbus's expedition, NASA's Moon landing in
1969 was also a government project. The United States was caught up in a space race with the
Soviet Union. I n addition, it was only thanks to an innovation in technology that NASA would even
consider sending astronauts out of Earth's orbit and toward the Moon. This was the invention in the
1940s and 1950s of the high-speed electronic computer. Finally, similar to the Columbus
expeditions, the NASA Moon landings were a series of journeys. NASA landed men on six parts of
the Moon. To conclude, the similarities between the voyage to the New World and the voyage to the
Moon show that the impulse to explore has not changed much over the years in spite of the
advances in technology.
Analysis
Method I I : BLOCK 1 (by subject)

Topic sentence:
(A) Subject 1:
Bridging:
(B) Subject 2:
Conclusion:
82
OVERCOMING MISUNDERSTANDINGS: AMERICANS AND ASIANS

One way to overcome the misunderstandings between American and Asian cultures is to try and
understand the traditions, perceptions, and values of these cultures. Americans and Asians can be
compared in terms of their attitudes towards work and contrasted as regards their family values
and their social behavior. Americans and Asians are similar in that they both place great emphasis
on work. I n both cultures, it is possible to observe professional suffering from an overdose of
work. I n the U.S., an industrial employee works for 1,951 hours a year, 50 or 60 hours a week.
Similarly, in Japan, for example, the average worker spends about 2,100 hours a year at the
workplace. I n both countries, employees get only a two-week vacation each year. Both Americans
and Asians employ a perfectionist attitude towards work and strive for the best. Sometimes,
they work at the expense of their health. On the other hand, there are several important
differences between the two cultures. Firstly, Americans and Asians are different in terms of
their family values. Americans are more individualistic when compared to Asians. For example, in
the U.S., youngsters leave home as soon as they are able to earn their living. I n contrast, Asians
tend to be more family-oriented. Young Asians usually continue living with their parents until they
get married. Secondly, Americans and Asians can be differentiated in terms of their social
behavior. Americans tend to be more outgoing, sociable and friendly. Asians, on the other hand,
are generally more reserved and do not like to get friendly with people who they do not know well.
I n conclusion, becoming aware of the similarities and especially the differences between these
cultures may help people to approach one another with a greater understanding and may foster
feelings of tolerance, sympathy, and compassion.
Analysis
Method I I I : BLOCK 2 (by similarity/difference)

Topic sentence:
(A) Similarity:
Bridging:
(B) Differences:
Conclusion:
83
Read the following sentences from the paragraphs in Tasks 1, 2, and 3. The f i r s t
example is a strong topic sentence that includes the topic and the controlling idea as
well as the purpose. The second and third examples, however, provide the purpose for
comparison in the introductory sentence, and the topic and the controlling idea in the
topic sentence.
e.g.: 1. Although humans and chimpanzees do not seem very much alike at first glance,
they share a number of remarkably similar characteristics, which may shed light
on our evolutionary history.
2. The human impulse to explore has been with us since the beginning of history, and
though many changes have come in the last 500 years, certain aspects of
exploration have remained surprisingly stable. Christopher Columbus's voyages of
discovery to the New World in the 15th century and the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration's (NASA) Moon landing in 1969 are similar in several ways.
3. One way to overcome the misunderstandings between American and Asian cultures
is to try and understand the traditions, perceptions, and values of these cultures.
Americans and Asians can be compared in terms of their attitudes towards work
and contrasted as regards their family values and their social behavior.

A paragraph without a clearly defined purpose can mislead readers or, even worse,
cause them to ask "why bother?" and not read the paragraph at all. At times, it may be
difficult to include the topic, controlling idea, and purpose together in the topic
sentence; in these cases, the purpose can be included in an introductory sentence that
comes before the topic sentence.
Here are several ways by which purpose can be introduced:
To better understand . . . , . . .
I n order to . . . , . . .
By comparing/contrasting X and Y, . . .
For those who are interested in . . . , . . .
For parents who want to decide . . . , . . .

The topic sentence for a comparison and/or contrast paragraph should state the topic
(the two subjects for comparison) and should be guided by a controlling idea. The
latter will include a reference to the discourse ("comparison," "contrast," or synonyms
for these words). I t may also specify the points upon which the subjects will be
compared, in which case it becomes an open topic sentence.
A strong topic sentence may include a reference either to the purpose of the writer or
to the intended audience, and sometimes to both. I n such cases, the introductory
sentence may not be necessary.
e.g.: To see how Saudi Arabia is changing, the old town of Shagra and the modern
capital of Riyadh can be analyzed with respect to their physical
characteristics, commerce, and citizens' religious activities.
84
Useful Language
certain
several differences
There are many between humans and chimpanzees.
similarities
two
different
Thai food and Vietnamese food are in many ways.
simila r
different from
Free diving is scuba diving in many ways.
similar to
several
Jazz and rock'n'roll have characteristics in common.
many
reveals similarities.
A comparison between jazz and rock'n'ro • some surprising
shows differences.
TASK 4: Turn to the next page and read the information about the two kinds of
free climbing. Imagine you are a journalist writing for the magazine X-SPORTS and
you are assigned to write a paragraph comparing/contrasting rock-climbing and wall-
climbing to help enthusiasts decide which type of climbing is appropriate for them.
Introduce the topic in one of the following ways:
(a) with an introductory sentence + a topic sentence (open or closed)
(b) with a strong topic sentence (that includes the purpose of comparison-contrast)
Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas.
ROCK-CLIMBING WALL-CLIMBING
THE CLIMBING SURFACE
Steep rocks have holes and cracks which are The surface is a man-made wall either
used as holds, and the edges of the rocks are indoors or outdoors. The holds are fixed onto
used as steps to stand on. During rock- the wall; therefore, the direction of the
climbing, it is not very easy to see the holds, route is easily seen.
so climbers have to spend time searching for
the holds.
CONCENTRATION
The level of distraction is quite high as there I t is not difficult to concentrate in wall-
are many distracters, some of which are climbing, as the only distracters are the
wind, weather, and insects. other climbers.
EQUIPMENT
First of all, you need climbing shoes, which Gyms usually provide most of the equipment.
are fitted very tightly around the feet with a You only need to bring a harness, shoes, and a
sticky rubber sole that provides the friction chalk bag. Some gyms rent these items as
needed for climbing. Special clothing is a well. Therefore, not much equipment is
must. A chalk bag and chalk are also necessary.
essential, as chalk prevents your hands from
getting sweaty and slippery. A lot of other
equipment (e.g., a helmet, ropes, and
harnesses) is needed for the actual climb.
AIM
The aim is to climb specific routes on The aim is to climb walls of various difficulty
different rocks. levels in the shortest possible time.
RISKS
You are dealing with the facts of nature, and The majority of injuries are from overuse
the rocks were not specifically designed for rather than direct trauma. Repeated climbing
the climb. Injuries generally result from leads to increased strain on soft tissues and
falls, slips, or slides and involve joints and especially on tendons in the hand. The answer
bones. The major injuries are from trauma. is warming-up, not overdoing the climb, and
The answer is preparing, training, and good giving your body a rest.
sense.
86
Number of climbers in Britain
3000 -i
1995 2005
Climbing Accidents in Australia (1955-2004)
87
When writing a comparison/contrast paragraph, it is necessary to decide which
organizational method is going to be used.
There are various ways to organize a compare/contrast paragraph.
1. POINT-BY-POINT METHOD
I n this organization, you describe one part of Movie X, such as its plot, and then
compare it to the plot of Movie Y. Then you return to Movie X to describe its
acting, followed by a comparison to the acting in Movie Y. You continue in this way
until you have drawn all the comparisons and contrasts between the two movies.
• Plots
- Movie X
- Movie Y
jH
• Acting
- Movie X
- Movie Y
2. BLOCK METHOD 1 (by subject)

fcl
I n this organization, you describe Movie X completely, and then describe Movie Y.
You usually draw the comparisons and contrasts while describing Movie Y, though in
some cases you might do this after describing Movie Y.
• Movie X
- Plot
- Acting
• Movie Y
- Plot
- Acting
3. BLOCK METHOD 2 (by similarity/difference)

I n this organization you describe all the important similarities between the
subjects f i r s t (Movies X and Y have points A and B in common: plot and acting),
followed by all the important differences (they differ greatly with regard to
points D and E: cast and length). The reverse order (differences followed by
similarities) is also possible. Writers may choose this method when the comparison
itself is particularly surprising or informative.
• Similarities
W
- Plots
- Acting
• Differences
- Cast
- Length
88
B. USEFUL LANGUAGE
Patterns to show contrast
however,
on the other hand,
The extrovert loves crowds; in contrast, the introvert is fond of solitude.
by contrast,
conversely,
however,
on the other hand,
The extrovert loves crowds; the introvert, is fond of solitude.
in contrast,
by contrast,
conversely,
The extrovert loves crowds, but the introvert is fond of solitude.
different from
The extrovert is the introvert in that he craves excitement.
unlike
Unlike
Different fro m the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-
Contrary to ordered mode of life.
As opposed to
Whereas
the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does.
While
is quiter than
is more reliable than
The introvert the extrovert.
is less optimistic than
learns more slowly than
isn't so/as quiet as

The extrovert isn't so/as reliable as the introvert.
doesn't learn so/as slowly
can be contrasted with with respect to

The introvert d iffers from the extrovert in terms of her temper.
is different from in
89
Patterns to show concession
Even though
Although
Ricardo was injured, he played in yesterday's match.
Despi te the fact tha t
In spite of t he fact that
nonetheless,
Ricardo was injured; nevertheless , he played in yesterday's match.
however,
Ricardo was injured, yet he played in yesterday's match.

In spite of
his injury, Ricardo played in yesterday's match.
Despite
Patterns to show similarity
similarly,
Kennedy was a prominent leader; likewise, Lincoln was one of the most outstanding
in the same way, leaders of his time.
Kennedy is considered as successful as Lincoln.
Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln.
similar to
Kennedy's death was Lincoln's in that he died while in office.
like
Kennedy and Lincoln are similar in that they both died while in office.
Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to listen to his secretary's warning.
and Lincoln was, too.

Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat,
and so was Lincoln.
and Lincoln's wasn't either.

Kennedy's assassin was not brought to trial,
and neither/nor was Lincoln's.
Both Kennedy and Lincoln

had their elections legally challenged.
Kennedy and Lincoln both
Neither Kennedy' wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day.
things
certain features
many aspects
Kennedy and Lincoln had in common.
several characteristics
two qualities
attitudes
90
TASK 5: Go back to Task 4 and the information on page 85. Make two outlines of
the paragraph you are to write using: (a) Point-by-Point Method and
(b) Block Method
POINT-BY-POINT METHOD
BLOCK METHOD
91
TASK 6: Now write the subject development of the paragraph using point-by-
point method. Don't forget to use the appropriate connectors.
92
A writer can finish a comparison/contrast paragraph by using either a concluding

sentence or a summary sentence.
1. A CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Reaches a conclusion that will fulfill the purpose.
e.g.: I n conclusion, the similarities between humans and chimpanzees in their

skeletal systems, offspring, and the way they communicate strengthen the
theory of evolution.
To conclude, the similarities between the voyage to the New World and the
voyage to the Moon show that the impulse to explore has not changed much
over the years in spite of the advances in technology.
I n conclusion, becoming aware of the similarities and especially the differences
between these cultures may help people to approach one another with a greater
understanding and may foster feelings of tolerance, sympathy, and
compassion.*
2. A SUMMARY SENTENCE: Rewrites the topic sentence with or without its major supports.
e.g.: I n brief, the voyage to the New World and the voyage to the Moon have many
aspects in common.*
* Notice the difference between these two sentences. Both are conclusions for the
same paragraph. The f i r s t reaches a conclusion, while the second restates the topic
sentence.
TASK 7: Now write a conclusion to your paragraph on rock-climbing and wall-climbing.
93
PRACTICE
TASK 1: Read the following information and do the task that follows.
Navajo People Muscogee People

The Navajo is the largest native nation in the The Muscogee is a small Indian nation. They live
United States, both in territory and population. in a small territory in central part of Oklahoma.
These people, whose name comes from a Spanish The Europeans called these people "Creeks"
word meaning "stealer", still live in their because they built their villages near creeks.
homelands Arizona and New Mexico. Their ancestral home is the American southeast,
Navajos live in rather interesting houses called what is now Georgia, but most of them have left
"Hogan". Hogans have six or eight sides and are their homeland to live in urban areas.
made of logs, brush, and mud. The door of the Traditionally, they lived together as large
hogan faces east towards the rising sun. families in large, beautifully painted and
Navajos still live in their traditional houses in decorated houses with thatched roofs.
order to live together rather than separately. Traditional houses were made of wood. Now
Navajo people believe that illnesses come from most Muscogees live in modern houses as
harmful forces and evil spirits. They have separate family units.
medicine men that perform various ceremonies Women traditionally wore skirts and men wore
to get rid of these evil spirits. robes with feathers. Today, they wear modern
The Navajo mostly eat traditional food. Corn is clothes. They no longer need their traditional
the most important food for them. They raise ceremonial clothes because they do not hold
sheep and hunt deer for meat and leather. They rituals anymore.
also eat a lot of bread as an essential part of Majority of the Muscogees eat American food.
their diet. Only those still living in the reservations eat
Navajo people are very famous for their rugs traditional food: corn, beans, squash and
and silver ornaments. They wear mostly these berries.
ornaments during religious ceremonies, but The Muscogee people got acquainted with cotton
women wear them in everyday life as well. in the 1700s, when European traders arrived in
their homeland. They then started growing their
own cotton and produce their own material.
Percentage of urban and suburban population Populations of Major Indian Tribes

in Navajo and Muscogee peoples
Urban
Others
100 Suburban 90% 20000
Muscogees
79%
80 S3 25000
60
Tlingits
36000
40
Navajos
20 165000
0
Navajo Muscogee
Lakotas
70000
94
You are working for the National Geographic magazine and you have been asked to
prepare a report on different Indian tribes of America. Write a paragraph of
180-220 words discussing at least three of the differences between the two
tribes, the Navajos and the Muscogees, to show that they have different life-
styles. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences
directly.

Pay attention to:
• the content,
95
TASK 1: Read thefol owingarticle and do the tasks that follow.
THE WORKING MOTHER

by Judi Lewis
While growing up in the 60's, things were much different than they are today. Families
were close both in location and spirit. Even families that did live in different states
were close. You never forgot a birthday, or Mother's Day. The house was always clean
(or in the process of being cleaned). Moms wore aprons while working in the kitchen. No
one worried about locking their doors at night. And most moms were housewives.
A mom who did work outside the home was the exception. And the jobs they applied
for were very basic. Waitressing was a common job - men didn't wait on anyone back
then, even themselves! Secretarial work was just that. Women had to know how to
type, file, and use a 10-key adding machine. Oh, and of course, women answered the
phone. And don't forget one of the most common duties in a woman's office job. The
boss's coffee!! Forget that and you might not be working for long.
Working moms back then were looked at differently than they are now. A lot of people
thought that women should stay home, take care of their husband, children, and house.
Then if they had time, they took care of themselves. But to be working and to let
someone else take care of their children? Make their husband wait for dinner? Don't
even think about it!!
Thank heavens things have changed! Women have shown that they are capable of
handling all types of jobs. Jobs that used to be just for men. Women have also shown
that they can handle a full time job, take care of their homes, and their families. And
still have time for themselves!
I think this ability has to be in women's DNA. They were the family nourisher, doctor,
helpmate, and etc. After so many centuries, I guess it became ingrained. And once they
were let loose in the business world, they were able to carry all these skills into their
business lives.
Another type of working mother is very prominent in this decade: the single working
mother. Marriage is no longer the one and only goal in women's lives. We find more and
more divorced mothers, never been married mothers, and the like.
As we all know, in most cases, it takes two incomes to support a family. I f you are a
single working mother, you have to be real careful with your budget. You not only have
to pay living expenses such as rent/mortgage, utilities, food and healthcare, but also
have to pay for daycare, one of the biggest chunks of a single mom's paycheck.
How do they do it? What are their secrets? Only women know the answer to this
question.
96
You are doing research for a sociology class and your aim is to show the changes
women have gone through. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words contrasting the
mothers of the past and those of today to show the change. Use the relevant
information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
97
TASK 3: Read the information and do the tasks that follow.
SKYDIVING
Skydiving is a sport in which people jump out of an aircraft—alone or in groups—and
land by using a parachute. Because of the sensation of leaping into the air and free-
falling some distance before opening their parachutes, skydivers usually experience a
rush of adrenaline and then a peaceful sense of well-being. This feeling of calm lasts
long after they land on the ground. To maximize safety, skydivers carry two
parachutes. The main parachute is packed in a bag carried on the skydiver's back. A
separate parachute system called a reserve is also worn on the back in case the main
parachute malfunctions. Before they board the aircraft, jumpers practice their in-air
maneuvers on the ground. After takeoff the aircraft climbs to between 3,200 and
4,200 m. I n skydiving, height is safety. When each jumper's turn comes, he or she
takes a step away from the aircraft and begins free-falling. Within 10 to 12 seconds,
the jumper reaches terminal velocity, when the air resistance equals the pull of
gravity. Average-sized skydivers fall approximately 320 to 450 meters every five
seconds, reaching 190 to 240 km/h. Skydivers also move horizontally at speeds up to
80 km/h. During the free fall, skydivers maneuver by changing their body position.
They increase or decrease their speed by becoming more or less aerodynamic. A
typical parachute ride lasts for two to three minutes. Experienced skydivers often
land on their feet, running forward. On difficult landings, jumpers can roll forward to
avoid injury to their arms and legs. Jumpers need to perform two tasks on any skydive
to make it a safe jump: open the parachute in time and land in a safe area. Jumpers
can wear almost any type of clothing while skydiving. Most enthusiasts prefer special
jumpsuits that improve aerodynamic performance and have handles. Skydivers use the
air flow to stabilize their position, allowing the parachute to open safely.
98
BASE JUMPING
BASE jumping is the sport of using a parachute to jump from fixed objects. "BASE" is
an acronym that stands for the four categories of objects from which one can jump;
(B)uilding, (A)ntenna, (S)pan, and (E)arth. The vast majority of people who try BASE
jumping are those that have already learned to skydive. I t is important to know how to
safely fly and land a parachute, and this is best learned on airplane skydives, from
higher altitudes, over large fields that provide room for error in learning how to land.
BASE jumping is a very dangerous sport. Because the jumps are generally made from
very low altitudes, they take place in close proximity to the cliff or the tower, which
provide the jump platform. BASE jumpers have a low airspeed throughout the jump as
the jump starts with zero airspeed. A BASE jumper very rarely approaches the
terminal velocity (airspeed) of a skydiver. The BASE parachute system has to be made
to open very quickly at low airspeeds. The BASE jumper has to be very careful about
his body position when jumping, as the distance is not long enough for him to correct a
wrong position, which might lead to fatal injuries. Most BASE jumps are made from
less than 300 meters. BASE jumpers experience an adrenaline rush and in order to
increase the adrenaline level, they decrease the altitude of the jump. For example, a
BASE jump from a 150-meter object is about 6 seconds from the ground if the
jumper remains in freefall and 10 to 15 seconds with a parachute. On such a jump, the
parachute must open at about half the airspeed of the skydiver, and more quickly.
Many BASE jumpers use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with
extra large pilot chutes, and jump with only one parachute - since, with a total freefall
time of 6 seconds, there would be no time to use a reserve parachute. I n these
systems, the actual parachute canopy should also be specifically manufactured for
BASE jumping. Standard skydiving equipment can only be used on relatively high BASE
jumps. By making low-altitude jumps, BASE jumpers give up the safety margins built
into skydiving. The lower airspeed of a BASE jump is also a risk factor. BASE jumpers,
falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control. The position of the body at the
moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the f i r s t few seconds. A poor
"exit" may lead to serious trouble as the jumper will not have enough time to correct
his position.
99
A. In your own words, describe how skydivers feel during and after the jump.
Make sure you do not lift sentences directly from the text.
B. In one sentence, state the two things skydivers should do to ensure a safe jump.
100
C. You are a journalist working for X-Sports magazine and you have been asked to
write a short article comparing and contrasting two extreme sports: skydiving and
BASE jumping in order to provide beginner extreme sports enthusiasts with
information on the suitability of these sports for their level and to prevent them
from making a wrong choice. As a part of this task, write a paragraph of about
180-220 words using the relevant pieces of information and/or your own
knowledge. Do not lift sentences directly from the text.

Pay attention to:
• the content,
101
TASK 1: Read thefol owingarticle and do the tasks that follow.
SIBLINGS HELP CHILDREN GET ALONG WITH OTHERS I N KINDERGARTEN

1 New research has shown that children who grow up with one or more siblings get along
better with their classmates in kindergarten than only children. I n a national study of
more than 20,000 children, teachers rated students who had at least one sibling as
better at forming and maintaining friendships, getting along with people who are
different, comforting and helping other children, expressing feelings in a positive way,
and showing sensitivity to the feelings of others.
2 Douglas Downey, the author of the study and an associate professor of sociology at
Ohio State University, said that children without siblings were consistently rated as
having poorer social skills. Siblings fight with each other, they have conflicts, but they
also figure out how to resolve those conflicts, which probably helps them deal with
other children when they go to school.
3 Downey's study involves data from a nationally representative sample of 20,649
children attending kindergarten in 1998-99. Even after a variety of other factors that
may be influential in developing social skills, such as the socioeconomic status of the
family and whether the children live with both biological parents, are taken into
account, the results reveal the value of siblings. Moreover, it makes little difference if
the siblings are brothers or sisters, if there are one or more siblings, or how close in
age the siblings are.
4 I t was revealed that one sibling is as helpful as two or more in developing social skills.
The main distinction seems to be between children with no siblings versus those with
one or more siblings. Findings suggest that the benefits may decline slightly when
children have three or more siblings or when there are large age differences between
the siblings, but Downey stated that these differences were not very important.
However, full siblings did seem to benefit children more than step-siblings.
5 As for the implications of the study, Downey said that parents of only children should
not view these results as a reason to have another child. "We wouldn't encourage
parents to have a second child simply as a strategy for improving social skills. Our
findings are consistent, but they are modest; in other words, it is too soon to make an
overgeneralization because the results are based on a relatively small number of
samples. There are other things that parents can do to improve an only child's social
skills, apart from having another child." For example, simply making sure young children
have the opportunity to interact and play with others from an early age will help
develop social skills.
6 The study also points out possible broader consequences of declining family size in the
United States. "We're involved in a huge social change that has unknown consequences
for all of us. People are growing up with fewer siblings as our families get smaller. I t ' s
worthwhile to ask what the social implications of this change are."
102
Teacher selection of students on 5 categories of behavior
of sixth-graders (China)
12%
10%
8%
6%
• Only
4%
• Siblings
2%
0% n r
Class leaders Students Students Students who Students who
most helpful most helpful are best do the best
to to the teacher behaved school work
classmates
Journal of Psychology, 1992
103
1. those (para. 4) :
2. these differences (para. 4) :
B. Find words in the text which mean the following. Do not change the form of the
1. disagreements (para. 2) (n) :
2. disclose, show (para. 3) (v) :
3. become fewer (para. 4) (v) :
4. comparatively (para. 5) (adv) :

1. Research has shown that children with siblings are more positive when
dealing with others' feelings.
2. Siblings fight with each other so much that it affects them negatively.
3. The age difference between siblings does not have considerable
influence on the benefits.
1. What does the study show about only children as regards social skills?
2. What other factors may affect the development of social skills in children, besides
having siblings?
3. Between which two groups is the distinction the largest as regards the
development of social skills?
4. What kind of a social change does Downey predict in the United States?
5. What is the writer's attitude to the possible decline of family size in the United
States?
104
E. Why shouldn't the survey results be seen as a reason to have more than one
child? Explain using your own words in not more than 2-3 sentences.
F. You are writing for the magazine Parenthood. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words comparing/contrasting only children and children with siblings to help
prospective parents decide on whether to have one or more children. Use the
Pay attention to:
• the content,
105
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THE PROBLEM/SOLUTION PARAGRAPH
In most disciplines and professions, problem solving is a basic way of thinking. For
example, scientists use a systematic form of problem solving; political scientists and
sociologists propose solutions to troubling political and social problems. The
problem/solution pattern is also very useful for students in their written assignments.
A problem/solution paragraph presents a problem and describes two or more possible
solutions to that problem. Since such paragraphs are considered to be both
explanatory and persuasive, you must carefully plan and supply sufficient evidence to
prove to your reader that your point in accepting that particular issue as a problem is
valid, and therefore, should be considered.
107
Problem/solution paragraphs follow this pattern:
Title
Introductory Sentence(s) (Presenting the problem)

Introduction
Topic Sentence
Solution # 1 (Major 1)
Minor 1a
Minor 1b
Evaluation
Minor 2a
Minor 2b
Evaluation
Minor 3a
Minor 3b
Evaluation
Conclusion (Recommendation)
Energy Sources: A Dilemma for the Twenty-First Century

I n most of the world, energy is created by burning fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, and
oil. The problem is that these resources are finite and at our current rate of use, we
will be out of fossil fuels in 30 to 40 years. Two of the most commonly proposed
solutions to this worldwide problem are improving conservation efforts and finding
alternative energy resources. The f i r s t solution is to improve our conservation efforts.
I t would help if we biked, walked, carpooled, or used public transportation more and
used our cars less. Preventing heat loss could also be helpful. This could be achieved by
using proper insulation methods. However, improvements in both conservation and
efficiency are temporary solutions. They only extend the useful life of our current
fuels. The second solution to the dangerous energy situation is to find alternative
sources of energy to meet our future needs. The current leading alternatives to fossil
fuels are fusion and solar energy. Fusion, which is a nuclear reaction that results in an
enormous release of energy, is practically pollution-free and is probably our best long-
range option. Unfortunately, it will not be available for at least 20 years. The other
possible energy source, solar power, is in fact the source of all energy on earth, except
for nuclear energy. Solar energy can be utilized not only to heat water and buildings,
but also to generate electricity. I n conclusion, in order to have sufficient energy
resources for the twenty-first century, it will be necessary to pursue the development
and encourage the use of alternative energy sources worldwide.
108
Analyses
Problem:
Solutions: #1
#2
Recommendation:
Introductory sentence(s):
Topic Sentence:
Solution # 1 :
Evaluation:
Solution # 2 :
Evaluation:
Conclusion:
109
DEFINING THE PROBLEM & SUGGESTING THE SOLUTIONS
TASK 2: Below are some serious problems that need immediate attention. Think of
two solutions for each problem and then compare them with those of your
classmates.
1. Living in a foreign country can be fun and exciting, but it can also be problematic.
One of the most serious problems that people living in a foreign country face is
culture shock. What ways can you think of to help people deal with this problem?
PROBLEM: Culture shock

SOLUTIONS: a.
b.
2. Many people are faced with the problem of putting on weight that they can't get
rid of. What suggestions would you give to those who are overweight and want to
lose weight?
PROBLEM: Being overweight

SOLUTIONS: a.
b.
3. Crime is a serious problem in many large cities in Turkey. What solutions can you
think of to reduce the amount of crime?
PROBLEM: Crime in large cities in Turkey
SOLUTIONS: a.
b.
EVALUATING THE SOLUTIONS
TASK 3: Now discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each solution you have
come up with in Task 2 with your partner.
1. PROBLEM: Culture shock
SOLUTION a:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
SOLUTION b:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
110
2. PROBLEM: Being overweight
SOLUTION a:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
SOLUTION b:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
3. PROBLEM: Crime in large cities in Turkey
SOLUTION a:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
SOLUTION b:
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
111

When compared with the other types of paragraphs, a problem/solution paragraph is
somehow different from the rest because it aims to persuade the reader that a
certain issue should be treated as a problem. Therefore, before the topic sentence, it
is essential that the writer explain the problem in one or more introductory sentences.
e.g.: I n most of the world, energy is created by burning fossil fuels—coal, natural
gas, and oil. The problem is that these resources are finite and at our current
rate of use, we will be out of fossil fuels in 30 to 40 years.
Living in a foreign country can be fun and exciting, but it can also be
problematic. One of the most serious problems that people living in a foreign
country face is culture shock.
Many people are faced with the problem of putting on weight that they can't
get rid of.
Crime is a serious problem in many large cities in Turkey.

I n the topic sentence, you should refer to the problem and present your solutions. I n
this sentence, the topic is the problem itself and the controlling idea is a reference to
the discourse, or organizational pattern. I n other words, the controlling idea in
problem-solution paragraphs is "solutions."
e.g.: Two of the most commonly proposed solutions to the worldwide problem of
declining energy resources are improving conservation efforts and finding
alternative energy resources.
e.g.: There are two main solutions to the problem of deforestation (, namely,
conservation of forests and raising public awareness.)
TASK 4: Go back to Task 2 and write topic sentences for the paragraphs in which
you will state the problems given and the solutions you have proposed.
1. PROBLEM: Culture shock

Topic Sentence:
2. PROBLEM: Being overweight

Topic Sentence:
3. PROBLEM: Crime in large cities in Turkey

Topic Sentence:
112
1. IMPORTANCE METHOD
First solution = least important
Last solution = most important (or vice versa)
This method is used if the writer believes that the solutions vary in importance.
2. LOGICAL METHOD
First solution = f i r s t in natural sequence

Last solution = last in natural sequence
This method is used when some natural sequence, such as time or space, presents itself
to the writer.
B. ENUMERATION
I n order to achieve a smooth transition between the major supports, you should use
enumeration, i.e. the use of sequence markers, to signal the connection between
solutions.
First(ly) / First of all,

Second(ly) / Next,
Third(ly) / Then, + sentence
Last(ly) / Finally,
The first / One

The second / Another / Th e next
noun / noun phrase
The third / Still another / Th e next so lution is
noun clause
The last / The final
A better
113
C. USEFUL LANGUAGE
Expressing Certainty
When describing consequences, you can use these expressions to show how certain you are.
certainly
At our current rate of use, we will probably be out of fossil fuels in 30 years.
possibly
may/ might/
could
likely
I t is probabl e that we will be out of fossil fuels in 30 to 40 years.
possible
will not
Fusion may not be available for at least 20 years.
might not
impossible
unlikely
I t is that fusion will be available soon.
improbable
Quantity Expressions
Many problems can be described in terms of too much or too little of sth. The following
expressions are useful.
Too much
exercise leads to bone loss.
An excess of
An excessive amount of alcohol can cause intoxication.
Taking too many pills increases the risk of adverse reactions.
Too little
food intake causes the metabolism to slow down.
Not e nough
Eating too few calories a day can lead to muscle loss and a slower metabolism.
Inadequate
exercise, smoking, and excessive alcohol intake are some of the reasons for
Insufficient
premature deaths.
Lack of oxygen in the blood could lead to health problems and nerve
Shortage of deterioration.
Conditional sentences
If-sentences are used to predict the consequences of actions.
I t would help if we biked, walked, carpooled, or used public transportation more and used
our cars less.
I f we want to prevent heat loss in our homes, we should use proper insulation methods.
114
There are numerous methods of writing a conclusion for problem/solution paragraphs.
1. Recommending the best solution to the problem if one solution is better than the
other(s). (CONCLUDING SENTENCE)
e.g.: I n conclusion, in order to have sufficient energy resources for the twenty-first
century, it will be necessary to pursue the development and encourage the use of
alternative energy sources worldwide.
2. Recommending that any one of the solutions be implemented as they are of equal
importance, or that all the solutions should be applied together as they complement
each other. (CONCLUDING SENTENCE)
e.g.: To conclude, it is important that more be done regarding conservation of forests
and raising public awareness on the issue.
3. Rewriting the topic sentence with or without its major supports. (SUMMARY SENTENCE)
e.g.: To sum up, encouraging conservation efforts and pursuing the development of
alternative energy sources are solutions to the problem of declining energy
resources all over the world.
Useful Language
should
Proper insulation methods must be implemented in order to prevent heat loss.
have to
The Subjunctive: Sentences with subjunctive verbs generally stress importance or

urgency. They can be used when recommending a solution or course of action.
e.g. The teacher demands that we be on time.
I recommend that he not go to the concert.
It is important that they be told the truth. (passive form)
I n order to have sufficient energy resources for the twenty-first century, it is
necessary that we pursue the development and encourage the use of alternative
energy sources worldwide.
A subjunctive verb is used in that-clauses that follow the verbs and expressions below:
essential advise
important insist
(that)* . . .
I t is critical propose (that)* . . .
necessary to do sth. recommend
vital suggest
* After certain verbs and adjectives that express the idea of requesting, advising, or urging,
the simple verb form (or infinitive without to) is used. Note that this form is used
regardless of the tense of the main verb.
e.g.: They advised that the government pass a law dealing with gun control.
I t has been suggested that the president be responsible for his actions.
115
PRACTICE
CHILDREN AND TV
by Dr Trisha Macnair
More than half of children spend over 25 hours a week watching TV, and during holidays
viewing hours soar. A little bit of television is fine, but hour after hour is not good for
anyone, and there are several reasons why it may be harmful. Becoming an antisocial
person, receiving the wrong messages and values about life, and turning into a couch-
potato are some of these harmful effects.
TV disrupts the normal workings of social interaction. There's little conversation or
communication as everyone's attention is drawn towards the set. Interaction is brief,
usually directed at events on the screen. Instead of letting children watch TV, parents
can use this time for family activities, such as playing games or reading, both of which
are important for normal speech and language development, as well as the development
of social skills. Moreover, developing specific interests with the children, such as
painting, tennis, or music may be helpful. Parents should do whatever they can to
encourage a little conversation every day. Of course, parents need to allot the time for
such activities, which may not always be possible for working parents who are short of
time because they spend most of their day at work.
There's no doubt that what children see on the TV shapes their view of the world. Fifty-
seven percent of television programs contain 'psychologically harmful' violence,
according to researchers at the University of California at Santa Barbara. This makes
children behave violently, become desensitized to the harmful consequences of violence
and more fearful of being attacked. Violence and horror are not the only wrong
messages. TV also carries strong messages about sexual attitudes, racial and sexual
stereotypes, habits such as drinking and smoking, as well as many other important
aspects of life. Parents should be aware of what their children are watching. They should
watch programs with their children and if issues such as violence or sexual stereotypes
arise, they should talk about these issues with them. Children learn from TV, but more
importantly they learn from their parents and other adult role models so parents should
act as a filter for the way their children interpret TV and help them understand it in the
right context rather than banning it altogether. Parents may also limit their own TV
watching time. I n addition to acting as a role model by doing so, parents can also have
more time to spend with their children, though it may not always be fun to do so when
your favorite TV program is on. Young ones can more easily be distracted, but with older
children parents may need to lay down some heavy house rules about viewing times and
choices. However, this may have adverse effects on the parent-child relationship and
may ruin the healthy interaction and communication between them.
Television is turning many children into tubbies, as they sit around more and get out and
about less. Television also encourages children to follow a junk food diet because it
bombards them with images of high fat, high-sugar snacks and drinks. Parents should get
their children to go outdoors at least once a day, for exercise and a dose of Vitamin D,
even if it is pouring with rain. Parents themselves will benefit from the exercise, too.
As a parent, you should do everything you can to prevent your children from watching too
much TV or watching the wrong programs. However, if you really can't stand any more,
then it may be time to 'kill' your television, or at least send it on holiday for a few
weeks.
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A. Explain why parents should monitor what their children are watching using your
own words in not more than 2-3 sentences.
B. You are writing for the Psychology Today magazine and as a part of your duty,
you are asked to write a paragraph of 180-220 words discussing three solutions
to the problem of children's watching too much TV so that society can raise
socially and physically active children. Use the relevant information and/or your
own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
117
BUILDING BRIDGES
"Being old is when you know all the answers, but nobody asks you the questions." This
has been true since the emergence of mankind. However, things have become worse.
Nowadays, there is less and less contact between the old and the young. There are
many reasons for this. One of them is the breakdown of the extended family. Then
comes working parents with no time to care for ageing relations. Families that have
moved away and smaller flats with no room for grandparents are the others. Yet, the
outcome is the same - increasing numbers of children without grandparents and old
people who have no contact with children. I n addition to these, there are more old
people who are lonely and feel useless, along with more and more families with young
children who desperately need more support. I t ' s a major problem in many societies.
Luckily, intergenerational programs, designed to bring the old and the young together,
are growing in popularity all over the world. These programs are supported by UNESCO
and other local and international organizations. There are examples of successful
initiatives all over the world. Using young people to teach I T skills to older people is
one obvious example. Using old people as volunteer assistants in schools is another. For
instance, they may participate in reading activities with children who need extra
attention. There are schemes which involve older people visiting families who are
having problems, maybe looking after the children for a while to give the tired mother
a break. An 'Adopt a Grandparent' scheme, in which children write letters or visit a
lonely old person in their area, may be another idea. There are even holiday companies
that specialize in holidays for children and grandparents together. One successful
scheme in London pairs young volunteers with old people who are losing their sight. The
young people help with practical things such as writing letters, reading bank
statements and helping with shopping, and the older people can pass on their knowledge
and experience to their young visitors. For example, a retired judge may be paired with
a teenager who wants to study law. Lasting friendships often develop.
I t isn't only the individuals concerned who gain from intergenerational activities.
Society also benefits from these activities. I f older people can understand and accept
the youth of today, and vice versa, there will be less conflict in the community. I n a
world where the number of old people is increasing, we need as much understanding and
tolerance as possible. Modern Western society has isolated people into age groups and
now we need to rediscover what 'community' really means, and we can use the
strengths of one generation to help another. Then perhaps getting old won't be such a
depressing prospect after all.
118
A. Explain two factors that lead to poor communication between the old and the
young in not more than 2-3 sentences.
B. You are writing for the Hand in Hand magazine and, as a part of your duty,
you are asked to write a paragraph of 180-220 words discussing three solutions
to the problem of poor communication between the old and the young. Use the
Pay attention to:
• the content,
119
INTERNET PLAGIARISM: STRATEGIES TO DETER ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT

Plagiarism is a direct violation of intellectual and academic honesty. While it exists in
many forms, all kinds of plagiarism refer to the same act: representing somebody else's
words or ideas as one's own. Students get involved in plagiarism for different reasons.
Writing and researching is hard work, and some students are too lazy to do it. Others
intend to do the work themselves, but do not manage their time well. Some of these
students put off doing the work because they don't know how to do it, but wait so long
that there is no time to ask for help. Other students think that their English is not good
enough to do the assignment and they look for a way to avoid getting a bad grade. Each
of these students is tempted to do something unethical and dangerous. Plagiarism cannot
be tolerated in an academic community. This statement makes plagiarism sound like a
terrible crime that is also nearly impossible to avoid. However, the worst forms of
plagiarism are very easy to avoid, and usually very easy to discover.
As more students use the Internet for research, the temptation to plagiarize has
greatly increased. Students can refer to any search engine, type in the keywords
associated with a topic, and in a matter of seconds, retrieve a number of websites that
offer full-text information ready to be copied. There are websites, called "paper-mills",
providing term papers which students can download, usually for free, and submit as their
own. These sites have been multiplying at an astounding rate.
Since Internet plagiarism has become an increasing concern for educators, strategies to
prevent this latest form of academic offence must be developed. After reexamining the
existing university policy on plagiarism, educators must implement proactive approaches
in the teaching and prevention of such behavior. Such activities should include a critical
evaluation of educational websites' policies on cyberethics by universities, teaching
students about electronic citation, limiting or directing the use of Internet resources
for assignments, and creating a systematic program that addresses the importance of
citing references. To assist with this instruction, there are many websites that provide
models of policies, citation guides, and suggestions to deter plagiarism. Some sites even
offer sample lessons for instructors to use in their own curriculum. I n turn, it is the
responsibility of all educators to teach and train students about the ethics of research.
Before we teach our students about plagiarism, it is important to ask the following
questions: I s there a written policy distributed to students on academic misconduct? Do
students have a clear understanding of what constitutes academic misconduct? What are
the procedures by which incidents of plagiarism are handled? Even though most
universities have established policies to respond to plagiarism, some instructors do not
take time to review this material with their students. Since plagiarism can occur in any
classroom, it is essential that all instructors review the existing policy on plagiarism at
the beginning of each new term. University policy should first define plagiarism and then
offer an explanation on the types of offenses that can be considered forms of academic
misconduct.
I f we take the time to instruct our students about the ethics of research and
scholarship, we will have fewer "accidental" cases of plagiarism. I n most situations,
plagiarism occurs as a result of ignorance. We cannot assume that our students
understand what is expected of them, and so it is important that we emphasize the
virtue of academic honesty each time we assign a research project. Students need to
understand the significance of ownership in terms of their own written material. Once
this concept is mastered, students learn that in their own writing, they possess
ownership for a body of work. I n turn, they come to understand the meaning of respect
for intellectual property because they themselves have participated in this creation.
120
Figure 1: Breakdown of the number of "paper-mills" websites by years
350
300
number of
paper-mills 250 s
200
150
100
50
0 fTl iH I " w
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
years
Figure 2: Student responses to "Is plagiarism a crime?"
19%: Not
sure
Source: Scholastic Inc., 2005
121
You are writing for an academic magazine. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words
on the problem of the increase in plagiarism and suggest possible solutions. Use
the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
122
THE PROBLEM OF PROCRASTINATION

Consider the following examples:
1. Do you act as though a task will go away if you ignore it? The mid-term exam in
your chemistry class is not likely to vaporize, no matter how much you ignore it.
2. Do you underestimate the work involved in the task, or overestimate your
abilities and resources in relationship to the task? Do you tell yourself that you
grasp concepts so easily that you only need to spend one hour on the physics
problems which would normally take you six?
3. Do you want to believe that a mediocre performance or lesser standards are
acceptable? For example, if you deceive yourself that a 2.1 CGPA is enough to
get you a good job, you may be avoiding working harder to improve your average.
This form of avoidance can prevent you from consciously making choices about
important goals in your life.
4. Do you prefer to substitute one worthy activity for another? Suppose you clean
the apartment instead of writing your term paper. Being clean is fine, but if it
only becomes important when there is an assignment to do, you are
procrastinating.
5. Do you dramatize a commitment to a task rather than actually doing it? An
example is taking your books on vacation but never opening them, or perhaps
even declining invitations for pleasurable events, but still not pursuing the work
nor getting needed relaxation. This way, you stay in a constant state of
unproductive readiness to work—without ever working.
6. Do you stick with only one portion of the task? An example is writing and
rewriting the introductory paragraph of the paper but not dealing with the body
and the conclusion. The introductory paragraph is important, but not at the
expense of the entire project.
I f your answer to one or more of the

above questions is "Yes," you are most
likely a procrastinator. Procrastination
refers to the deliberate and needless
delay or avoidance of a specific task or
work which needs to be accomplished. For
most of us, the word "procrastination"
reminds us of past experiences where we
have felt guilty, lazy, inadequate, anxious,
or stupid - or some combination of these.
"When I get the feeling to do something, I n order to understand and solve your
procrastination problems, you must
I lie down until the feeling goes away."
carefully analyze those situations where
your work is not being completed. M individuals give the following reasons for
avoiding work:
123
Lack of relevance: I f something is neither relevant nor meaningful to you personally, it
may be difficult to get motivated even to begin.
Acceptance of another's goals: I f a project has been imposed on or assigned to you and
it is not consistent with your own interests, you may be reluctant to spend the
necessary time to see it through to completion.
Perfectionism: Having unreachable standards will discourage you from pursuing a task.
Remember, perfection is unattainable.
Evaluation anxiety: Since others' responses to your work are not under your direct
control, overvaluing these responses can create the kind of anxiety that will interfere
with work getting accomplished.
Ambiguity: I f you are uncertain of what is expected of you, it may be difficult to get
started.
Fear of the unknown: I f you are attempting a new subject or area, you can't know how
well you will do. Such an uncertain outcome may hinder your desire to begin.
Inability to handle the task: I f through lack of training, skill, or ability you feel that
you lack the personal resources to do the job, you may avoid it completely.
Here are some tips that may help you deal with avoidance problems:
• Recognize self-defeating problems, such as fear and anxiety, difficulty concentrating,
poor time management, indecisiveness, and perfectionism.
• Identify your own goals, strengths and weaknesses, values and priorities.
• Compare your actions with the values you feel you have. Are your values consistent
with your actions?
• Discipline yourself to use time wisely: Set your priorities.
• Study in small blocks of time instead of long time periods. For example, work in 60-
minute blocks and take frequent 10-minute breaks in between instead of working for
two-three hours straight, with no breaks. Reward yourself after you complete a task.
• Motivate yourself to study: Concentrate on success, not on failure. Try to study in
small groups. Break large assignments into small tasks. Keep a reminder schedule and
checklist.
• Set realistic goals.

• Modify your environment: Eliminate or minimize noise and distraction. Ensure adequate
lighting. Have necessary equipment at hand. Don't waste time going back and forth to
get things. Don't get too comfortable when studying. A desk and straight-backed chair
are usually best (a bed is no place to study). Be neat! Take a few minutes to straighten
your desk. This can help to reduce day-dreaming.
* * *
124
Below are results of a study on academic procrastination conducted on 100
undergraduate students by the University of Michigan in 2003:
What negative outcomes of procrastination

do you experience?
Which academic tasks do you

Course experience procrastination with?
withdrawal 13% Low course
rades 34%
Delaying the
taking of take-
O v Preparing for
oral
home exams presentations Writing term
28% 18% papers
Missing
32%
deadlines for
submitting Keeping up with
assignments weekly reading
25% assignments
23% Studying for
examinations
27%
Do you experience procrastination?
95
Yes No
125
A. You are writing an academic support column for students in the Student
Gazette. Write a paragraph of 180-220 words on the problem of academic
procrastination and suggest possible solutions. Use the relevant information and/or
your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
126
B. For the same column in the Student Gazette, write two paragraphs, each 180-
220 words, on the causes and effects of academic procrastination.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
127
A FRAGILE BALANCE
1 The market for tourism in remote areas is booming as never before. Countries across
the world, especially developing states, are actively promoting their 'wilderness'
regions—such as mountains, arctic lands, deserts, small islands, and wetlands—to high-
spending tourists. The attraction is obvious: 'wilderness' tourism requires little or no
initial investment. But that does not mean that there is no cost, for these regions are
fragile environments, highly vulnerable to abnormal pressures. Consequently,
environmental organizations around the world are increasingly concerned about the
impact of this wilderness travel boom.
2 The three most significant types of fragile environment are deserts, mountains, and
arctic areas. Tourists are drawn to these landscapes by their natural beauty and by
the unique cultures of the indigenous people in these regions. Cheap, global air travel
means that almost no region is out of reach of the modern-day tourist. And poor
governments in these isolated areas have welcomed the new breed of 'adventure
tourist,' grateful for the hard currency they bring. For several years now, tourism has
been the prime source of foreign exchange in Nepal, Bhutan, and, until recently,
Rwanda. Tourism is also a key element in the economies of arctic zones such as Lapland
and Alaska and in desert areas such as Ayers Rock in Australia and Arizona's Monument
Valley.
3 Once a location is established as a main tourist destination, the effects on the local
community are numerous. I f a Nepalese farmer can make more money in a few weeks
working as a porter for foreign trekkers and climbers than he can working in his fields
for a year, it is not surprising that many leave the farming to their wives. I n some
areas of Nepal, this has led to a serious decline in farm output and a change in the local
diet, because there is insufficient labor to maintain terraces and irrigation systems
and tend to crops. The result has been that many mountain people have turned to
outside supplies of rice and other foods.
4 The physical impact of visitors is another serious problem associated with the growth
in adventure tourism. Much attention has focused on erosion along major trails, but
perhaps more important are the deforestation and shortage of water supplies, arising
from the need to provide tourists with cooked food and hot showers. I n both
mountains and deserts, slow-growing trees are often the main source of fuel, and
water supplies may be limited or vulnerable to degradation through heavy use.
5 Fortunately, many people and organizations are aware of the magnitude of the threat.
UNESCO, for example, has been dealing with the current situation through several
initiatives that aim to promote a new tourism culture, based on common sense and the
responsible use of the environmental resources and cultural assets of each destination.
UNESCO's work on cultural tourism aims at helping its member states in devising
strategies for the long-term preservation of the cultural heritage. There have been
numerous conservation efforts of individual countries as well. For example, the beach
conservation project in Minorca, Spain has focused on communication and cooperation
among visitors, students, and local people, who have been made aware of the threat to
beach ecosystems. Residents have contributed by keeping mechanical cleaning methods
to a minimum or moving parking areas a bit further away from beaches so that they do
not affect the dune systems. Meanwhile, educational campaigns have been organized in
128
order to inform tourists and residents about the natural value of beaches. A similar
attempt has been made on New Zealand's West Coast, where a visitor management
project has begun with an emphasis on protecting the environment and managing
visitors to prevent adverse effects. Obviously, such changes require public
participation and awareness.
6 Though tourists only come for a small part of the year, they have a large influence on a
region. Many people living in fragile environments have lost control over their
economies, their cultures, and their environments when tourism has penetrated their
homelands. Merely restricting tourism cannot be the solution to this imbalance because
people's desire to see new places will not just disappear. Instead, communities in
fragile environments must achieve greater control over the tourism sector in their
regions. A growing number of communities are demonstrating this control. The critical
question now is whether this can become the norm, rather than the exception.
1. that (para. 1) : the fact that
2. they (para. 2) :
3. this (para. 3) :
4. they (para. 5) :
5. this (para. 6) :
1. type, kind (para. 2) (n) :
2. deterioration, corruption (para. 4) (n) :
3. creating (para. 5) (v) :
4. undesirable, harmful (para. 5) (adj) :
1. One of the reasons why tourists prefer remote areas is that they
consider the cultures in these regions to be exceptional.
2. The fact that new jobs are being created for people in these regions
affects the food supplies in a negative way.
3. Putting a restriction on tourism seems to be the best way to overcome
the problems that arise.
129
1. How do environmental organizations feel about the increasing popularity of

wilderness tourism?
2. What enables tourists to have access to remote parts of the world?
3. What are the three negative effects of wilderness tourism on the environment?
4. How have the locals of Minorca participated in the conservation efforts to save
the beach?
E. What is the reason for the growth of tourism in remote areas? Explain using
your own words in not more than 2-3 sentences.
130
F. You are a journalist writing for People and Places magazine. Write a paragraph
of 180-220 words on the problem of tourism threatening the ecologies and
cultures in remote areas and suggest possible solutions.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
131
( UNIT 7: ARGUMENTATION
THE ARGUMENTATIVE PARAGRAPH

An argument is a discussion in which there is disagreement between two parties. One
party gives an opinion and offers reasons in support of it and the other party gives a
different opinion and offers reasons in support of it. However, people can disagree
about many things that cannot be argued effectively. Arguments of preference, belief,
and fact are not types of argument one can effectively and logically deal with in the
formal argumentative paragraph. The kind of argument that can be argued logically is
one based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such as facts.
Argumentation is formal persuasion, an attempt to convince others that they should
accept your point of view. To persuade the reader, the writer gives information
(evidence) to support his or her viewpoint. Then the writer considers the best
argument against his or her viewpoint an opponent might have, and tries to refute that
argument by showing why it is wrong, weak, or of lesser importance.
133
Argumentative paragraphs follow this pattern:
Title
Introductory Sentence(s)
Introduction
Topic Sentence (writer's claim/proposal)
PRO 1: Point of Support # 1 (Major 1)
Minor 1a Evidence (facts, examples, statistics) / Explanation /

Minor 1b Personal experience / Emotional appeals
PRO 2: Point of Support # 2 (Major 2)

Minor 2a Evidence (facts, examples, statistics) / Explanation /
Minor 2b Personal experience / Emotional appeals
CON: Opponent's Argument

Refutation of opponent's argument
Conclusion (restatement of proposal / statement of solution, call for action)
OF PAIN AND PROGRESS

Animals have long been used in research, and have contributed to the development of
vaccines and medicine. However, the experiments that lab animals are subjected to have
long been made a controversial issue. Although proponents of animal experimentation
believe that without animals medical research would stop, I propose that these
experiments be limited and alternatives replace them as they are inhumane and are against
the rights of animals. To begin with, the experiments performed on animals are clearly
inhumane. To exploit, torture, and kill another sentient creature deliberately is an immoral
abuse of power. According to official US Department of Agriculture figures,
approximately 140,000 dogs and 42,000 cats die in labs in the US every year. Experiments
performed on these animals include injection of poisons and carcinogens, spraying of
chemicals on the body and face, and all kinds of live operations that result in much
suffering and, ultimately, death. Moreover, the brutal methods used in laboratories are
against the rights of animals. According to the Universal Declaration of Animal Rights,
experimentation on animals that involves physical and psychological suffering for medical,
scientific, educational, or commercial purposes is incompatible with their rights.
Nonetheless, those who are in favor of using animals in experiments claim that without
animals, medical research would cease. The proponents of the issue do have a point, but we
have a duty to avoid abusing our power over animals. The greater the suffering an
experiment causes, the harder it is to justify it, particularly in cases where the
experiment is not used for life-saving purposes. I t should be the duty of all scientists,
then, to support the restriction of experiments on animals through the development of
alternative methods. I n short, it is crucial that animal experimentation be reduced to a
minimum due to its inhumanity and the fact that it conflicts with the rights of animals.
134
Analysis
Introductory sentence(s):
Topic sentence:
(A) PRO 1 - Point of Support # 1 :
(B) PRO 2 - Point of Support # 2 :
(C) CON - Opponent's Argument:

Refutation:
Conclusion:
135
A Valid Proposal
An argument is not normally a place of neutrality. Nor is it a place of obvious proposals.
I n argumentation, the writer challenges others' ideas and tries to convince the readers
that his/her proposal is valid. I n other words, the writer should avoid obvious
proposals. Imagine that the title of a paragraph was "Are there biological differences
between males and females?" Would it be necessary for you to read the paragraph?
TASK 2: Read the following proposals and decide which could be a topic for
argumentation.
1. The world would be better if all world leaders were women.

2. Marijuana should be illegal.
3. Americans love money.
4. Cloning research should not be restricted by law.

5. Was Picasso a great painter?
6. Young children should not be allowed to eat too much sugar.
7. Life in the Sahara Desert is difficult.
8. Aerobic exercise is not good for women.
9. Abortion should be legal.

10. People should not have the right to practice euthanasia.
11. Prospective parents should not be required to get licenses in order to have children.
12. Pornographic books ought to be banned from the library.
13. There are many complex reasons for the failure of the police to respond quickly to alarms.
14. People should not be allowed to carry guns.
The Pro and Con List

Once you have decided on a topic, it is vital to know the major argumentative points on
both sides of the issue, whether or not you know which side you are going to take.
After listing as many points as you can think of, consider the points on both sides of
the argument, and choose the side you wish to argue for. Decide which points you will
use in your paragraph to support your topic.
e.g.
Nuclear energy should be used Nuclear energy should not be used
• Cheaper fuel costs • Radioactive waste

• Less dependence on foreign oil • Unemployment in fossil-fuel
• Creates high tech jobs industries
• Saves natural resources • Environmental pollution
• Ensures strong nuclear arsenal • Nuclear power plant accidents
• Nuclear weapons proliferation
136
TASK 3: Write as many points as you can under each proposal.
(1) Abortion should be legal Abortion should not be legal
(2) Cloning research should be Cloning research should not be

restricted restricted
(3) People should have the right People should not have the right
to practice euthanasia to practice euthanasia
(4) Marijuana should be illegal Marijuana should not be illegal
137
(5) People should be allowed to carry guns People should not be allowed to carry guns
TASK 4: Refer to Task 3, choose three of the proposals, and write two pro
arguments and one con argument for each. Remember that the pro arguments
support your proposal, and the con is the best argument against your proposal.
1. Proposal : .
PRO 1 : .
PRO 2 : .
CON : .
2. Proposal
PRO 1
PRO 2
CON
3. Proposal :
PRO 1 :
PRO 2 :
CON :
138

Writers often include an introductory sentence to explain why they have chosen to
discuss the particular issue at hand. The sentence might discuss why the issue is
controversial, why the author finds it worth debating, or why a reader should take an
interest in the debate.

I n an argumentative paragraph, the topic sentence states the writer's point of view
about a particular topic. An open topic sentence also includes the reasons for the
proposal. However, it is also possible to write a closed one without the reasons.
Moreover, the topic sentence may include the opponent's argument (con).
e.g.: All handgun sales should/must be prohibited because violent crime would
decrease and the social environment would improve.
Although proponents of animal experimentation believe that, without animals,
medical research would stop, I propose that these experiments be limited and
alternatives replace them as they are inhumane and are against the rights of
animals.
A strong topic sentence generally provides a background for the issue, and states the
writer's proposal with or without his reasons. I n such cases, the introductory sentence may
not be necessary.
e.g.: Having been a controversial topic for many years, cloning research seems to have
become a means towards prolonging human life; however, I insist that research on
cloning be restricted by law.
Useful Language
Generally, should/should not or must/must not are used in a persuasive topic sentence.
Writers may prefer to use language patterns other than should, namely "the
subjunctive," when introducing their topic sentence, or in the concluding sentence,
when restating the proposal.
propose
urge
I that the building of nuclear power plants be stopped (because . . .)
recommend
insist
I t is recommended that nuclear power plants not be built.

Although nuclear power plants are said to be an economic way to produce energy,
CON
their construction should not be permitted as they are extremely dangerous and
proposal PRO 1
very expensive to maintain.
PRO 2
139
TASK 5: Write an introductory sentence and a topic sentence for each of your
proposals in Task 4. You can also write a strong topic sentence without an
introductory sentence.
2.
3.
140
Although there are different patterns for organizing the argumentative paragraph,
there is a basic, workable approach that is commonly used.
A. ORGANIZATION
Having written the introduction, you have to develop the proposal by offering reasons
(pro arguments) and supporting them with evidence or proof. Evidence can be facts,
statistics, or examples. I t can also take the form of a narrative, or story, that
illustrates your position. You can also use a combination of methods. Once you make
your point, you must introduce the opponent's main reason against the proposal (con).
Finally, you have to refute the con. Since there are two sides to the issue, and since
you want to convince the reader that you are right, not only must you prove your own
case, but you should also prove that the opponent is wrong, or at least that your points
are more valid or significant.
I f an opponent does have a valid point, acknowledge that it is valid. I t does little good
in an argument to ignore any valid points the other side may have. You can accept them
and then go on to show that your points are more important anyway.
B. PROVIDING EVIDENCE
I n an argumentative paragraph, you may use a variety of support techniques to
persuade the reader that a particular position is convincing. The types of evidence that
can be used are:
(a) Referring to an authority
(b) Stating facts
(c) Giving statistical evidence based on research
(d) Providing a logical argument

(e) Providing examples
- Information based on personal experience, observations, or common sense
- Information that compares similar things
Predicting consequences can also strengthen an argument and persuade your reader to
agree with your point of view and disagree with your opponent's.
Regardless of type or source, evidence must always be:

• accurate
• up-to-date
• typical (that is, it is found in a variety of circumstances, not just one)
141
Some Problems with Evidence and Logic
Writers of arguments must be especially careful to avoid misleading evidence and
logical mistakes. Three of the most common errors include:
• FALSE CONCLUSION: The conclusion is not based on evidence.
• MISPLACED C A U S E S A N D E F F E C T S : J u s t because one thing takes place before
another doesn't mean the f i r s t causes the second; similarly, just because one thing
follows another doesn't mean the second is an effect of the first.
• BAD EVIDENCE: Evidence used comes from an outdated, incompetent, or biased

source.
TASK 6: Study the evidence given for the following reasons. What problems does
each have?
Reason 1 There is no doubt that Serbian troops have withdrawn from Kosovo.
According to information released by the Serbian Interior Ministry, 87%
of all troops had exited the Kosovo enclave as of the date required by the
United Nations.
Problem
Reason 2 Treating teeth with fluoride causes cancer. A research study which
tracked children who had had their teeth treated with fluoride found that
at age sixty, 7% of them had gotten cancer.
Problem
Reason 3 The voting age in the U.S. should be lowered from eighteen to seventeen.
At age seventeen, young people are allowed to drive unrestrictedly in
twenty-five states and even drink alcohol in one (Arizona). I f they drive
and can drink alcohol, seventeen-year-olds should surely be able to vote.
Problem
Useful Language
Pattern to cite source or statistics
Accord ing to information from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, ...

Based on information from a 2003 research study done by METU's Department of Civil Engineering,
142
C. INTRODUCING THE CON
Trying to identify and understand your opponent's point of view is important; if you do
not understand your opponent's reasons and you just argue your own, you are not likely
to convince your reader at all. I t is possible to use one of the following transitions
when introducing a con argument.
Useful Language
Patterns to introduce the main reason against
argue
assert
The opponents of declare
that
Those who d isagree with claim
are against maintain
are not in favor of point out
say
state
take the position
An argument against is that
D. REFUTATION
Now that you have thought deeply about your proposal, considering the reasons for and
the main reason against, you must think even more deeply. You must attack and refute
the opponent's main reason against the proposal. There are three basic methods of
attacking and refuting your opponent's main reason against the proposal.
Method 1: Demonstrate that your opponent's reason is wrong because it is based on

incorrect or misleading information. ( R E J E C T )
Method 2: Show that your opponent's reason is weak because it is based on

insufficient information or ignores significant information. (DENY THE
RELEVANCY)
Method 3: Agree that your opponent's reason is valid, but show that your points of
support are more compelling. (COMPROMISE)
143
TASK 7: Study the following refutations. Which methods do they use?
1. Proposal: Workers should not be forced to retire at age sixty-five.

Main reason against and refutation:
Those who disagree with this proposal point out that as people grow older their
bodies begin to slow down, and it is risky for them to continue working. Actually,
this is true in only one respect—the body does slow down. However, accident rates
for those over sixty-five are slightly less than those for people under sixty-five.
How can we explain this? Simply, workers over sixty-five have far more experience
in their jobs than younger workers, and workers over sixty-five are far more aware
of their own limitations.
Method:
2. Proposal: Abortion should be legal.

Main reason against and refutation:
"Pro-life" people argue that abortion is the killing of a potential human being. This
is undeniably true. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out, if abortion is illegal,
there will be a dramatic increase in unwanted, neglected, and abused children, the
number of women who die getting illegal, unhygienic abortions will increase greatly,
and women will lose what they have fought so hard for—the basic right to control
their own bodies. These three points outweigh the argument of the pro-lifers.
Method:
Useful Language
To signal disagreement, one of the following transitions can be used. The choice
depends on how strongly the writer disagrees.
Method 1: REJECT
This is unlikely to be true.

This is obviously not true.
This is not acceptable.
Nothing could be further from the truth.
I strongly disagree with this view.
Method 2: DENY THE RELEVANCY
These views are open to doubt.

Serious doubt can be raised against this.
They would seem to be mistaken.
They appear to ignore the fact that ...
Method 3: COMPROMISE
The opponents have a point, but this argument is not valid any longer.
Although it may be true to a certain extent, this claim is not strong enough because
144
TASK 8: Use the relevant information below and complete the following paragraph.
1. Whales are intelligent creatures that share our world. They are capable of
communicating even to the point of composing whale songs. They are highly
civilized, social creatures that maintain closely knit family groups. Killing such
intelligent, civilized creatures is murder.
2. Whaling countries such as Japan and Russia do not need the whaling industry to
support their economies. I n fact, money from whaling represents only .00001% of
the Japanese economy and .0002% of the Russian economy.
3. Buffalo, elephants, and rhinoceroses are other large mammals that have been
driven to the point of extinction by man's killing.
4. The only way to stop the killing is to have laws against it; hunters will not stop voluntarily.
5. The Cousteau Society estimates that the number of whales has declined by 95% in
the last 100 years. Moreover, if the slaughter continues at its present rate, the
society believes that whales will become extinct in another 25 years.
6. I t is cheaper to produce synthetic "whale" oil than to obtain natural oil from dead
whales. Each kilogram of synthetic oil costs about $8.00 to produce, whereas it
costs over $15.00 to obtain the same amount of natural whale oil.
7. Results of the moratorium on whale hunting in the North Atlantic, 1990-97:
Total # o f live whales

(thousands)
6.5-
6.0-
5.5-
5.0-
4.5-
4.0-
3.5-
3.0-
2.5-
'97 '96 '95 '94 '93 '92 '91' '90

Years
STOP THE SLAUGHTER OF WHALES!
Though humans have hunted whales for hundreds of years, the activity has become
increasingly controversial in the last century. There is now compelling evidence to
suggest that the killing of whales should be stopped both for humanitarian and
economic reasons. To begin with, whales are not a lower form of animal. .
Moreover, technology has now advanced to the point that it is no longer necessary or
economically feasible to kill whales for oil. . Nonetheless, opponents of this
proposal claim that whaling industries constitute an important segment of the economy
of whaling countries. This is obviously not true. . I n summary, some action
must be taken now. . Help stop the killing of whales!
145
TASK 9: Refer to Task 4 and write a con argument for each of the proposals and
refute them.
2.
3.
146
The conclusion in an argumentative paragraph should emphatically restate the proposal,

stressing the necessity of accepting it. I n addition, it may make a demand for some
action.
e.g. To conclude, considered from both the economic and ecological points of view,
the protection of whales is essential.
Help stop the killing! Ban gun sales!
I n conclusion, in the light of this information, it is important that action be
taken against the sales of guns.
Useful Language
essential
important
crucial
imperative
urgent that something (should) be done.
I t is
necessary that someone (should) do something.
vital
recommended
of utmost importance
advisable
TASK 10: Write a conclusion for each of the proposals in Task 4.
1.
2.
3.
147
PRACTICE
TASK 1: Read the following information and do the task that follows.
SHOULD DOCTORS BE ALLOWED TO HELP

TERMINALLY ILL PATIENTS COMMIT SUICIDE?
After Jack "Dr. Death" Kevorkian helped several more terminally ill people kill themselves, the
governor of Michigan signed an immediate state ban on physician-assisted suicide on February
25, 1993. And yet both Washington and California came close to making the practice legal, with
residents in each state voting 46 percent in its favor.
YES
I t would be a great comfort to people who face terminal illness to know they could get help to
die if their suffering became unbearable. All pain cannot be controlled, and it's arrogant for
anybody to say that it can. Quality-of-life decisions are the sole right of the individual.
I t ' s nonsense to say that death shouldn't be part of a doctor's job - it already is. We all die.
Death is a part of medicine. One of a doctor's jobs is to write death certificates. So this idea of
the doctor as superhealer is a load of nonsense. The fact is that it's not so easy to commit
suicide on your own. I t ' s very hard for decent citizens to get lethal drugs. Even if they do,
there's the fear that the drugs won't work. There are hundreds of dying people who couldn't lift
their hand to their mouth with a cup of coffee, let alone a cup of drugs. They need assistance.
Of course, people who are depressed or who feel they are a weight on their families should be
counseled and helped to live. But you have to separate those instances from people who are
dying, whose bodies are giving up on them. I f you think there is a cure around the corner for
your malady, then please wait for it. That is your choice. But sometimes a person realizes that
her life is coming to an end, as in the case of my wife, whose doctor said, "There is nothing else
we can do."
We're not talking about cases in which a depressed person will come to a doctor and ask to be
killed. Under the law the Hemlock Society is trying to get passed, the doctor must say no to
depressed people. A candidate for assisted suicide has to be irreversibly, terminally, hopelessly
ill and judged to be so by two doctors.
NO
I f it's a question of someone's wanting the right to die, I say jump off a building. But as soon as
you bring in somebody else to help you, it changes the equation. Suicide is legally available to
people in this country. J u s t don't ask a doctor to help you do it. That would violate the traditions
of medicine and raise doubts about the role of physicians.
One of my worries is that people will be manipulated by a doctor's suggesting suicide. A lot of
seriously ill people already feel they're a burden because they're costing their families money. I t
would be easy for a family to insinuate, "While we love you, Grandmother, and we're willing to
spend all our money and not send the kids to college, wouldn't it be better if...?" There is no
pressure there, but you build on somebody's guilt. We'd have a whole new class of people
considering suicide who hadn't thought about it before.
Then, too, I don't believe that you could successfully regulate this practice. The relationship
between the doctor and the patient begins in confidentiality. I f they decide together that they
don't want anybody to know, there is no way the government can regulate it. The presumption is
that physicians would only be helping people commit suicide after everything else had failed to
end their suffering. But a lot of people won't want to be that far along. None of the proposed
regulations take into account a person who is not suffering now, but who says, " I don't want to
suffer in the future. Let me commit suicide now." I can imagine a doctor who would say, "Yes,
we're going to make sure that you don't have to suffer at all."
148
Why People Killed Themselves in 2002 under Oregon's Physician-Assisted Suicide Act
149
You are preparing for a debate on euthanasia. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words for or against physician-assisted suicide. Use the relevant information
and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
150
MUSIC PIRACY
Music piracy, which refers to the illegal duplication and distribution of sound
recordings, has recently become a major topic of dispute. Here are several of the
views held by various parties:
As we move to a world where all entertainment is delivered digitally, the battle over
copyright protection is turning into a war. Legitimate digital media services are
exploding, but each additional option brings a new battle, new restrictions, and even
new dangers for users. Copy protection included in Sony BMG audio CDs, for example,
has allowed virus writers to use the system and sneak onto users' PCs. Satellite and HD
Radio, which promise higher-quality audio and more content, may become difficult for
listeners to record if the music industry manages to outlaw piracy.
Why should we care about CD piracy?

The answers to this question are compelling. Every dollar spent on a pirate CD is a
dollar lost for legitimate goods or services. This means that there is a loss of tax
revenue, or income, that could be used for teachers' salaries, school supplies, the police
force, the fire services, and other emergency services.
Narcotics investigators say that CD piracy operates like the illegal drug trade—but is
more profitable. Organized crime organizations run the production and distribution
networks. The profits made from CD piracy fund other criminal activities too, and this
generates violence.
As regards the music business, CD piracy means fewer record deals and less incentive
to invest in genres like Latin and urban that tend to attract pirates.
Funding Criminal Activities

"CD pirates make hundreds of millions of dollars in profits from illegal CD sales. They
often use these profits to fund other criminal enterprises," says Brad Buckles, head of
the anti-piracy division of the RIAA.
Experts say the criminal activities include narcotics, guns, and terrorism. Organized
crime is right in the middle of it, firmly established at the manufacturing and
distribution levels.
151
So who loses?
• Music pirates are the first to lose because the recording industry and law
enforcement officials around the world are very keen on capturing these people. Do
the crime and you will pay the fine or do the time.
• Consumers also lose because the shortcut savings enjoyed by pirates increase the
costs of legitimate product for everyone.
• Honest retailers lose because they can't compete with the prices offered by illegal
vendors. Less business means fewer jobs, most of which are filled by young adults.
• Record companies lose. 85% of recordings released don't even generate enough
income to cover their costs. Record companies depend heavily on the profitable 15%
of recordings to promote the less profitable types of music, to cover the costs of
developing new artists, and to keep their businesses operating.
• Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the creative artists lose. Musicians, singers,
songwriters, and producers don't get the royalties, i.e. payments for their rights, and
fees they've earned. Almost all artists (95%) depend on these fees to make a living.
I s Music Piracy Illegal?

Ruining the lives of individuals for petty non-commercial copyright infringement* is
vastly worse than the immorality of piracy. However legal it might be, it is simply
wrong.
Copyright laws related to music are extremely severe. I am no expert, but as I
understand it, even quoting a few words or a phrase from the lyrics of a copyrighted
song is illegal without permission, unlike prose, where legal use can run to hundreds of
words.
The music business lobby has successfully brought lawmakers on its side. The fight is
ultimately about money and power and control—over what you will be able to see and
read and watch and listen to, and how it will be delivered, and who will make money
from it. I t is about the protection of pressure groups, not just the protection of
artists' intellectual property.
Copyright legislation is rooted in monopolism and censorship, and has been expanded in
scope far beyond its original intent.
* copyright infringement: the unauthorized use of copyrighted material in a manner that violates the copyright owner's
exclusive rights
Piracy Transformed
"The explosion of CD-R technology in the last five years has transformed the nature of
piracy," says Chuck Lawhorn, RIAA* senior Vice President of anti-piracy legal affairs.
"CD-Rs are the principal form of illegal product in the Eastern United States, Latin
America, and Western Europe."
"The speed of CD-R burners has increased while the cost of piracy operations has
dropped," Brad Buckles, head of the anti-piracy division of the RIAA, says. "Burners
operating at 52x can now copy 40 minutes of music in less than one minute."
* R I A A : Recording Industry Association of America
152
Do you think that CD prices are too high? Digital Music
I don't care if music I download

Not sure is copyrighted
7%
Downloading music without

permission is stealing
I have paid for music online
I've downloaded music from the

Internet
0 20 40 60 80 100
Are you concerned that you are violating What is the main reason for
copyright laws by downloading music? the decline in CD sales?
Competing
No opinion entertainment
(video
6%
Yes games,
Illegal
29% DVDs, etc)
17% ^downloading
' 33%
Bad music
24%
No
65% High prices
26%
Survey by Ipsos: 1,000 people ages 18-65+
A. According to one viewpoint, the fight against music piracy is unfair and biased.
Explain this idea in 4 - 5 sentences using your own words.
153
B. You are writing for the Rolling Stone magazine. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words on whether legal action should be taken against music piracy or not. Use
the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
154
ETHICS & REALITY TV: SHOULD WE REALLY WATCH?

1 The media both in America and around the world seems to have "discovered" that so-
called "reality" shows are very profitable. As a result, we have experienced a growing
string of such shows in recent years. Although not all are successful, many do achieve
significant popularity and cultural fame. That does not mean, however, that they are
good for society or that they should be broadcasted.
2 These reality TV shows wouldn't be made if we didn't watch them, so why do we watch
them? Either we find them entertaining or we find them so shocking that we are simply
unable to turn away.
Humiliation as Entertainment
3 That people do suffer on some reality TV shows is beyond question. So what causes us
to derive entertainment from the suffering of others? Certainly there may be a
release of emotional tension involved, but that can also be achieved through fiction—
we don't need to see a real person suffer in order to have a relaxing experience.
Perhaps we are simply happy that these things aren't happening to us.
4 There is never any attempt to justify these shows as enriching or worthwhile in any
way, though certainly not every program needs to be educational or intellectual.
Nevertheless, it does raise the question as to why they are made. A Los Angeles
lawyer, Barry B. Langberg, says, "Something like this is done for no other reason than
to embarrass people or humiliate them or scare them. The producers don't care about
human feelings. They don't care about being decent. They only care about money."
5 Comments from various reality TV producers often fail to demonstrate much sympathy
or concern with what their subjects experience - what we are seeing is a great cruelty
towards other human beings who are treated as means towards achieving financial and
commercial success. Injuries, humiliation, suffering, and higher insurance rates are all
just the "cost of doing business" and a requirement for being more provocative.
Where's the Reality?

6 One of the attractions of reality television is the supposed "reality" of it - unscripted
and unplanned situations and reactions. One of the ethical problems of reality
television is the fact that it isn't nearly as "real" as it pretends to be.
7 Reality television shows are not documentaries. People are not put into situations
simply to see how they react - the situations are heavily devised; they are altered in
order to make things interesting, and large amounts of footage are heavily edited into
what the show's producers think will result in the best entertainment value for
viewers. Entertainment, of course, often comes from conflict - so conflict will be
created where none exists. I f the show cannot stimulate conflict during the filming, it
can be created in how pieces of footage are stitched together. I t ' s all in what they
choose to reveal to you.
155
Moral Responsibility
8 I f a production company creates a show with the explicit intention of trying to make
money from the humiliation and suffering which they themselves create for innocent
people, then that seems to me to be immoral. I simply cannot think of any excuse for
such actions - pointing out that others are willing to watch such events does not relieve
them of the responsibility for having orchestrated the events and willed the reactions
in the first place. The mere fact that they want others to experience humiliation,
embarrassment, and/or suffering (and simply in order to increase earnings) is itself
unethical; actually going forward with it is even worse.
9 Of course, there are many parties involved here, such as the advertisers and the
contestants. But what about the responsibility of the reality TV viewers? I f you watch
such shows, why? I f you find that you are entertained by the suffering and humiliation
of others, that's a problem.
10 I suspect that people's ability and willingness to take pleasure in such things may stem
from the increasing separation we experience from others around us. The more distant
we are from each other as individuals, the more readily we can objectify each other
and fail to experience sympathy and empathy when others around us suffer.
11 I'm not saying that you shouldn't watch reality TV programming, but the motivations
behind being a viewer are ethically doubtful. Instead of passively accepting whatever
media companies try to feed you, it would be better to take some time to reflect on
why such programming is made and why you feel attracted to it. Perhaps you will find
that your motivations themselves are not so attractive.
1. they (para. 1) :
2. that (para. 3) :
3. they (para. 7) :
4. none (para. 7) : no
1. civilized, polite (para. 4) (adj) :
2. open, clear (para. 8) (adj) :
3. wanted, wished (para. 8) (v) :
1. The success of a show does not necessarily mean that it is good.
2. Humiliating and hurting people are means of making money, according to

many TV producers.
3. Reality television is as real as it claims to be.
156
1. Why do producers of reality shows want the footage to be edited?
2. What is the excuse reality TV producers come up with to justify themselves?
3. According to the writer, why have people lost the feelings of sympathy and
empathy towards others?
4. What are the negative and positive aspects of reality shows?
Negative aspects Positive aspects
E. According to the writer, why do people watch reality shows on TV? Explain in
4 - 5 sentences.
157
F. You are writing for the magazine TV and Us. Write a paragraph of 180-220
words against reality shows on TV. Use the relevant information and/or your own
ideas. Do not lift sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
158
CHILDREN AND THE MOBILE PHONE—AN ADDICTION OR A NECESSITY?

While there is currently no question as to the benefits of the mobile phone, at the
beginning, these benefits had to be sold to us by the mobile phone industry. However,
with the ease of communication—that is, contact anywhere and at anytime with friends,
relations, and colleagues—and the efficiency brought to our busy lives, we have made the
judgment that, indeed, the mobile phone is an exceptionally useful tool. I t has advanced
personal communication beyond our wildest expectations of only a few years ago.
Furthermore, its future developments are likely to be equally amazing. However, every
technological advance also has consequential costs, and it is the area of mobile phone
usage that requires more attention, especially with regard to their use by young people.
Responsible parents believe that with the benefits of immediate communication, the
mobile phone is a necessity. "What happens if our child can't get a lift home? We feel
safer knowing that our son can contact us if he's in trouble." Or, " I t gives him the
responsibility of the cost of phone calls as he gets an allowance and it is up to him to
manage his activities." These are some reasons why, all in all, the mobile phone is hugely
convenient and popular. However, when the mobile phone becomes not just an essential
item for communication but instead something that takes control of a child's life,
parents have a right to be worried.
Various experts say that they recognize the worrying signs of dependency on the mobile
phone. They believe that, while the mobile phone is generally perceived as an accessory,
it could be more appropriately described as a "comfort blanket," since getting a phone
call or a text message implies to children that, "somebody wants me." I t boosts the
receiver's self-esteem and feeling of self-worth. This is particularly true for teenagers
who are struggling with their identity and social status. Phone usage not only increases
the opportunity to bond with friends and to organize a social life, but it also provides a
symbol for acceptance.
The youth of today are the first new generation to have an "anytime, anyplace, anywhere
mobile communications culture" and the excessive use of it can be viewed as part of
defining generational differences. This culture is no comfort to parents who cannot
understand their children's obsession because they claim that it is possible to organize
lives and keep in touch with others perfectly well without the mobile phone. However,
now, some children are so obsessed with the mobile phone that they can't manage
without their mobile phones. Moreover, this obsession leads to problems among family
members as children can't spend time with family members uninterruptedly or they are
constantly checking for messages. Furthermore, they become bad-tempered if they have
to be away from their phone for any period of time. That's why families are finding the
"mobile culture" stressful, and claim that it causes gaps between family members.
I n some families, the situation has become far worse; text messaging has become an
obsession that needs to be fed by constant communication and that means constant
funding. "I discovered our daughter had been using my credit card without my permission
to buy more mobile airtime for her phone," says the father of a 13-year-old. Other
children, perhaps, steal cash to feed the habit. These are worrying developments and
parents feel that they have a difficult situation on their hands regarding their child's
mobile phone usage.
I n conclusion, it is important that parents understand the above concerns and the
effects they can have on their children and their family. I n the case of mobile phones,
parents should take into account the merits of both points of view before making a
judgment on whether mobile phone use is an addiction or a necessity for children and
teenagers.
159
Social Interaction Of Age Groups
16 15
14
•3 14
.1 12
9 9 • People who own mobile
£ 10 8
o phones
8 1 People who DON'T own
6 4 mobile phones
4
2
0
11-15 16-20 21-25
age groups
source: Commentary Magazine, 05/2004
What do Children with Mobile Phones Spend their

Time on
7
11% %
^ ^ • mobile phone
• internet
L Z T / 52%
• studying
• family
source: The University of Essex, Dept. of Psychology, 2005
A. Explain the ideas that were used by the mobile phone industry in the promotion
of the mobile phones to the public using your own words in not more than 2 - 3
sentences.
160
B. You work for the Child Guide Magazine, and you have been asked to write a
paragraph of 180-220 words on whether children should own mobile phones or
not. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift sentences
directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
161
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND CREDIT CARDS

University students and their credit-card use have been in the news lately. Most news stories use
phrases such as "addicted to plastic" and "dark clouds of debt." Some stories even associate
student suicides with credit-card debts. A Reuters news story wrote: "The marketing of credit
cards on university campuses is so aggressive that it now poses a greater threat than alcohol or
drugs." While some universities have responded to this problem by restricting the marketing of
credit cards on campuses, several officials have called for controls on the issuing of credit cards
to those under 21. The practice of issuing student credit cards is being portrayed as a way to
draw students into an addiction to spending and, as a result, into debt which they cannot handle.
Many university students and their parents, however, tend to take a more balanced look at the
issue and consider not just the risks but also the benefits.
Parents of university students, especially the parents of away-from-home students, want their
children to have credit cards so that they can use them in emergency situations. They regard
credit cards as invaluable for unexpected expenses. For example, a student can purchase travel
tickets if there is a family crisis, or if s/he gets stuck in a strange city overnight because of a
car breakdown. S/He can stay in a hotel and have her/his car repaired using the credit card.
However, although many parents are quite happy with their children's using credit cards, some
still worry about the fact that credit cards are not always accepted at all locations. I n the case
of an emergency, a university student may feel safe knowing he has a credit card, but the
situation may get worse when he is unable to use it. For example, if a cashless student's car
breaks down and he needs to spend the night at a motel which does not accept credit cards, the
student will find himself in a very difficult position.
Several parents, on the other hand, believe that misuse of credit cards may cause some students
to get into deep debt, since credit cards encourage people to spend money that they do not have.
For example, even if a student has only $100, he may be able to spend up to $500 or $1,000 on
his credit card. While this may seem like "free money" at the time, s/he will have to pay it off
eventually. I f the student does not have the income to pay more than the minimum payment at
the end of the month and continues to spend on the card, that may present real problems. Paying
late on a credit-card bill will not only add a great amount of interest to the monthly payment, but
it will also put a negative mark on a person's credit history. The parents will have to pay the
credit-card bill to avoid such consequences.
Most parents who pay off their children's bills are still in favor of their children's using credit
cards, as they believe that carrying cash might be dangerous for their children. While carrying
cash, there is always the risk of getting robbed and injured. Moreover, cash can get lost or
stolen. Unlike cash, fortunately, in the event that a student's credit card is lost or stolen, the
parents do not need to worry as they do not have to pay for unauthorized purchases. However,
the stolen credit card can easily be used to carry out purchases via the Internet. Since no
personal authorization is required while shopping on-line, parents do have to pay for the loss in
such cases.
Furthermore, apart from the safety that credit cards provide for students, some parents also
want their child to have a credit card in order to learn the reality of credit and start becoming a
member of this materialistic world. Students learn how credit works, and thus realize how
interest can quickly double the original price of an item. As a result, they learn to establish a
budget and gain a sense of financial responsibility. Moreover, they are equipped with money
management skills, which enable them to get by in the world of credit.
To conclude, all parents agree that credit cards can make life easier, but if they are not used
wisely they can become a huge financial burden. Thus, parents should ensure that their children
learn the lessons of responsible use of credit. How well they learn those lessons will be critical as
they will be on their own soon and their only "classroom" will be real life.
162
Source: George Washington University, Dept. of Academic Planning and Assessment, 2005
Handling of Monthly Credit Card Bills by

University Students
in 100
c
o u0) 80
(1) 3
rv tn
TO 60 45
C s? 38
40
8 <n 17
<5 a> 20
Q. >
'c
3 0
paid in full paid minimum behind on payments
amount
A m o u n t Paid on Monthly Credit Card Bill
Source: Reuters News, 2006
A. According to the text, what is the media's attitude towards students' having
credit cards? Support your answer using your own words in not more than 2-3
sentences.
163
B. You work for the Parental Guidance Magazine, and you have been asked to
write a paragraph of 180-220 words on whether students should have credit
cards or not. Use the relevant information and/or your own ideas. Do not lift
sentences directly.
Pay attention to:
• the content,
164
( REFERENCES )
Arnaudet, M. L. And M. E. Barrett. (1990). Paragraph Development. New York: Prentice

Hall Regents.
Azar, Betty Schrampfer (1999). Understanding and Using English Grammar. 3 rd ed. New
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MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UMYERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC ENGLISH

Prepared/Compiled and Edited by

This second volume of Basics of Writing is intended to teach students

Deniz Atikoglu & Pinar Tankut

We wish to express our gratitude to Ay§en Karabag and Necmiye Turkan

UNIT 1 THE PARAGRAPH 1

UNIT 2 GRAPH INTERPRETATION 25

UNIT 6 PROBLEM-SOLUTION 105

UNIT 7 ARGUMENTATION 130

HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH

There are two types of paragraphs: CONDENSED PARAGRAPHS and ESSAY

I n general, the topic of the paragraph is introduced in the INTRODUCTORY

A. THE INTRODUCTORY SENTENCE

B. THE TOPIC SENTENCE

An effective topic sentence does two things:

Look at the following topic sentences:

e.g.: There are three causes of roadway crashes.

1. Television commercials are often insulting to women.

2. Being a twin has several advantages.

5. The clothes we wear often reflect a lot about our personality.

a) Harris Beach is an ideal place for people to have picnics

I n terms of organization, there are two types of supporting sentences: major

Another important characteristic of gold is its utility in industry

For example, a Macedonian coin remains as clean and shiny today

First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to

Gold, a precious metal, is valued for two important characteristics.

The most recent application of gold is in astronauts' suits.

TASK 7: Find the three irrelevant sentences in the paragraphs below.

The irrelevant sentences are , , and .

The irrelevant sentences are: , , and .

The irrelevant sentences are: , , and .

The irrelevant sentences are: , , and .

Another element of a good paragraph is COHERENCE. A coherent paragraph is made up

Men usually dressed themselves at home, on trips, and on the battlefield.

By studying portraits and drawings of clothes with buttons, historians have

For women it was different.

Wealthy women had female servants who dressed them.

The practice began in the fifteenth century.

Maids faced the buttons head on.

ENUMERATION is a useful tool in arranging supporting sentences in a logical and

Read the following paragraph:

classes categories factors

• linking words (e.g. first, then, however, in front of, behind)

a foreign language. Using phrases demonstrates a willingness to learn about the

1. The job of a nurse isn't always enjoyable or easy. .

2. I n modern life, corn has many uses. .

a) For some civilizations around the world, corn is a symbol of life

3. Species become endangered for a wide variety of reasons. .

Mark the best choice.

v) However, people are not willing to compete with foreign investment.

Mark the best choice.

are careful creatures. Cats are inexpensive to feed.

young people how to manage their money.

share their lives with somebody else.

The last sentence of a paragraph is the CONCLUDING SENTENCE or the SUMMARY

2. Skiing is an unpopular sport because it is dangerous and expensive. To begin with,

1. Topic Sentence a) The construction of an extensive underground

3. Minor Support 1 b) For instance, four people living in Umitkoy and

d) Then people living in the suburbs and working