A UNIVERSITY

Applied Mathematics –I
course module

By 5 to 1 network group members

2006

ASSOSA , ETHIOPIA
Contents
Chapter one ............................................................................................................................................................. 4

Vectors ..................................................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter Two ......................................................................................................................................................... 25

Matrices and Determinants ..................................................................................................................... 25

Definition of Matrix............................................................................................................................. 25

Basic Operations on Matrices ................................................................................................................. 28

Equality of Matrices ............................................................................................................................ 28

Elementary Row Operations and Echelon Form of Matrices.................................................................. 34

Elementary Row Operations ............................................................................................................... 34

Echelon Form of a Matrix .................................................................................................................... 35

Rank of a Matrix .................................................................................................................................. 37

Inverse of a Matrix and Its Properties................................................................................................. 38

Determinant of a Matrix and Its Properties............................................................................................ 43

Properties of Determinants ................................................................................................................ 46

System of Linear Equations ................................................................................................................. 50

Solving System of Linear Equations .................................................................................................... 51

Eigen values and Eigenvectors ............................................................................................................ 54

CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................................................... 57

LIMIT AND CONTINUTY.................................................................................................................... 57

Definition of limit ................................................................................................................................ 57

Continuity:............................................................................................................................................... 73

The intermediate value theorem ........................................................................................................ 78

CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................................... 800

DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES .............................................................. 800

Basic rules ............................................................................................................................................. 820

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 Derivatives of some functions .............................................................................................................. 833

Implicit differentiation ........................................................................................................................ 86

4.3. Derivatives of Inverse functions....................................................................................................... 89

CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................................................................... 1144

Integration ........................................................................................................................................... 1144

The logarithm as an integral ......................................................................................................... 12525

Integration by parts ...................................................................................................................... 12626

Partial fraction ................................................................................................................................ 1311

CHAPTER 6 .......................................................................................................................................................................................…...146

Application of the Integral ………………………………………………………..…………………………………….146

Area ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….……. 146

Volumes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……… 150

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 Chapter one

Vectors

Scalars and Vectors

Definition: A physical quantity which has magnitude but not direction is called a scalar.
Example: speed, distance, temperature, etc.

Definition: A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector.
Example: velocity, acceleration, force, etc.

Notation: Vectors are mostly denoted by bold letters and in this chapter they are denoted by
bold letters like u, v and w.

1.1 Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

Definition1.1 If u and v are vectors positioned so that the initial point of v is at the terminal
point of u, then the sum u + v is the vector from the initial point of u to the terminal point of v.

Graphically: u+v v Triangular law of addition of vectors

Parallelogram law

The difference of two vectors u and v graphically is shown as follows:

4
 u-v u or u u-v

-v v v

Fig 1.2.2

Note: A zero vector is denoted by 0.

Definition 1.2 If 𝜶 is a scalar and u is a vector, then the scalar multiple 𝜶u is the vector whose
length is |𝜶| times the length of u and having the same direction as if 𝜶 > 0 and opposite in
direction to u if 𝜶 < 0.

Note: If 𝜶 = 0 or u = 0 then 𝜶 u = 0

1.2 Component form of vectors in ℝ 2 and ℝ 3

Component form of a vector in ℝ 2: A vector u in ℝ 2 is given by u = (a1, a2) where the entries
a1, a2 are called components of the vector u.

Definition 1.2.1 Let u = (a1, a2) and v = (b1, b2) be vectors in ℝ2. Then:

1. u + v = (a1, a2) + (b1, b2) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2) (addition of vectors)

2. u – v = (a1, a2) – (b1, b2) = (a1 – b1, a2 – b2) (subtraction of vectors)
3. u = v if and only if a1 = b1 and a2 = b2 (equality of vectors)
4. 𝜶 u = 𝜶 (a1, a2) = (𝜶 a1, 𝜶 a2) ( multiplying a vector u by scalar 𝜶)

Theorem1.2.1 For any vectors u, v, and w in ℝ 2 and any scalars 𝜶 and 𝜷 the following relations
holds true:

a) u + v = u + v
b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
c) u + 0 = u
d) 𝜶 (𝜷u) = (𝜶𝜷)u = 𝜷 (𝜶 u)
e) 𝜶 (u + v) = 𝜶 u + 𝜶 v
f) (𝜶 + 𝜷)u = 𝜶 u + 𝜷u
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 g) u + (-u) = 0
h) 1u = u

Example: If u = (1, 2) and v = (4, 5), then find:

a) u + v b) v – u c) 2 u + 3 v

Solution:

a) u + v = (1, 2) + (4, 5) = (1 + 4, 2 + 5) = (5, 7)

b) v – u = (1, 2) - (4, 5) = (1 - 4, 2 - 5) = (-3, -3)
c) 2 u + 3 v = 2(1, 2) + 3(4, 5) = (2, 4) + (12, 15) = (14, 19)

Component form of vectors in ℝ 3: A vector u in ℝ 3is given by u = (a1, a2, a3) where the
entries a1, a2 and a3 are called components of the vector u.

Definition1.2.2 Let u = (a1, a2, a3) and v = (b1, b2, b3) be vectors in ℝ 3. Then:

a) u + v = (a1, a2, a3) + (b1, b2, b3) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2 + a3 + b3) (addition of vectors)
b) u – v = (a1, a2, a3) – (b1, b2, b3) = (a1 – b1, a2 – b2 , a3 - b3) (subtraction of vectors)
c) u = v if and only if a1 = b1, a2 = b2, and a3 = b3 (equality of vectors)
d) 𝜶 u = 𝜶 (a1, a2, a3) = (𝜶 a1, 𝜶 a2, 𝜶 a3) (scalar multiplying a vector u by a scalar 𝜶)

Theorem 1.2.2 for any vectors u, v, and w in ℝ 3 and any scalars 𝜶 and 𝜷 the following relations
hold true:

a) u+v=v+u
b) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
c) u+0=u
d) 𝜶 (𝜷 u) = (𝜶 𝜷) u = 𝜷 (𝜶 u)
e) 𝜶 u + v) = 𝜶 u + 𝜶 𝜷 v
f) (𝜶 + 𝜷) u = 𝜶 u + 𝜷 u
g) u + (-u) = 0
h) 1u=u

Definition 1.2.3 The magnitude, length, or norm of a vector u = (a1, a2, a3) is denoted by

‖𝐮‖, and defined by: ‖𝐮‖ = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2

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It is similar for vectors in ℝ2.

Example1: If u = (3, 4, 5), then find‖𝐮‖.

Solution: ‖𝐮‖ = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 = √32 + 42 + 52 = √9 + 16 + 25 = √50 = 5√2

Theorem1.2.3 For every vector u and any scalar 𝜶 the following properties hold true:

a) ‖𝐮‖ ≥ 𝟎,
b) ‖𝐮‖ = 𝟎 if and only if u = 0
c) ‖𝜶𝐮‖ = |𝜶|‖𝐮‖

Proof: left as an exercise for the students.

Definition1.2.4 A vector u is said to be a unit vector if ‖𝐮‖ = 𝟏

For any vector u, the unit vector in the direction of u is given by:

1 𝒖
‖𝐮‖
𝒖 = ‖𝐮‖ .

Example2: For a vector u = (2, 3, 5), find a unit vector in the direction of u.

𝒖
Solution: The unit vector in the direction of u is given by ‖𝐮‖
.

‖𝐮‖ = √22 + 32 + 52 = √38 .

𝒖 1 2 3 5
Hence ‖𝐮‖ = (2, 3, 5) = ( , , )
√38 √38 √38 √38

Exercise:

−2 3 6
1. Find the norm of u if u = ( 7 , 7 , 7).
2. Find the unit vector in the direction of v if v = (2, 3, 6).

There are two especial unit vectors in ℝ 2and three in ℝ3.

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These are i = (1, 0), j = (0, 1) and i = (1, 0, 0) j = (0, 1, 0) k = (0, 0, 1) respectively. These
unit vectors are used in simplifying the description and operations on vectors. We can write any
vectors in ℝ 2 and ℝ3 as follows:

a) u = (a1, a2)
= (a1, 0) + (0, a2)
= a1 (1, 0) + a2 (0, 1)
= a1i+ a2j
b) u = (a1, a2, a3)

= (a1, 0, 0) + (0, a2, 0) + (0, 0, a3)

= a1 (1, 0, 0) + a2 (0, 1, 0) + a3 (0, 0, 1)

= a1i + a2j + a3 k

Note: Vectors given in component form can be expressed by using the unit vectors i, j and k.
Example: Describe the following vectors by using the appropriate unit vectors.

a) u = (4, 5)
b) v = (1, -2, 9)

Solution:

a) u = (4, 5) b) v = (1,-2,9)

= 4(1, 0) + 5(0, 1) =1(1, 0, 0) - 2(0, 1, 0) +9(0, 0, 1)

= 4i +5j = i -2j +9k
The position vector of a point P(x1, y1, z1) in ℝ3 is the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 = ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) whose
initial point is the origin O and whose terminal point is P.

𝑧1 P(x1, y1, z1)

8
 𝑥1 O 𝑦1 Y

X Fig 1.2.3

1.3 . Dot (Scalar) Product

In this and the following section, we shall consider two kinds of products between vectors that
originate in the study of mechanics, electricity and magnetism. The first of these products is
known as the dot or inner or scalar product, which yields a scalar.

Definition1.3.1 Let u = (a1, a2, a3) and 𝒗 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be two vectors. The dot product of u and
v is denoted by 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 and defined as:

𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Note: The dot product of a vector u with itself is given by:

u⋅u = 𝑎1 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 𝑎3

= 𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 = ‖𝐮‖2

Hence ‖𝐮‖ = √𝐮 ⋅ 𝐮

Example1: For vectors u = (1, -2, 4) and v = (3, 0, 2) find u⋅v.

Solution: u⋅v = (1, -2, 4) ⋅(3, 0, 2)

= (1) (3) + (-2) (0) + (4) (2)

=3+0+8

= 11

Properties of dot product

1. 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒖
2. 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒗 + 𝒘) = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 + 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘
3. (𝒘 ⋅ 𝒖) ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝒘 ⋅ (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗) = 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒘 ⋅ 𝒗)
9
 4. (𝒖 + 𝒗) ⋅ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘 + 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘

Definition1.3.2 Two vectors u and v are said to be :

1. parallel if there exists a scalar 𝜶 ≠ 0 such that u = 𝜶 v

2. in opposite direction if there exists a scalar 𝜶 < 0 such that u = 𝜶 v.

Note: If two vectors u and v are parallel it is denoted by u ⁄ ⁄ v and related by u = 𝜶 v for some
scalar 𝜶 ≠ 0 .

Example1: Verify whether the following three given vectors are parallel or not.
3 −1
u = (3, 2, -1) v = (-6, -4, 2) and w = (2 , 1, ).
2

3 −1 1
Solution:1) u and w are parallel because u= 2(2 , 1, ) = 2w or w= 2u.
2

−1
2) 𝒖 and v are also parallel because u= v or v= −2u but opposite in direction.
2

1
3) v and w are also parallel because v= −4w 𝑜𝑟 𝒘 = − 4v but opposite in direction.

Exercise: Find a vector having the same direction as u = (-2, 4, 2) but has magnitude 6.

Consider two vectors u and v. The square of the norm of their sum is given as follows:

‖𝒖 + 𝒗‖𝟐 = (𝒖 + 𝒗) ⋅ (𝒖 + 𝒗)

= 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒗 ⋅ (𝒖 + 𝒗)

= 𝒖∙𝒖 +𝒖∙𝒗+𝒗∙𝒖+𝒗∙𝒗

= ‖𝒖‖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 + ‖𝒗‖𝟐

And hence we see that ‖𝒖 + 𝒗‖𝟐 = ‖𝒖‖𝟐 + ‖𝒗‖ 𝟐 if and only if 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝟎

Definition1.3.4 Two vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗 are called orthogonal (Perpendicular) to each other if and
only if 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝟎

Example2: Let u = (2, 2, -1) and v = (5, -4, 2) then show that u⋅v=0

Solution: u⋅v= (2, 2, −1) ⋅ (5, −4, 2) = 0

Exercise2
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 a. Find the value of b so that the vectors u = (-2, 4, 2) and v = (b, b2, b) are orthogonal.
b. Find two vectors orthogonal to 𝒖 = (1,2,3) and each of their components are non-zero.
1.3 Angle Between Two Vectors

Theorem1.3.1 If 𝜃 is the angle between two vectors 𝒖 and 𝒗 then 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = ‖𝒖‖‖𝒗‖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

Proof: Applying the law of cosine to ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 in the figure below we get:

2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = ‖𝑂𝑄
‖𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ + ‖𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ − 2‖𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖‖𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ cos 𝜃 -------(1)

But from the figure⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒗 and 𝑂𝑄

𝑃𝑄 = 𝒖 − 𝒗, 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =u and hence equation (1) becomes:

‖𝐮 − 𝐯‖𝟐 = ‖𝐮‖𝟐 +‖𝐯‖𝟐 − 𝟐‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 ----------------------------------- (2)

But ‖𝐮 − 𝐯‖𝟐 = ‖𝐮‖𝟐 − 𝟐u⋅v+‖𝐯‖𝟐 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠? ) and substituting this in (2) we get:
u⋅v=‖u‖‖v‖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

𝜃 u Q

O Y

X Fig 1.3.1

(𝒖⋅𝒗)
Corollary 1.3.1 If 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors u and v then: cos 𝜃 = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖

Example3:

a) Find the angle between u = (1, -2, 2) and v = (-3, 6, -6)

𝜋
b) If ‖𝐮‖ = 𝟒, ‖𝐯‖ = 𝟔 and the angle between them is 3 = 60° then find u⋅v
Solution: a) u= (1,-2, 2) and v= (-3, 6,-6)
‖𝐮‖ = ‖(1, −2,2)‖

= √12 + (−2)2 + 22
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 = √9 = 3
‖𝐯‖ = ‖(−3,6, −6)‖

= √(−3)2 + (6)2 + (−6)2

= √81 = 9
u⋅v = (1)(-3)+(-2)(6)+(2)(-6)
= -3-12-12
= -27

(𝒖⋅𝒗) −𝟐𝟕
And cos 𝜃 = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ = = −𝟏 ⇒ 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (−𝟏) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 in radian measure
𝟐𝟕

Exercise
1. Find the angle between the X- axis and v = (1, -2, -2)
2. If the vertices of a triangle are 𝑃(1, −3,2), 𝑄(2,0, −4)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅(6, −2, −5) verify the type
of the triangle.
3. If u = (2,-3,4) and v = (-1,2.0), and w = (5,-1,2) find the angle between u-2v and u+2w

Definition 1.3.1: Two vectors u and v are said to be ortho-normal if ‖𝐮‖ ⋅ ‖𝐯‖ = 𝟏.

1.3.2 Orthogonal projection

For two vectors u and v such that v≠ 0, consider the following figure:

𝒖 𝒖 − 𝒖𝒗 𝒖𝑣 𝑖𝑠 Orthogonal projection of vector u onto v

𝒖𝒗 v

Now 𝒖𝒗 have two properties:

1. 𝒖𝒗 is parallel to v denoted by 𝒖𝒗 //𝒗

2. 𝒖 − 𝒖𝒗 is perpendicular to v denoted by 𝒖 − 𝒖𝒗 ⊥ 𝒗.

From (1) since 𝒖𝒗 //𝒗 then there exists 𝑡 ∈ ℝ such that 𝒖𝒗 = 𝑡𝒗 and from (2) since 𝒖 − 𝒖𝒗 ⊥ 𝒗,
then we have (𝒖 − 𝒖𝒗 ) ⋅ 𝒗 = 0 that is :

𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 − 𝒖𝒗 ⋅ 𝒗 = 0

⇒ 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 ⋅ 𝒗

⇒ 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = (𝑡𝒗) ⋅ 𝒗
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 ⇒ 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑡‖𝐯‖𝟐

𝒖⋅𝒗
⇒ 𝑡 = ‖𝐯‖𝟐

𝒖⋅𝒗
Then 𝒖𝒗 = 𝑡𝒗 = ‖𝐯‖𝟐 ------ (1)

Definition: Let 𝒖 and 𝒗 be two vectors such that 𝒖 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝒗 ≠ 𝟎 then the projections of vector

u on to vector v 𝒖𝒗 , and vector 𝒗 onto 𝒖, 𝒗𝒖 are given by:

𝒖⋅𝒗 𝒖⋅𝒗
𝒖𝒗 = ‖𝐯‖𝟐 𝒗 and similarly 𝒗𝒖 = ‖𝐮‖𝟐 𝒖

Example: Let u = (1, 2, -1) and v = (3, 0, -2) then find 𝒖𝒗 and 𝒗𝒖

Solution: u⋅v = 3+0+2

=5

‖𝒖‖𝟐 = 6 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ‖𝐯‖𝟐 = 13

𝒖⋅𝒗
𝒖𝒗 = 𝒗
‖𝐯‖𝟐

𝟓
= 𝟏𝟑 (𝟑, 𝟎, −𝟐)

𝒖⋅𝒗
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒖 = 𝒖
‖𝐮‖𝟐

𝟓
= 𝟏𝟑 (𝟏, 𝟐, −𝟏)

Exercise:

13
 1. Let 𝒖 = (1,3, −4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒗 = (5, −1,0). Find the projection of vector 𝑢 onto 𝒗 and 𝒗
onto vector 𝒖.

Direction angles and Direction cosines

Definition: The direction angles of a non-zero vector u are the angles 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 in the interval
[0, 𝜋] that u makes with the X-, Y- and Z-axes respectively as in the figure below:

𝑎3 u = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )

𝛼 𝛽 𝑎2 Y

𝑎1

The cosine of these direction angles, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 are called direction cosines of the
vector u.

From the figure above we have:

𝒖⋅𝑖 𝑎1
cos 𝛼 = =
‖𝐮‖‖i‖ ‖𝐮‖
𝒖⋅𝑗 𝑎2
cos 𝛽 = =
‖𝐮‖‖j‖ ‖𝐮‖

𝒖⋅𝑘 𝑎3
cos 𝛾 = =
‖𝐮‖‖k‖ ‖𝐮‖

𝑎1 = ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛼
⇒ { 𝑎2 = ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛽
𝑎3 = ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛾

Exercise: Show that cos2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽 + cos 2 𝛾 = 1

14
From the equations above we observe that:

𝒖 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) = (‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛼 , ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛽 , ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝛾) = ‖𝐮‖(cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛾)

𝒖
⇒ ‖𝐮‖
= (cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛾) which indicates that the direction cosines of u are the

components of the unit vector in the direction of u.

Example: Find the direction angles of the vector u = (6, 2, 3).

𝒖⋅𝑖 1 𝑎 6
Solution: cos 𝛼 = ‖𝐮‖‖i‖ = ‖𝐮‖ = 𝟕

𝒖⋅𝑗 𝑎2 2
cos 𝛽 = = =
‖𝐮‖‖j‖ ‖𝐮‖ 7

𝒖⋅𝑘 𝑎3 3
cos 𝛾 = = =
‖𝐮‖‖k‖ ‖𝐮‖ 7

𝜋 𝜋
Exercise: If a vector has direction angles 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = then find the third direction angle 𝛾.
4 3

1.4 Cross product of vectors

For two non-parallel vectors u and v, how can we find a non-zero vector w which is orthogonal
to both u and v? This problem has a standard solution called the cross product of u and v
denoted by 𝒖 × 𝒗.

Definition: If 𝒖 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and 𝒗 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) are two vectors, then the cross product

of u and v is defined as:

𝒖 × 𝒗 = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )

Remark:

1. The cross product of two vectors is a vector.

2. An easy way to remember the cross product is as follows:
For 𝒖 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and
𝒗 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘

15
Then by repeating the first and the second column we get:

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑖 𝑗
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 = 𝒖 × 𝒗
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏2

⇒ 𝒖 × 𝒗 = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖 + (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝑗 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘

3. In determinant form:

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑎 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝒖 × 𝒗 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = | 2 | 𝑖 − | | 𝑗 + |
𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏2 | 𝑘
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

= (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖 − (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝑗 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘

= (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝑖 + (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝑗 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝑘

Example: Let 𝒖 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝒗 = −𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 5𝑘 then find 𝒖 × 𝒗.

Solution: 𝒖 × 𝒗 = [(−2)(5) − (1)(2)]𝒊 + [(1)(−1) − (1)(5)]𝒋 + [(1)(2) − (−2)(−1)]𝒌

= −12𝒊 − 6𝒋

Theoerm1.4.1 Let 𝒖, 𝒗 and 𝒘 are vectors in ℝ𝟑 and 𝑡 ∈ ℝ, then:

1. 𝒖 × 𝒗 ⊥ 𝒖 and 𝒖 × 𝒗 ⊥ 𝒗
2. 𝒖 × 𝒗 = −𝒗 × 𝒖
3. 𝒖×𝒖=𝟎
4. (𝒕𝒖) × 𝒗 = 𝒕(𝒖 × 𝒗) = 𝒖 × (𝒕𝒗)
5. ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖𝟐 = ‖𝒖‖𝟐 ‖𝒗‖𝟐 − (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗)𝟐
6. (𝒖 + 𝒗) × 𝒘 = 𝒖 × 𝒘 + 𝒗 × 𝒘
7. 𝒖 ⋅ (𝒗 × 𝒘) = 𝒗 ⋅ (𝒘 × 𝒖) = 𝒘 ⋅ (𝒖 × 𝒗)
The proof is left for the students as an exercise.

Theorem1.4.2 If 𝜃 is the angle between the vectors u and v (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋) then:

16
 ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖ = ‖𝒖‖‖𝒗‖ sin(𝜃)

Proof: exercise

Corollary: Two non-zero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖ = 0.

Proof: left as an exercise

1.4.1 Application of cross product

1. Consider the triangle whose edges are the vectors u and v as in the figure below:

1
𝒗 𝑢+𝑣 ‖𝒗‖Area of ∆= 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2

1
u ‖𝒗‖ sin 𝜃 = ‖𝒖‖‖𝒗‖ sin 𝜃
2

1
‖𝒖‖ = ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖
2

2. Let u and v be vectors in ℝ𝟑 and consider the figure below:

ℎ
sin 𝜃 = ‖𝒖‖ ⇒ ℎ = ‖𝒖‖ sin 𝜃

u h Area= 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ‖𝒖‖‖𝒗‖ sin 𝜃 = ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖

Thus ‖𝒖 × 𝒗‖ is the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors u and v.

3. For vectors u, v and w in ℝ𝟑 as in the figure below; area of the parallelogram is given by

17
 ℎ
𝐴𝑝 = ‖𝒗 × 𝒘‖ and cos ∅ = ‖𝒖‖ ⇒ ℎ = ‖𝒖‖ cos ∅

∅ uℎ

w Y

X v 𝐴∥𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 = ‖𝒗 × 𝒘‖

Volume = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

= ‖𝒗 × 𝒘‖‖𝒖‖ cos ∅

= ±‖𝒖‖‖𝒗 × 𝒘‖ cos ∅

= ±𝒖 ∙ (𝒗 × 𝒘)

= |𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 × 𝐰)|

Hence volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors u, v and w is

𝑉 = |𝒖 ∙ (𝒗 × 𝒘)|

The expression 𝒖 ∙ (𝒗 × 𝒘) is called triple scalar product of u, v and w.

Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by 𝒖 = (2, −1, −1),

𝒗 = (1, 1, 3) and 𝒘 = (−1, 1, 5)

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
Solution: 𝑢 × 𝑣 = |2 −1 − 1 | = −2𝒊 – 7𝒋 + 3𝒌
1 1 3

Therefore, volume 𝑽 = |𝒘. (𝒖 × 𝒗)| = |(−𝟏)(−𝟐) + 𝟏(−𝟕) + 𝟓(𝟑)| = 𝟏𝟏 unit cube

Exercise:

1. Determine the area of a triangle with vertices 𝑝1 (1,5,2), 𝑝2 (−1,3,0)and 𝑝3 (0,1,4)

2. For vectors u, v and w in ℝ3 show that:
a) 𝒖 × (𝒗 × 𝒘) = (𝒖 ∙ 𝒘)𝒗 − (𝒖 ∙ 𝒗)𝒘
b) (𝒖 × 𝒗) × 𝒘 = (𝒖 ∙ 𝒘)𝒗 − (𝒗 ∙ 𝒘)𝒖

18
1.5 Lines and planes in ℝ𝟑 .
1.5.1 Equations of lines in space

Let ℓ be a line in ℝ𝟑 and 𝑝0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a point on ℓ and v be a vector which is parallel to ℓ

as in the figure below:

Z 𝑝0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )

𝑅0 𝒗

𝑅 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

X Y

𝒗 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ℓ

Let 𝑃 be arbitrary point on ℓ so u is the vector𝑃0 𝑃, then by triangular method we have:

𝑅 = 𝑅0 + 𝒖

Since vector u is parallel to vector v we have 𝒖 = 𝑡𝒗 and hence the above equation becomes

𝑅 = 𝑅0 + 𝑡𝒗 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)

This equation is called vector equation of the line ℓ.

If 𝒗 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) then 𝑡𝒗 = (𝑡𝑎, 𝑡𝑏, 𝑡𝑐) and 𝑅 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑅0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and hence equation
(1) becomes:

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) + 𝑡(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎, 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑐, 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐)

𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒕𝒂
⇒ {𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒕𝒃 … … … … … … … … … (2) is called the parametric equation of ℓ.
𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 + 𝒕𝒄

Example: Find vector equation and parametric equation of a line passing through the point
(5,1,3) and Parallel to the vector 𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 2𝑘.

19
Another way of describing ℓ is to eliminate the parameter t from equation (2) above; that is:

𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎 ⇒ 𝑡 = , 𝑎≠0
𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 ⇒ 𝑡 = , 𝑏≠0
𝑏
𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐 ⇒ 𝑡 = , 𝑐≠0
𝑐

Then for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ≠ 0 we have:

𝒙−𝒙𝟎 𝒚−𝒚𝟎 𝒛−𝒛𝟎

= = … … … … … (3) is called symmetric equation of ℓ
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄

Exercise:

a) Find the parametric equation of the line that passes through the point
𝑃0 = (2,4, −3) and 𝑃1 = (3, −1,1).
b) At what point does this line intersect the 𝑋𝑌 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒?

Properties of a line in ℝ𝟑 .
Let ℓ1 : 𝑅(𝛼) = 𝑅0 + 𝛼𝒗 and ℓ2 : 𝑅 ′ (𝛽) = 𝑅0′ + 𝛽𝒗′ be two distinct lines, then:

1. ℓ1 and ℓ2 will intersect if and only if there are 𝛼 and 𝛽 in ℝ so that 𝑅(𝛼) = 𝑅 ′ (𝛽)
2. The lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 are parallel iff their direction vectors are parallel. That is;
ℓ1 //ℓ2 iff 𝒗//𝒗′
3. If ℓ1 and ℓ2 are intersecting lines, then the angle between ℓ1 and ℓ2 is the angle between
their direction vectors. That is:
𝒗 ∙ 𝒗′
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝒗‖‖𝒗′ ‖
4. Non-parallel and non-intersecting lines are called skew lines.
5. ℓ1 is perpendicular to ℓ2 iff 𝒗 is perpendicular to 𝒗′ . That is:
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝒗 ⊥ 𝒗′ 𝑖. 𝑒 𝒗 ∙ 𝒗′ = 0

Example: Find the point of intersections of the lines ℓ1 : 𝑅(𝛼) = (𝑖 − 6𝑗 − 1𝑘) + 𝛼(𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 𝑘)
and

ℓ2 : 𝑅 ′ (𝛽) = (4𝑗 − 2𝑘) + 𝛽(2𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2𝑘) and find the angle between them.

Solution: 𝑅(𝛼) = 𝑅 ′ (𝛽) ⇒ (𝑖 − 6𝑗 − 1𝑘) + 𝛼(𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 𝑘) = (4𝑗 − 2𝑘) + 𝛽(2𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2𝑘)

1 + 𝛼 = 2𝛽 … … … … … .1
{ −6 + 2𝛼 = 4 + 2𝛽 … … .2
−1 + 𝛼 = −2 + 2𝛽 … … . .3

20
Multiplying equation (1) by 2 and subtracting equation (2) we get 8 = −4 + 2𝛽 which
implies 𝛽 = 6. And also 𝛼 = 11

Therefore, the point of intersection is (12, 16, 10).

The angle between the two lines is the same as the angle between their direction vectors 𝑣1 =
(1,2,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 = (2,2,2).

(𝑣 ⋅𝑣 ) 𝟖 𝟖 𝟒
That is, let it be 𝜃. Then cos 𝜃 = ‖𝑣 1‖‖𝑣2 ‖ = = 𝟔√𝟐 = 𝟑√𝟐
1 2 √𝟕𝟐

𝟒
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
𝟑√𝟐

Distance between a point and a line

Theorem: Let ℓ be a line with vector equation 𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑡𝒗 and let 𝑄 be any point not on ℓ, then
the distance between 𝑄 and ℓ is given by:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖𝑷 𝟎 𝑸 × 𝒗‖
𝒅=
‖𝒗‖

Example: Find the distance between the point 𝑄(2, −1,3) and the line with symmetric
𝑥−1 𝑦+1 −𝑧
equation 2 = 3 = 6 .

Solution: 𝑃0 = (1, −1,0) from the symmetric equation of the line and 𝑣 = (2, 3, −6)

So the distance between the point Q(2,-1,3) and the line is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖𝑃 0 𝑄 ×𝒗‖
𝑑= ‖𝒗‖
where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑄 = (1,0,3) and ‖𝒗‖ = 7

‖(1,0,3)×(𝟐,𝟑,−𝟔)‖
d= = 2.18 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡.
7

Exercise: Let ℓ be a line passing through 𝑃(1, 2, 1) and 𝑄(3, −1, 4) then find the distance
between ℓ and the origin.

21
 Planes
A plane in space is determined by a point𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )in the plane and a vector 𝑵that is
orthogonal to the plane. In the figure below let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)is a point on the plane 𝜋.

𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑅 − 𝑅0 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )

𝜋 R 𝑅0

Since 𝑅 − 𝑅0 is perpendicular to 𝑁, we have 𝑁 ∙ (𝑅 − 𝑅0 ) = 0.

This implies 𝑁 ∙ 𝑅 = 𝑁. 𝑅0 … … … … … . . (1) is vector equation of the plane𝜋.

Remark:

1. Let 𝑁 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), 𝑅 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑅0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) then equation (1) becomes:
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
⇒ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0
⇒ 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0 … … … … … … … . (2) which is called the
scalar equation of the plane 𝜋.
2. Let 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 , then equation (2) becomes:
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 … … … … … … . (3) which is called the standard equation of the plane
𝜋.

Example:

1. Find the equation of a plane containing the point 𝑃(2,4,1) and normal vector 𝑁(2,3,4).
2. Determine the line of intersection of the planes;
𝜋1 : 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝜋2 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2
Solutions:
22
1. Let 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on the plane containing the point P(2, 4, 1) and normal
vector N(2, 3, 4). Then the equation of the plane is
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ⋅ (2, 3, 4) = (2, 4, 1) ⋅ (2, 3, 4)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 20 is the standard equation of the plane.
2. To find the line of intersection of the planes 𝜋1 : 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝜋2 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2

2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4
{ ……………..(1).
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2

Here we have two equations with three variables and it is impossible to solve for the three
variables at same time.
So, we give some value for one of the three variables and solve for the other two in order
to get two intersection points of the two planes which can help us to find the equation of
the line of intersection.
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4 … … … . . (𝑎)
Let 𝑧 = 0. Hence (1) becomes { . Multiplying equation (a) by 3
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 2 … … … . (𝑏)
and adding the result to (b) we get 𝑥 = 2 which implies 𝑦 = 0 . Thus, 𝑃1 (2, 0, 0) is one
of the intersection point of the two planes.
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5
Again let 𝑧 = −1. Then equation (a) becomes { . Solving these
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 1
16 3 16 3
simultaneously we get 𝑥 = and 𝑦 = − 7 so 𝑃2 ( 7 , − 7 , −1) is another point of
7

intersection of the two planes. Therefore, the equation of the line of intersection of the
two planes is given by (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (2, 0, 0) + 𝑡(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) for an arbitrary point (x, y, z)
on the line of intersection of the two planes.
𝟐
𝒙=𝟐−𝟕 𝒕
2 3
So, (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (2 − 7 𝑡, − 7 t, −t ) ⇒ { 𝒚 = − 𝟑 𝐭 , t𝜖ℝ is the parametric
𝟕
𝒛 = −𝒕
equation of the line of intersection of the two planes.

Exercise:
1. Find the equation of the plane that contains the points 𝑃(1,3,2), 𝑄(3, −1,6) and 𝑅(5,2,0)
which are not collinear but coplanar.
2. Find the point at which the line with parametric equation 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = −4𝑡, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑧 =
5 + 𝑡 intersects the plane
𝜋: 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 18

23
 3. Find the angle between the planes 𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 and 𝜋2 : 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 and find
the symmetric equation for the line of intersection ℓ of these planes.

Distance between a point and a plane

Consider the following figure;

𝑃1

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 𝜃 𝑑

𝑃0 𝑁

𝑑
From the figure we have: cos 𝜃 = ‖𝑃⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⇒ 𝑑 = ‖𝑃 0 𝑃1 ‖ cos 𝜃
𝑃 ‖
0 1

In addition to this; 𝑁 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃0 𝑃1 = ‖𝑁‖‖𝑃 0 𝑃1 ‖ cos 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑁 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 = ‖𝑁‖𝑑

|𝑁 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 | 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 + 𝑑
⇒𝑑= =
‖𝑁‖ √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

Example: Find the distance between the planes 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 2 and 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 24.

24
 Chapter Two

Matrices and Determinants

Definition of Matrix
Definition :-A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or variable, which we will enclose in
brackets. The numbers (or variables) are called entries or, less commonly, elements of the
matrix. The horizontal lines of entries are called rows, and the vertical lines of entries are called
columns. A matrix with 𝒎 rows and 𝒏 columns has the form:

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 =[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]Or𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

By an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix (read 𝒎 by 𝒏 matrix) we mean a matrix with 𝒎rows and 𝒏columns—rows

always come first is called the size/order/shape/dimension of the matrix. We shall denote
matrices by capital bold face letters A, B, C… or by writing the general entry in brackets; thus
𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ], and so on..The element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 , is called the 𝒊𝒋 entry, appears in row 𝒊 and column 𝒋.Thus
𝒂𝟐𝟏 is the entry in Row 2 and Column 1.

Example 2.1.1:

1 4 −12 4 6 9
𝐴 = [ 5 −1 10 9] 𝐵 = [6 0 −2]
−1 −8 7 5 5 −8 1

The dimension/size of matrix 𝐴 is 3×4 and the dimension/size of matrix B is 3×3. The entry 𝑎33
in matrix 𝐴 is 7 and the entry 𝑎24 in matrix 𝐴 is 9.

NB: Matrices are important because they help us to express large amounts of data and functions
in an organized and concise form.

3 4 2 −3
Example 2.1.2: Given a matrix A = [ 1 −1 10 9 ] then find:
−10 −8 7 5

25
 a) the size of A c) the rows of A
b) the columns of A d) the elements of A

Exercise 2.1.1:

1. Let 𝑡 be a real number. Assume that 𝐵 = [𝑡]. Then, determine:

a) The size of B c) the columns of B
b) The rows of B d) the elements B
2. Construct a 3x3 matrix whose 𝑎𝑖𝑗 entry is given by 2j – i

2.1. Types of matrices

In matrix theory there are many special kinds of matrices that are important because they possess
certain properties. The following is a list of some of these matrices.

i. Zero Matrix(Null Matrix):Matrix that consists of all zero entries is called a zero matrix
and is denoted by 𝟎 or𝟎𝒎𝒙𝒏 .
0 0 0
Example:03𝑥3 = [0 0 0]
0 0 0

ii. Square Matrix: any 𝑚𝑥𝑛 matrix is called square matrix if 𝑚 = 𝑛. The order of 𝑛𝑥𝑛 square
matrix is 𝑛𝑥𝑛 or simply 𝑛.
1 5 −3
Example:𝐴3𝑥3 = [2 0 −2]
2 3 7
iii. Rectangular Matrix: A matrix of any size is called a rectangular matrix; this includes
square matrices as a special case.
iv. Row Matrix (row vector): A 1𝑥𝑛 matrix is called a row matrix (row vector).
𝐴 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ] = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
v. Column Matrix (column vector):An 𝑛𝑥1 matrix is said to be column Matrix (column
vector)
𝑎1
𝑎2
𝐴= ⋮
⋮
(𝑎𝑛 )

26
 vi. Diagonal Matrix: An 𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix 𝐷is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its entries
except the main diagonal are zeros.
𝑑11 0 … 0
0 𝑑22 … 0
𝐷=[ ⋱ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 … 𝑑𝑛𝑛

Remark: A diagonal matrix where each of whose diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar
matrix.

vii. Identity Matrix (Unit Matrix): is a diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are 1.
1 0 … 0
0 1 … 0
𝐼𝑛 = [ ⋱ ⋮ ]is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 identity matrix.
⋮ ⋮
0 0 … 1
viii. Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are
zero is called lower triangular, and a square matrix in which all the entries below the main
diagonal are zero is called upper triangular. A matrix that is either upper triangular or lower
triangular is calledtriangular.
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 0 … 0
0 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 0
𝐴=[ ⋱ ⋮ ] 𝐵=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Upper Triangular Lower Triangular

Remark: Observe that diagonal matrices are both upper triangular and lower triangular since they
have zeros below and above the main diagonal.

𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 −𝟓 𝟏
Example:𝑨 = [𝟒 𝟑 𝟎] 𝑩 = [𝟎 𝟑 𝟓]
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟐

Lower triangular matrix Upper triangular matrix

27
Basic Operations on Matrices

Equality of Matrices
Definition: Two matrices are defined to be equal, denoted by 𝐀 = 𝐁, if they have the same size and
their corresponding entries are equal.

Example: Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if matrix 𝐴 is equal to matrix 𝐵.

𝑥+1 3 4 3
𝐴=[ ]and 𝐵 = [ ]
0 6 0 𝑦−2

Solution: the two matrices are equal if and only if 𝑥 = 3and 𝑦 = 8.

Matrix Addition and Subtraction

Definition: Let A = [ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]and B = [ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]be two matrices of the same size, say, 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices. Then
the sum of A and B, written as A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding the entries of B to the
corresponding entries of A. The difference A – B is the matrix obtained by subtracting the entries of
B from the corresponding entries of A. In matrix notation, if A = [ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]and B = [ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]have the same
size, then

𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎]𝑖𝑗 + [𝑏]𝑖𝑗 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 − [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

Example: Consider the following matrices

−1 2 3 4 1 6 −1 3
𝐴=[1 0 2 5] , 𝐵 = [2 5 0 −4]
9 −2 0 6 3 4 1 2

Then find𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 − 𝐵

−1 + 1 2+6 3−1 4+3 0 8 2 7

Solution: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ 1 + 2 0 + 5 2 + 0 5 − 4] = [ 3 5 2 1]
9+3 −2 + 4 0 + 1 6 + 2 12 2 1 8

−1 − 1 2 − 6 3 + 1 4−3 −2 −4 4 1
𝐴−𝐵 =[ 1−2 0−5 2−0 5 + 4] = [−1 −5 2 9]
9 − 3 −2 − 4 0 − 1 6−2 6 −6 −1 4

28
Remark: Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted.

Scalar Multiplication of Matrix

Definition 2.1.1.3IfA is any matrix and c is any scalar; then the product 𝒄𝑨 is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c. The matrix 𝑐𝐴 is said to be a scalar multiple of A .i.e.

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑐𝐴 = 𝑐 [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

𝑐𝑎11 𝑐𝑎12 … 𝑐𝑎1𝑛

𝑐𝑎21 𝑐𝑎22 … 𝑐𝑎1𝑛
=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] = [𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚𝑥𝑛
𝑐𝑎𝑚1 𝑐𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑛

−1 2 3 4 1 6 −1 3
Example: Let𝐴 = [ 1 0 2 5]and 𝐵 = [2 5 0 −4]. Then compute the following
9 −2 0 6 3 4 1 2

1
a. 2𝐴 − 𝐵 b. 𝐴 + 2𝐴
3

−2 4 6 8 1 6 −1 3 −3 −2 7 5
Solution:a.2A − B = [ 2 0 4 10] − [2 5 0 −4] = [ 0 −5 4 14]
18 −4 0 12 3 4 1 2 15 −8 −1 10

−1 2 4 −7 14 28
1 7
3 3 3 −2 4 6 8 3 3 3
1 1 2 5 7 14 35
b.3 A + 2A = 0 +[ 2 0 4 10] = 0
3 3 3 3 3 3
−2 18 −4 0 12 −14
[3 3
0 2] [21 3
0 14]

Exercise:

1. Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦for the following matrix equation.

𝑥+2 𝑦+3 3 𝑦
2[ ]=[ ]
3 0 6 𝑧

29
 2 −1
2. Find matrix 𝐴 if 2𝐴 = [ ]
6 0
Remark: If 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , …,𝐴𝑛 are matrices of the same size and 𝑐1, 𝑐2 , …,𝑐𝑛 are scalars, then an
expression of the form𝑐1 𝐴1 + 𝑐2 𝐴2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝐴𝑛 is called a linear combination of 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , …,𝐴𝑛
with coefficients𝑐1, 𝑐2 , …,𝑐𝑛 .

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Suppose A, B, and C are 𝑚 × 𝑛matrices (having the same size) and 𝛼 and 𝛽 are scalars. Then

i. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴(commutative law of addition)

ii. (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)(Associative law of addition)
iii. 𝐴 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝐴 (Existence of additive identity)
iv. 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = (−𝐴) + 𝐴 = 𝟎(Existence of additive inverse)
v. 𝛼(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵
vi. (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝐴 = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛽𝐴
vii. (𝛼( 𝛽𝐴)) = 𝛼( 𝛽𝐴)
viii. 1𝐴 = 𝐴 and 0𝐴 = 𝟎

Product of Matrices
Definition: Let matrix 𝐴 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝐵 be an 𝑛 × 𝑘 matrix (i.e. the number of
columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵). Then the product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴𝐵,
is an 𝑚 × 𝑘 matrix which is obtained by multiplying the corresponding elements of row 𝑖 of 𝐴 by
column 𝑗 of 𝐵 and adding the product, i.e. if 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ]𝑛×𝑘 , then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶 =

[𝑐𝑖𝑘 ]𝑚×𝑘 , where 𝑐𝑖𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 , for 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑚

- Consider the following matrices
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏11 𝑏12 … 𝑏1𝑘
𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏21 𝑏22 … 𝑏2𝑘
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]and𝐵 = [ ⋮ ⋱ ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑛1 𝑏𝑛2 … 𝑏𝑛𝑘
Rows of 𝐴 are:

30
 𝑟1 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ]
𝑟2 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ]
⋮
𝑟𝑚 = [𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]
Columns of 𝐵 are:
𝑐1 = [𝑏11 𝑏21 … 𝑏𝑛1 ]
𝑐2 = [𝑏12 𝑏22 … 𝑏𝑛2 ]
⋮
𝑐𝑘 = [𝑏1𝑘 𝑏2𝑘 … 𝑏𝑛𝑘 ]
Then
𝑟1 . 𝑐1 𝑟1 . 𝑐2 … 𝑟1 . 𝑐𝑘
𝑟2 . 𝑐1 𝑟2 . 𝑐2 … 𝑟2 . 𝑐𝑘
𝐴𝐵 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] = [𝑐𝑖𝑘 ]𝑚×𝑘
𝑟𝑚 . 𝑐1 𝑟𝑚 . 𝑐2 … 𝑟𝑚 . 𝑐𝑘

Example-1: Find the product of the matrices

Solution:

12 27 30 13
AB = [ ]
8 −4 26 12

Exercise: Determine the size of the product matrix 𝐴𝐵 if the sizes of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 4 × 5 and 5 ×
7 respectively.

Note: The product of lower triangular matrices is lower triangular, and the product of upper
triangular matrices is upper triangular.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

1) 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, (matrix product is not commutative.)
2) 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶, (matrix multiplication is associative)
3) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐶𝐴, (multiplication of matrices is
distributive with respect to addition)
31
 4) If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝟎, it does not mean that either A = 0 or B = 0.
10 00
Example: For matrix A and B given by𝐴 = [ ] 𝐵 = [ ] we have
10 11
00
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]is a null matrix even though 𝐴and𝐵are not a null matrix.
00
5) The relation 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴 does not imply that 𝐵 = 𝐶. In other words the
cancelation law doesn’t hold as for real numbers.
1 23 12 3 234
Example: if 𝐴 = [ 1 12], 𝐵 = [11−1]and 𝐶 = [220]
−143 22 2 111
9 10 7
We have, = [6 7 6 ] = 𝐴𝐶 , but𝐵 ≠ 𝐶
9 8 −1

12 21 10
Exercise: If 𝐴 = [ ]𝐵 = [ ]and 𝐶 = [ ], then verify that:
34 −32 21

a) A(BC) = (AB)C b) A(B + C) = AB + AC

Transpose of a matrix
Definition: If A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by 𝑨𝑇 , is defined to be the
matrix 𝑛 × 𝑚 that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A.

Remark: The transpose of a row matrix is column matrix and the transpose of a column matrix
is a row matrix.

Example: The following are some examples of matrices and their transposes.

Properties of Matrix Transpose

32
 1. (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
2. (𝐴𝑇 ) 𝑇 = 𝐴
3. (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴 𝑇

Proof: Ex.

Note: The transpose of a lower triangular matrix is upper triangular and the transpose of an
upper triangular matrix is lower triangular.

Orthogonal Matrix: An orthogonal matrix A is a matrix such that 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐴= I. A typical

orthogonal matrix is:

1 1
−
𝐴 = ||√2 √2|
1 1 |
√2 √2

I. Trace of Matrix
Definition: If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, denoted by 𝑡𝑟(𝐴),is defined to be the sum
of the entries on the diagonal of A. The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.

Example: The following are examples of matrices and their traces.

Polynomial of Matrix
For any 𝑛 × 𝑛square matrix 𝐴 and for any polynomial,𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ +
𝑎𝑜 where 𝑎𝑖 are scalars, wedefine 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑜 𝐼.If 𝑓(𝐴) = (0𝑖𝑗 ), then A
is a zero (root) of the polynomial.

3−4
Examples: Let𝐴 = [ ] and let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3. Then compute 𝑓(𝐴).
11
33
 Exercise:

34
1. Let 𝐴 = [ ] .Then compute:
10
a) 𝑓(𝐴) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 b) 𝑓(−3𝐴) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices:

Definition: Let 𝐴 be a square matrix. Then 𝐴is said to be

 Symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 , i.e. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 .

 Skew-symmetric (anti-symmetric)if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴, i.e.𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 .
2 −1 3 0 5 −2 0 0 1
Example: A = [−1 5 1]B = [−5 0 3] C = [−5 0 3]
3 1 7 2 −3 0 2 −3 0

Symmetric Skew-Symmetric Neither

Exercise: Determine whether the following matrices are symmetric, skew symmetric or neither.

3 𝑏 0 3 −4
a) 𝐴 = [ ]
𝑏 3 d) 𝐷 = [−3 0 5 ]
1 0 0 4 −5 0
b) 𝐵 = [ ]
0 0 1 0 0
e) 𝐸 = [ ]
0 5 −4 3 0 0

c) 𝐵 = [−5 0 −7 −2]
4 7 0 1
−3 2 1 0
Elementary Row Operations and Echelon Form of Matrices

Elementary Row Operations

A matrix 𝑨 is said to be row equivalent to matrix 𝑩, written 𝑨~𝑩 if matrix 𝑩 is obtained from 𝑨 by a
finite sequence of elementary row operations. These elementary row operations are:

i. Interchanging the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row by the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row (i.e 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗 )

ii. Multiplying the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row by a none zero scalar (i.e𝑅𝑖 → 𝑘𝑅𝑖 ).
34
 iii. Replacing the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row by 𝑘 times the 𝑗 𝑡ℎ row plus 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row (i.e𝑅𝑖 → 𝑘𝑅𝑗 + 𝑅𝑖 )
Example: Apply all elementary row operations on the given matrix:

2 6 1 5 7 −4 2 6 1 2 6 1
𝑨 = [1 2 −1] 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 [1 2 −1] 𝑅2 → 2𝑅2 [2 4 −2] 𝑅2 → 2𝑅3 + 𝑅2 [11 16 −9] = 𝑩
5 7 −4 2 6 1 5 7 −4 5 7 −4

3 −1 2
Exercise: Let = [ 4 3 2]. Then find matrix 𝑩 which is row equivalent to 𝑨 with 𝒂𝟏𝟏 =
−1 −2 7
𝟎 and𝒂𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎.

Remark: The first non-zero entry in a row is called the leading entry (pivotal entry) of that row.

2 0 1
0 −2 −1
[ ]
−4 0 −3
0 0 0

Entries 2, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4 are leading entries of 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 1, 2,3 respectively, and no leading entry for row 3.

Echelon Form of a Matrix

Definition1: An m × n matrix 𝐴is said to be in echelon form (EF) provided the following two
conditions hold.

1. Any zero rows (if there is) are at the bottom of the non-zero rows.
2. The leading entry of all rows is at the right side of the leading entries of the above rows (i.e. all
entries below the leading entry are zero).
−1 2 0
2 6 1 1 2 6 9 1 2 6 9
0 6 1
Example: 𝑨 = [ ] 𝑩 = [0 2 −2 1 ] 𝑪 = [0 1 7 6 ] 𝑫 = [0 1 7]
0 0 −1
0 0 3 −4 0 0 0 −4 0 2 8
0 0 0

Matrices 𝑨, 𝑩and 𝑪 are in echelon form, but matrix 𝑫 is not.

Definition2: An m × n matrix 𝐴is said to be in row-echelon form (REF) provided the following two
conditions hold.

35
 1. The matrix is in echelon form.
2. All leading entries are equal to 1.
1 2 0 1 0 02
1 6 1 1 1 6 9
0 1 1
Example: 𝑨 = [ ] 𝑩 = [0 1 −2 1 ] 𝑪 = [0 1 0−5] 𝑫 = [0 1 7]
0 0 1 0 0 10
0 0 1 −4 0 1 8
0 0 0 0 0 00

Matrices 𝑨, 𝑩 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑪 are in row echelon form (REF) but 𝑫 is not.

Definition3: An m × n matrix 𝐴is said to be in reduced row-echelon form (RREF) provided the
following two conditions hold.

1. The matrix is in row echelon form.

2. All non-leading entries in a column, which contains the leading entry,are equal to 0.
1 0 0 1 0 −30 1 0 −30
1 0 0 0
0 1 0
Example: 𝑨 = [ ] 𝑩 = [0 1 0 0] 𝑪 = [0 1 0 0] 𝑫 = [0 1 5 0]
0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 01
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 00

Remark: Any matrix can be reduced to its echelon form by applying some elementary row operations
on the given matrix.

Example: Reduce the matrix 𝑨 to its row echelon form by applying elementary row operations where

3 −10 5
A = [−1 12 2]
1 −5 2

1 −5 2
Solution: Applying 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 we have:[−1 12 2]
3 −10 5

1 −5 2
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 we get:[0 7 4]
0 5 −1

1 −5 2
𝑅2
Applying 𝑅2 → we get:[0 1 4⁄7]
7
0 5 −1
36
 1 −5 2
4
Applying 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 5𝑅2 we get:[0 1 ⁄7 ]
0 0 −27⁄7

1 −5 2
7
Appling 𝑅3 → − ⁄27 𝑅3 we get:[0 1 4⁄7]
0 0 1

1 −5 2
4𝑅3
Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − we get:[0 1 0]
7
0 0 1

This is in row echelon form.

Rank of a Matrix
Suppose an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix 𝐀is reduced by row operations to an echelon form 𝑬. Then the rank of 𝑨,
denoted by𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒌(𝑨), is defined to be,

Rank(𝑨) = number of pivots (leading entries) or

= number of nonzero rows in 𝑬 or

= number of basic columns in 𝑨, where the basic columns of 𝑨are defined to be

those columns in 𝑨that contain the pivotal positions.

10002
01623
Example 1: Let matrix𝑨 = [ ]. Then therank (A)=3 since matrix 𝑨 is in echelon form and has
00100
00000
three non-zero rows.

Example 2: Determine the rank, and identify the basic columns in the matrix

1 2 1 1
𝐴 = [2 4 2 2]
3 6 3 4

37
 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1
Solution:𝐴 = [2 4 2 2] → [0 0 0 0 ] → [0 0 0 1]
3 6 3 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴) = 𝟐and

𝟏 𝟏
Basic Columns = {(𝟐) , (𝟐)}
𝟑 𝟒

Exercise: Reduce each of the following matrices to its echelon form and determine the rank & identify
the basic columns.

1 2 3 3 1 2 3
a. 𝐴 = [2 4 6 9] 2 6 8
2 6 7 6 b. 𝐵 = 2 6 0
1 2 5
[3 8 6]

Inverse of a Matrix and Its Properties

Definition: If A is an𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found such
that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼, where 𝐼 the 𝑛 × 𝑛identity matrix, then A is said to be invertible (non-singular)and
B is called an inverse of A. If no such matrix B can be found, then A is said to be singular.

Example: The matrix

Since

And

38
Remark:

1
1. 𝐴−1 ≠ 𝐴

2. Matrices which are not square matrices have no inverses

3. Not all square matrices have inverse
4. (𝐴−1 )𝑇 = (𝐴𝑇 )−1
Properties of Inverses matrices

1. If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C. that is the inverse of a matrix is unique
and is denoted by 𝐴−1 .
2. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size, then
a) AB is invertible and
b) (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
3. 𝐴−1 is invertible and (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
𝑑1 0 … 0
0 𝑑2 … 0
4. Let 𝐷 = [ ] be an 𝑛 × 𝑛 diagonal matrix where all 𝑑𝑖 ≠ 0 (for 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛).
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
0 0 … 𝑑𝑛
1
0 … 0
𝑑1
1
−1 −1 0 … 0
Then the inverse of 𝐷, denoted by 𝐷 , is given by 𝐷 = 𝑑2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 0
1
[0 0 … 𝑑𝑛 ]

Exercise: Verify that 𝐷𝐷 −1 = 𝐷 −1 𝐷 = 𝐼.

Finding Inverse of Matrix by Using Elementary Row Operations (Gauss-Jordan

Elimination Method)

Let 𝑨be an𝑛 × 𝑛matrix and let 𝑰𝒏 be an 𝑛 × 𝑛 identity matrix. Then to find the inverse of 𝑨.

1. Adjoin the identity 𝑛 × 𝑛matrix 𝑰𝒏 to 𝑨to form the augmented matrix (𝑨: 𝑰𝒏 ).

39
2. Compute the reduced echelon form of (𝑨: 𝑰𝒏 ). If the reduced echelon form is of the type (𝑰𝒏 : 𝑩),
then 𝐵 is the inverse of 𝑨. If the reduced echelon form is not of the type (𝑰𝒏 : 𝑩), in that the first 𝑛 ×
𝑛sub matrix is not 𝑰𝒏 , then 𝑨has no inverse.
Example-1: Find the inverse of A if

1 2 3
A = [2 5 3]
1 0 8

1 2 3⋮1 0 0
]
Solution:[𝐴: 𝐼3 = [2 5 3⋮0 1 0]
1 0 8⋮0 0 1

Applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 we get:

1 2 3⋮1 0 0
[0 1 −3⋮−2 1 0]
1 0 8⋮0 0 1

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2 we get:

1 0 9 ⋮ 5 −2 0
[0 1 −3⋮−2 1 0]
1 0 8⋮0 0 1

Applying 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 we get:

1 0 9 ⋮ 5 −2 0
[0 1 −3⋮−2 1 0]
0 0 −1⋮−5 2 1

Applying 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 + 9𝑅3 ;𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 3𝑅3 and 𝑅3 → −𝑅3 we get:

1 0 0⋮−40 16 9
[0 1 0⋮−13 −5 −3]
0 0 1⋮ 5 −2 −1

−40 16 9
Therefore, B = [−13 −5 −3] = 𝐴−1
5 −2 −1
40
 1 0 2
Example-2: Find the inverse of 𝐴 = ⌈2 −1 3⌉ by using elementary row operations (Gauss-Jordan
4 1 8
Method).

1 0 2⋮1 0 0
Solution: [𝐴 ⋮ 𝐼3 ] = [2 −1 3⋮0 1 0]
4 1 8⋮0 0 1

Applying𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 ,we get:

1 0 2⋮1 0 0
[0 −1 −1⋮−2 1 0]
4 1 8⋮0 0 1

Applying𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 we get:

1 0 2⋮1 0 0
[0 −1 −1⋮−2 1 0]
0 1 0 ⋮−4 0 1

Applying 𝑅3 → 𝑅2 +𝑅3 we get:

1 0 2⋮1 0 0
[0 −1 −1⋮−2 1 0]
0 0 −1⋮−6 1 1

Applying𝑅3 → −𝑅3 we get:

1 0 2⋮1 0 0
[0 −1 −1⋮−2 1 0]
0 0 1 ⋮ 6 −1 −1

Applying𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 2𝑅3 and 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 we get:

1 0 0⋮−11 2 2
[0 −1 0⋮ 4 0 −1]
0 0 1⋮ 6 −1 −1

Applying 𝑅2 → −𝑅2 we get:

41
 1 0 0⋮−11 2 2
[0 1 0⋮ −4 0 1]
0 0 1⋮ 6 −1 −1
1 0 0⋮−11 2 2
[𝐼3 ⋮ 𝐵] = [0 1 0⋮ −4 0 1]
0 0 1⋮ 6 −1 −1
−11 2 2
⇒ 𝐵 = [ −4 0 1 ] = 𝐴−1
6 −1−1

Example-3: Determine the inverse of the matrix

1 −1 −2
𝑨 = [ 2 −3 −5]
−1 3 5

1 −1 −2 ⋮ 1 0 0
Solution: (𝐴: 𝑰𝟑 ) = [ 2 −3 −5 ⋮ 0 1 0]
−1 3 5 ⋮ 0 0 1

Appling 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 −2𝑅1 & 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 we get

1 −1 −2 ⋮ 1 0 0
[0 −1 −1 ⋮ −2 1 0]
0 2 3 ⋮ 1 0 1

Appling 𝑅2 → −𝑅2 we get

1 −1 −2 ⋮ 1 0 0
[0 1 1 ⋮ 2 −1 0]
0 2 3 ⋮ 1 0 1

Appling 𝑅1 → 𝑅2 +𝑅1 & 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 we get

1 0 −1 ⋮ 3 −1 0
[0 1 1 ⋮ 2 −1 0 ]
0 0 1 ⋮ −3 2 1

Appling 𝑅1 → 𝑅3 +𝑅1 & 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅3 we get

42
 1 0 0 ⋮ 0 1 1 0 1 1
[0 1 0 ⋮ 5 −3 −1] Thus 𝑨−𝟏 = [ 5 −3 −1]
0 0 1 ⋮ −3 2 1 −3 2 1

Exercise: Determine the inverse of the following matrices, if it exists.

1 1 5 1 2 −3 2 1 3 1 6 4
𝐴 = [1 2 7 ] 𝑩 = [1 2 1 ] 𝐶 = [0 2 1] 𝐷 = [ 2 4 −1]
2 −1 4 5 −2 −3 1 1 2 −1 2 5

Determinant of a Matrix and Its Properties

Introduction: In this section, we shall study the “determinant function,” which is a real-valued function
of a matrix variable in the sense that it associates a real number 𝑓(𝐴) with a square matrix A. Our work
on determinant functions will have important applications to the theory of systems of linear equations
and will also lead us to an explicit formula for the inverse of an invertible matrix.

Definition: A “determinant” is a certain kind of function that associates a real number with a square
matrix𝑨, and it is usually denoted by 𝒅𝒆𝒕(𝑨) or|𝑨|.i.e. if 𝑨 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix, then

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
det(𝐴) = | ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ |
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛

a. Determinant of 𝟏 × 𝟏 𝑴 𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎11 ]be 1 × 1 matrix. Then det(𝐴) = 𝑎11.
Example: Let 𝐴 = [2]. Then det(𝐴) = 2
b. Determinant of 𝟐 × 𝟐 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
Let 𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] be 2 × 2 matrix. Then det(𝐴) = |𝑎21 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21
1 2
Example: Find det(𝐴) if 𝐴 = [ ]
−2 0
Solution: det(𝐴) = 1(0) − 2(−2) = 4
c. Determinant of 𝒏 × 𝒏 matrix

43
Definition-1: Let 𝑨 be an 𝑛 × 𝑛square matrix and 𝑴𝒊𝒋 be the (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 1) matrix obtained from
matrix 𝑨 by deleting 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column containing the entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . Then 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑴𝒊𝒋 ) is called the
minorof 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .

Remark: the matrix 𝑴𝒊𝒋 is called sub matrix of 𝑨.

Definition-2: The cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 , is defined as 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 det(𝑀𝑖𝑗 ).

2 5 −4
Example: Let 𝐴 = [3 −1 2 ]. Then find the minor and cofactor of 𝑎11 and 𝑎23 .
5 4 6

−1 2
Solution: Minor of 𝑎11 = det(𝑀11 ) = | | = −1(6) − 2(4) = −14
4 6

Cofactor of 𝑎11 = 𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 det(𝑀11 ) = −14

2 5
Minor of 𝑎23 = det(𝑀23 ) = | | = 2(4) − 5(5) = −17
5 4

Cofactor of 𝑎23 = 𝐶23 = (−1)2+3 det(𝑀23 ) = 17

Definition-3: The determinant of an𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is given by either of the following two formulas.

i. det(𝐴) = 𝑎𝑖1 𝐶𝑖1 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝐶𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗 , for fixed 𝑖 = 1,2,3, …
ii. det(𝐴) = 𝑎1𝑗 𝐶1𝑗 + 𝑎2𝑗 𝐶2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝐶𝑛𝑗 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗 , for fixed 𝑗 = 1,2,3, …
Example 1: Evaluate the determinant for the matrices

0 2 3 0
2 −1 3
0 4 5 0
𝐴 = [1 2 4]and𝐵 = [ ]
0 1 0 3
5 −3 6
2 0 1 3

Solution: Let us take row-1 of matrix 𝐴for 𝑖. Then

44
 𝑛 3

𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑨) = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑎1𝑗 𝐶1𝑗 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13 = 2(24) − 1(14) + 3(−13) = −𝟓
𝑗=1 𝑗=1

Let us take column-1 of matrix 𝐵for 𝑗.

𝑛 4

𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑩) = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖1 𝐶𝑖1 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎21 𝐶21 + 𝑎31 𝐶31 + 𝑎41 𝐶41
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

= 0𝐶11 + 0𝐶21 + 0𝐶31 + 2(6) = 𝟏𝟐

Example 2:Let 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ), 𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ) be vectors in 𝑅 3 . Then show

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
that|𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵 × 𝐶)
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
Solution:|𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 𝑎1 [ 2 ] − 𝑎2 [ 1 ] + 𝑎3 [ 1 ]
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) − 𝑎2 (𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐1 ) + 𝑎3 (𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )

= (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) ⋅ (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 , 𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐1 , 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )

= 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵 × 𝐶)

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

Note: The determinant of a 3×3 square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]is given by
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑎22𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎 𝑎 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎 𝑎 |
𝑎
32 33 31 33 31 32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

45
Properties of Determinants
Let𝑨, 𝑩and C be 𝒏 × 𝒏 square matrices and 𝒌 be any scalars. Then

a. det(𝐴) = det(𝐴𝑇 )
b. det(𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘 𝑛 det(𝐴), where 𝑛 is the size of 𝐴.
c. det(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≠ det(𝐴) + det(𝐵)
d. det(𝐴𝐵) = det(𝐴) det(𝐵)
1
e. det(𝐴−1 ) = det(𝐴), if 𝐴 is invertible (non-singular) matrix.

f. Determinant of any 𝑛 × 𝑛 triangular matrix 𝐴 is the product of its diagonal entries.

i.e.det(𝐴) = 𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
g. Determinant of 𝑛 × 𝑛 diagonal matrix 𝐷is the product of its diagonal entries. Thus det(𝐼𝑛 ) = 1,
where 𝐼𝑛 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 identity matrix.
h. If any rows (or columns) of a square matrix 𝐴 are proportional to each other (i.e. one is the scalar
multiple of the other), then det(𝐴) = 0.
i. If any row (or column) of a square matrix 𝐴 is zero, then det(𝐴) = 0.
Exercise:

1. Evaluate the determinant for each of the following matrices.

2 16 40 16 14 1 2 −3 4 5
√2 0 0 0
0 −3 22 −3 −18 4 −5 6 5 −2
𝐴= 0 0 4 1 20 , 𝐵 = [−8 √2 0 0 ], 𝐶 = 7 8 −8 6 20 , 𝐷=
0 0 0 5 0 7 0 −1 0 3 6 −9 12 15
[0 0 0 0 1 ] 9 5 0 1 [ 0 −2 3 4 1]
1 0 6 2 0 0
[3 5 2], 𝐸 = [0 −1 0]
0 0 0 0 0 2

2. Let det(𝐴) = 4and det(𝐵) = −3,and let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be a 5 × 5 matrices. Then find
i. det(2𝐴) iii. det(𝐴𝐵)
ii. det(𝐴𝑇 ) iv. det(𝐴−1 )

46
 𝑥 − 1 −2
3. Let 𝐴 = [ ]and let det(𝐴) = 0. Then find the value/s of 𝑥.
𝑥−2 𝑥−1
Theorem-1: Let A be invertible matrix. Then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴−1 ) = (𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴))−1.
Proof: 𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴−1 then taking determinant on both sides we get:

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐼) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐴−1 )

⇒ 1 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴)𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴−1 )
1
⇒ 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴−1 ) = = (𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴))−1
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴)
2 1 1 1
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ], then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴−1 ) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 3.
3 3

Note: We can evaluate the determinant of any square matrix 𝐴 by reducing it to its echelon form by
keeping the following conditions.

a. If 𝐵 is the matrix which results by applying the elementary row operation of multiplying any
particular row of 𝐴 by a non-zero constant 𝑘, then det(𝐵) = 𝑘𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴).
b. If 𝐵 is the matrix that results when two rows or two columns of 𝐴 are interchanged, then
det(𝐵) = −det(𝐴).
c. If 𝐵 is the matrix that results when a multiple of one row of 𝐴 is added to another row or when a
multiple of one column is added to another column, then det(𝐵) = det(𝐴).
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Exercise: Let𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] and let det(𝐴) = −12. The find det(𝐵), det(𝐶)and det(𝐷) if
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘

3𝑎 3𝑏 3𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑩=[𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ], 𝑪 = [𝑔 ℎ 𝑘] and 𝐷 = [𝑑 + 2𝑎 𝑏 + 2𝑏 𝑓 + 2𝑐 ]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑘

47
 Adjoint and Inverse of Matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Definition-1: Let 𝐴 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]be an𝑛 × 𝑛square matrix and let 𝑐𝑖𝑗 be the cofactor of
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑐11 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛
𝑐21 𝑐22 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛 𝑡ℎ
𝑎𝑖𝑗 .Then the matrix 𝐶 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]whose (𝑖𝑗) entry is 𝑐𝑖𝑗 is called matrix of cofactors of
𝑐𝑛1 𝑐𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑛
𝑐11 𝑐21 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛1
𝑐12 𝑐22 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛2
entries of 𝐴 and its transpose 𝐶 𝑇 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]is called the adjointof 𝑨, denoted by 𝒂𝒅𝒋(𝑨).
𝑐1𝑛 𝑐2𝑛 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑛

Example: Find the matrix of cofactors and adjoint of the matrix

34 6
𝐴 = [39 0 ]
12−1

Solution:

The cofactors of each elements of A are

90 34
𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 det(𝑀11 ) = (−1)1+1 | | = −9 𝐶23 = (−1)2+3 det(𝑀23 ) = (−1)2+3 | | = −2
2−1 12

30 46
𝐶12 = (−1)1+2 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑀12 ) = (−1)1+2 | |=3 𝐶31 = (−1)3+1 det(𝑀31 ) = (−1)3+1 | | = −54
1−1 90

39 36
𝐶13 = (−1)1+3 det(𝑀13 ) = (−1)1+3 | | = −3 𝐶32 = (−1)3+2 det(𝑀32 ) = (−1)3+2 | | = 18
12 30

46 34
𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 det(𝑀21 ) = (−1)2+1 | | = 12 𝐶33 = (−1)3+3 det(𝑀33 ) = (−1)3+3 | |
20 39
= 15
2+2 2+2 36
𝐶22 = (−1) det(𝑀22 ) = (−1) | | = −9
1−1

48
 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 −9 3 −3
Matrix of Cofactors= 𝐶 = [𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 ] = [ 12 −9−2]
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 −54 18 15

−9 12 −54
𝐀𝐝𝐣(𝐀) = 𝐶 𝑇 = [ 3 −9 18 ]
−3−2 15

Exercise: Find the adjoint of A if:

3 2 −1
𝐴 = [1 6 8]
2 −4 0

Definition-2: Let 𝐴 be an𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix with det(𝐴) ≠ 0. Then the inverse of a matrix 𝐴, denoted
𝟏
by 𝐴−1 , is defined as 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝐝𝐞𝐭(𝑨) 𝒂𝒅𝒋(𝑨).

Note: If det(𝐴) = 0, then the matrix 𝐴 has no inverse (i.e. 𝐴 is singular matrix).

34 6
Example: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [39 0 ]
12−1

Solution:det(𝐴) = −33

−9 12 −54
Adj(A) = [ 3 −9 18 ]
−3−2 15

3 −4 19
11 11 11
1 1 −9 12 −54 1 3 −6
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = − [ 3 −9 18 ] = −
det(𝐴) 33 11 11 11
−3−2 15
1 2 −5
[ 11 33 11 ]

49
Exercise: Determine whether each of the following matrixes has an inverse. If it has, find the inverse.

1 2 3 2 −1 3
1 4
𝐴=[ ], 𝐵 = [ 0 −1 2] and 𝐷 = [1 2 4]
3 2
−4 5 0 2 4 8

System of Linear Equations

A system of 𝑚 linear equations with n-unknown variables is given by

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

The matrix form of this system of linear equations is

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ][ ⋮ ] = [ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 . . 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑚

A x b
𝑨𝒙 = 𝒃

Where, 𝐴 is the coefficient matrix, 𝑥 is the unknown matrix (vector) and 𝑏 is the known matrix (vector).

The augmented matrix, [𝐴 ⋮ 𝑏], for the above system of linear equation is

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ⋮ 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ⋮ 𝑏2
[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 . . 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ⋮𝑏𝑚

Remark: If the system of the linear equations is the form 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎, i.e. all entries of 𝑏 are equal to 0,
50
then the system is called homogeneous system of linear equation, otherwise it is called non-
homogeneous.

Example: write the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix for the following system of linear
equations.

3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 6
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = −4

3 −1 1
Solution: Coefficient Matrix = 𝐴 = [1 1 1]
1 −1 −1

3 −1 1 ⋮ 4
Augmente Matrix= [𝐴 ⋮ 𝑏] = [1 1 1 ⋮ 6]
1 −1 −1 ⋮ −4

Solving System of Linear Equations

1. Cramer’s Rules
Let 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 be a system of 𝑛 linear equation in 𝑛 unknowns such thatdet(𝐴) ≠ 0. Then system has a
unique solution. This solution is:

det(𝐴1 ) det(𝐴2 ) det(𝐴𝑛 )

𝑥1 = , 𝑥2 = , …, 𝑥𝑛 =
det(𝐴) det(𝐴) det(𝐴)

Where 𝐴𝑖 (for 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛) is the matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 by the
𝑏1
𝑏
entries in the matrix 𝑏 = ( 2 ).
⋮
𝑏𝑛

Example: Using Cramer’s Rule solve the following system of linear equation.

𝑥1 + 𝑥3 = 6
−3𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 30
−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 8
51
Solution:

1 0 2 1 6 2
𝐴 = [−3 4 6] 𝐴2 = [−3 30 6]
−1 −2 3 −1 8 3

6 0 2 1 0 6
𝐴1 = [30 4 6] 𝐴3 = [−3 4 30]
8 −2 3 −1 −2 8

det(𝐴) = 44, det(𝐴1 ) = −40, det(𝐴2 ) = 72, and det(𝐴3 ) = 152

det(𝐴1 ) −40 −𝟏𝟎 det(𝐴2 ) 72 𝟏𝟖 det(𝐴3 ) 152 𝟑𝟖

Thus 𝒙𝟏 = = = 𝒙𝟐 = = = and 𝒙𝟑 = = =
det(𝐴) 44 𝟏𝟏 det(𝐴) 44 𝟏𝟏 det(𝐴) 44 𝟏𝟏

Exercise: Solve the following system of linear equations using Cramer’s Rule:

5𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 12 2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 6
a) {10𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 14 𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 1
b)
𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9 5𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = −3
−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 3
2. Gaussian Elimination Method

Definition: The process of using elementary row operations to transfer an augmented matrix of linear
system in to one whose augmented matrix is in row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination.

Let𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 be a linear system of equations. Then to solve the system by using Gaussian elimination
method, use the following procedures.

I. Write down the augmented matrix for the system.

II. Reduce this augmented matrix to its row echelon form.
III. Use back substitution to arrive at the solution.
Example: By using the Gaussian-Elimination method, solve the following system of linear equations.
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 6
𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 1
5𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = −3
−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 3

52
Exercise: By using the Gaussian-Elimination method, solve the following system of linear equations.

4𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 6 −𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = −32

3𝑥1 + 7𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 1 2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 7𝑥3 + 9𝑥4 = 14
i. ii.
7𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + 8𝑥4 = −3 −𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 4
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 3 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 4𝑥4 = −4
3. Inverse Matrix Method

Theorem: if A is invertible 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then for each 𝑛 × 1 matrix B the system of equations 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝐴
has exactly one solution namely 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝑏 = 𝑏
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴

Example1: Solve the following system of linear equations by using inverse method.

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 5
{ 2𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 3
𝑥1 + 8𝑥3 = 17

In matrix form this system can be written as:𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 where

1 2 3 𝑥1 5
A = [2 5 3] 𝑥 = [𝑥2 ] and 𝑏 = [ 3 ]
1 0 8 𝑥3 17

−40 16 9
−1
But 𝐴 = [−13 −5 −3] and we have:
5 −2 −1

−40 16 9 5 1 𝑥1
−1
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑏 = [−13 −5 −3] [ 3 ] = [−1] = [𝑥2 ]
5 −2 −1 17 2 𝑥3

Thus𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3 = 2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Exercise: Solve the following system of linear equations by using inverse method.

𝑥+𝑦 =2 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4
a)
5𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 9 b) 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 3

53
Remark:-

1. A system of equations that has no solutions is said to be inconsistent; if there is at least one
solution of the system, it is called consistent.
2. Every system of linear equations has no solutions, or has exactly one solution (unique solution),
or has infinitely many solutions.
3. Every homogeneous system of linear equations (𝑖. 𝑒, . 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎) is consistent, since all𝑥𝑖 = 0 (for 𝑖 =
1, 2, 3, … ) as a solution. This solution is called the trivial solution; if there are other solutions, they
are called nontrivial solutions. If this system has nontrivial solutions, then these solutions are
infinite.
4. If the number of variables is greater than the number of equations in a given system of linear
equations, then the system has infinite solutions. The arbitrary values that are assigned to the free
variables are often called parameters.
5. Let𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 be a system of non-homogenous linear equations and the number of variables are
equal to the number of equation (i.e. 𝐴 be square matrix). Then
i. if det(𝐴) ≠ 0, then the system has unique solution.
ii. if det(𝐴) = 0, then the system has
a. infinitely many solutions if det(𝐴𝑖 ) = 0 for all 𝑖 = 1,2,3 …
b. no solution if at least one of the det(𝐴𝑖 ) ≠ 0 for some𝑖 = 1,2,3 …

Eigen values and Eigenvectors

Definition: Let 𝐴 be an𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix and 𝑥 be a column vector. Then 𝑥is called the eigenvector (
or right eigenvector or right characteristic vector) of 𝐴 if there exists a scalar 𝜆 such that

𝐴𝑥 = 𝜆𝑥 … . . (1)

Then, 𝜆 is called an eigenvalue or characteristics value of 𝐴. Eigenvalue may be zero, but eigenvector
cannot be zero vectors.

1
Example: show that [ ] is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆 = −2 for the matrix
−1
3 5
[ ].
−2 −4
54
Solution: from equation (1) we have

3 5 1 2 1
[ ] [ ] = [ ] = −2 [ ]
−2 −4 −1 −2 −1

From equation (1), 𝐴𝑥 − 𝜆𝑥 = (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 )𝑥 = 0

 |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 |is called the characteristic polynomial of 𝐴.

 The equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0is called the characteristic equation.
 For each eigenvalue𝜆, the corresponding eigenvector is found by substituting 𝜆 back into the
characteristic equation|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼𝑛 | = 0.

3 5
Example: determine the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
−2 −4

3 5 1 0 3−λ 5
Solution: For this matrix 𝐴 − λI = [ ] − λ[ ]=[ ] and hence
−2 −4 0 1 −2 −4 − λ

det(𝐴 − λI) = (3 − λ)(−4 − λ) − 5(−2) = λ2 + λ − 2 = 0. Thus, the characteristic equation of A is

λ2 + λ − 2 = 0 and up on solving this we get λ = 1 and λ = −2

𝑥1
i. The eigenvectors to 𝛌 = 𝟏 will be obtained by solving equation (1) above for 𝑋 = [𝑥 ]with this
2

value of λ after substituting and rearranging we get:

3 5 1 0 𝑥1 0 3 5 𝑥1 0
([ ]− 1[ ]) [ ] = [ ] ⇒[ ][ ] = [ ]
−2 −4 0 1 𝑥2 0 −2 −4 𝑥2 0

This is equivalent to the set of linear equations given below:

2𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 = 0
−2𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 = 0

−5
The solution to this system is 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 with 𝑥2 arbitrary, so the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 1
2

are,

55
 −5 −5
𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑋 = [𝑥 ] = [ 2 ] = 𝑥2 [ 2 ] With 𝑥2 arbitrary.
2 𝑥2 1

ii. When 𝛌 = −𝟐 equation (1) above may be written as:

3 5 1 0 𝑥1 0 5 5 𝑥1 0
([ ] − (−2) [ ]) [𝑥 ] = [ ] ⇒[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
−2 −4 0 1 2 0 −2 −2 2 0

This is equivalent to the set of linear equations given below:

5𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 = 0
−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 0

The solution to this system is 𝑥1 = −𝑥2 with 𝑥2 arbitrary, so the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = −2
are,

𝑥1 −𝑥2 −1
𝑋 = [𝑥 ] = [ 𝑥 ] = 𝑥2 [ ] with 𝑥2 arbitrary
2 2 1

Exercise: Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices:

5 2 2
𝐴 = [3 6 3]
6 6 9

3 −2 0
𝐵 = [−2 3 0]
0 6 5

56
CHAPTER 3

LIMIT AND CONTINUTY

Definition of limit
Definition: A function is a relation in which no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first
element. If f is a function with domain A and range a subset of B, we write

𝑓∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵

If 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is given by a rule that maps x from A to y in B, then we write 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥).

Definition: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be

a) Odd, if and only if, for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 (−𝑥) = −𝑓 (𝑥).

b) Even, if and only if, for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓 (−𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥). The evenness or oddness of a
function is called its parity.
Definition: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be one-to-one (an injection), if and only if, each
element of the range is paired with exactly one element of the domain, i.e.

𝑓 (𝑥1 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴.

Definition: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is onto (a surjection), if and only if, Range of f = B.

Definition: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a one-to-one correspondence (a bijection), if and only

if, f is one-to-one and onto.

From preparatory we have been evaluating the limit of a function by using its
intuitivedefinition. That is we have said that limit of f (x) as x approaches to a is L and write;

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

If we can make f (x) close enough to L by choosing x close enough to 𝑎but distinct from 𝑎.

Definition3.1.1 (intuitive definition of limit):Suppose 𝑓 is defined when 𝑥 is near the

number 𝑎. (This means that 𝑓 is defined on some open interval that contains 𝑎, except
possibly at 𝑎 itself.) Then we write
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

and say “the limit of f (x), as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 , equals 𝐿 ” if we can make the values of
𝑥 arbitrarily close to 𝑎(as close to L as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to 𝑎(on
either side of 𝑎) but not equal to 𝑎.

Roughly speaking, this says that the values of f (x) approach 𝑎as 𝑥approaches 𝑎. In other
words, the values of f (x) tend to get closer and closer to the number 𝐿as 𝑥gets closer and
closer to the number 𝑎(from either side of 𝑎) but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎.

Although this intuitive definition is sufficient for solving limit problems it is not prices
enough. In this section we see the formal definition of limit, which we call the 𝜀 − 𝛿
definition of limit.

Definition 3.1.2 (Formal definition of limit): Let 𝑓be a function defined on some open
interval that contains the number 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑎 itself. Then we say that the limit of
𝒇(𝒙)as𝑥approaches 𝑎 is L, and we write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

if for every number 𝜀 > 0there is a number 𝛿 > 0such that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 then |𝑓(𝑥) −
𝐿| < 𝜀

Since |𝑥 − 𝑎| is the distance from 𝑥to 𝑎 and |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿|is the distance from 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝐿, and
since 𝜀can be arbitrarily small, the definition of a limit can be expressed in words as follows:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿Means that the distance between 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝐿can be made arbitrarily smallby
𝑥→𝑎

taking the distance from 𝑥to𝑎 sufficiently small (but not 0).

Alternatively,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿Means that the values of 𝑓(𝑥)can be made as close as we please to L by taking
𝑥→𝑎

𝑥close enough to𝑎 (but not equal to 𝑎).

Diagrammatically observe the following:

58
Examples on limit

Even if it is very difficult to use the formal definition of limit to handle all limit problems let
us see how we can use it for evaluating same important limits that may help us in developing
rules by the way of which we can evaluate limits without using the formal definition.

Example3.1.1 show that lim 4𝑥 − 5 = 7

𝑥→3

Solution: Based on the definition we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 5, L = 7 and a = 3

We need to show for every number 𝜀 > 0 there is a number 𝛿 > 0 such that

0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 7| < 𝜀

Now consider |𝑓(𝑥) − 7| < 𝜀 we have

|(4𝑥 − 5) − 7|

= |4𝑥 − 12|

= |4(𝑥 − 3)|

= 4|𝑥 − 3|

Thus
0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 ⇒ 4|𝑥 − 3| < 𝜀

𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑥 − 3| <
4
59
 𝜀
This suggests us we can choose 𝛿 = 4

Now for checking if 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿, then:

0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 ⇒ 4|𝑥 − 3| < 4𝛿

⇒ |4(𝑥 − 3)| < 4𝛿

⇒ |4𝑥 − 12)| < 4𝛿

⇒ |(4𝑥 − 5) − 7)| < 4𝛿

𝜀
⇒ |(4𝑥 − 5) − 7)| < 4
4

⇒ |(4𝑥 − 5) − 7)| < 𝜀

∴ 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒; lim4𝑥 − 5 = 7

𝑥→3

THE VALUE OF δ IS NOT UNIQUE

In preparation for our next example, we note that the value of δ in the above Definition is not
unique; once we have found a value of δ that fulfils the requirements of the definition, and
then any smaller positive number 𝛿1 will also fulfil those requirements. I.e. if it is true that;

|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 If0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿it will also be true that|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀 if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿1

This is because {𝑥 ∶ 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿1 } is a subset of {𝑥 ∶ 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿}

Example2: show that:

a) lim𝑥 2 = 9
𝑥→3
1 1
b) lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥 2
Proof:

a) Here we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , L = 9 and a = 3

We need to show for every number 𝜀 > 0 there is a number 𝛿 > 0 such that

60
 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀

That is 0 < |𝑥 − 3| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑥 2 − 9| < 𝜀

Now consider |𝑥 2 − 9| < 𝜀

|𝑥 2 − 9| = |𝑥 + 3||𝑥 − 3| < 𝜀 We wish to bound the factor |x + 3|. This can be done by
setting fixed number for 𝛿 then let 𝛿 ≤ 1 then we have;

|𝑥 − 3| < 1

⇒ −1 < 𝑥 − 3 < 1

⇒ −1 + 6 =< 𝑥 + 3 < 1 + 6

⇒5<𝑥+3<7

Consequently we can have that |𝑥 + 3| < 7 and hence we have;

|𝑥 2 − 9| = |𝑥 + 3||𝑥 − 3| < 7|𝑥 − 3| < 7𝛿

𝜀
This suggests us we can choose 𝛿 = min{7 ,1}.This proves thatlim𝑥 2 = 9.
𝑥→3

1 1
b) Here we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, L = 2 and a = 2
We need to a number 𝛿 > 0 given that a number 𝜀 > 0 such that;
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀

1 1
That is 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑥 − 2| < 𝜀

1 1
Now consider |𝑥 − 2| < 𝜀

1 1 2−𝑥 |2 − 𝑥| 1 |2 − 𝑥|
| − |=| |= =
𝑥 2 2𝑥 |2𝑥| 2 |𝑥|

In similar manner of the second example above we have to bound the factor |x| then let 𝛿 ≤ 1
and we have;

61
|𝑥 − 2| < 1⇒−1 < 𝑥 − 2 < 1 ⇒ 1 < 𝑥 < 3Consequently we can have |𝑥| < 3 and this
1 1
implies |𝑥| > 3hence we have:

1 1 2−𝑥 |2 − 𝑥| |𝑥 − 2| |𝑥 − 2|
| − |=| |= = >
𝑥 2 2𝑥 |2𝑥| 2|𝑥| 6

|𝑥−2| |𝑥−2|
⇒ < <𝜀
6 2|𝑥|

|𝑥−2|
⇒ < 𝜀 ⇒ |𝑥 − 2| = 6𝜀 = 𝛿2
6

1 1
This suggests us we can choose 𝛿 = min{1, 6𝜀}and hence this proves that lim 𝑥 = 2
𝑥→2

Exercise: show that:

a) lim𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥→0
b) lim3𝑥 − 5 = 1
𝑥→2
3.1.1 Uniqueness of limit

Theorem3.1.1: If the limit of a function 𝑓 at 𝑎 exists then, this limit is unique. Equivalently if
𝐿 and 𝑀 are both limits of 𝑓 at 𝑎then 𝐿 = 𝑀.

Proof: suppose that 𝑓 has two distinct limits 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 (𝐿 ≠ 𝑀) that is lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and
𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎

𝜀
Now since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 then given 2 > 0 there exist 𝛿1 > 0 such that
𝑥→𝑎

𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝛿1 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| <
2

𝜀
And since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀 then given 2 > 0 there exist 𝛿2 > 0 such that
𝑥→𝑎

𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝛿2 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀| <
2

Now take 𝛿 = min(𝛿1 , 𝛿2 ) and we have:

62
 𝜀 𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 2 And 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀| < 2

In particular choose 𝜀 = |𝐿 − 𝑀| and hence we have:

|𝐿 − 𝑀| = |𝐿 − 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀|

≤ |𝐿 − 𝑓(𝑥)| + |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀|

= |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| + |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑀|

𝜀 𝜀
= + = 𝜀 = |𝐿 − 𝑀|
2 2

⇒ |𝐿 − 𝑀| < |𝐿 − 𝑀|This is a contradiction

𝑥2 𝑥
Example: show thatlim𝑓(𝑥) = 0 where𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1(hint|𝑥 2 +1| < |𝑥|)
𝑥→0

Solution: Given 𝜀 > 0 we need to find 𝛿 > 0 such that;

𝑥2
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀That is0 < |𝑥 − 0| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑥 2 +1 − 0| < 𝜀

𝑥2
⇒ 0 < |𝑥| < 𝛿 ⇒ | 2 |<𝜀
𝑥 +1

𝑥2
Now consider|𝑥 2 +1| we have:

𝑥2 𝑥
| 2
| = |𝑥| | 2 | < |𝑥||𝑥| = |𝑥|2 < 𝜀
𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1

⇒ |𝑥| < √𝜀

𝑥2
Now we can choose 𝛿 = √𝜀 such that 0 < |𝑥| < 𝛿 ⇒ | | < √𝜀
𝑥 2 +1

3.1 Basic limit Theorems

Theorem3.2.1:Supposelim 𝑓(𝑥) = Landlim 𝑓(𝑥) = Mthen for any real number the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

followingholds true.
63
 1. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ± 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2. lim 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) L
4. lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎
= M , (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, 𝑀 ≠ 0)
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
5. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)]n
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
6. lim 𝑒 =e 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

7. 𝑙𝑛 |lim 𝑓(𝑥)| = lim 𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)| for lim 𝑓(𝑥) > 0

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)|
8. lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = e𝑥→𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) > 0
𝑥→𝑎

9. lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) for n is even lim 𝑓(𝑥) > 0

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Proof: 1 since lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Landlim 𝑓(𝑥) = M then by definition for given 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 > 0 there
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

exists 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 > 0 such that

0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿1 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀1

0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿2 ⇒ |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀| < 𝜀2

𝜀
Now choose 𝛿 = min{𝛿1 , 𝛿2 } and 𝜀1 = 𝜀2 = 2 then

𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| <
2

𝜀
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀| <
2

We need to show 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| < 𝜀

Now consider |𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| = |(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿) + (𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀)|

≤ |(𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿)| + |(𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑀)|

𝜀 𝜀
< + =𝜀
2 2

Hence 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) − (𝐿 + 𝑀)| < 𝜀

64
Therefore lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 + 𝑀 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Proof the rest as an exercise.

Activity:

1. Evaluate the following limits:

3 𝑥 √1+√2+𝑥−3
a) lim √−7𝑥+1 e) lim
𝑥→4 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 3 −27 √𝑥−2𝑎+√𝑥−√2𝑎
b) lim f) lim √𝑥 2 −4𝑎2
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→2𝑎
𝑥2 −9
𝑥−1
c) lim g) lim𝑒 ( 𝑥−3 )
𝑥→1 √𝑥−1 𝑥→3
√𝑥+5−3
d) lim 𝑥−4
𝑥→4

2. Show that the following limits are true.

𝑥 𝑚 −𝑎𝑚 𝑚
a) lim ( 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑛 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑄
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
b) lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

4𝑥 2 +6𝑥+6
Example1: Findlim
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥−1

Solution: Using the basic limit theorems above we can solve it as follows; since all limits of
the terms exists we can write it

lim 4 + lim6𝑥 + lim6 4lim𝑥 2 + 6lim𝑥 + 6 0 + 0 + 6

4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 6 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim = = 𝑥→0 = = −6
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥 − 1 2
lim sin 𝑥 − lim1 2
lim sin 𝑥 − 1 0−1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Theorem3.2.2 (Substitution Theorem):

Supposelim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐and𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑐for all𝑥in some open interval about a with the
𝑥→𝑎

possibleexception of a itself. Suppose also thatlim 𝑔(𝑥)exists, then lim𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) =

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim𝑔(𝑦)
𝑦→𝑐

Example1: Find

65
 a) lim√1 − x 2 b) lim𝜋 √sin 2x
𝑥→0 𝑥→
12
Solution:

a) let 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 then as 𝑥 → 0, 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 → 1
⇒ lim√1 − x 2 = lim √y = 1
𝑥→0 𝑦→1

Therefore lim√1 − x 2 = 1
𝑥→0

𝜋 𝜋
b) let 𝑦 = 2𝑥 then as 𝑥 → 12 , 𝑦 = 2𝑥 → 6
⇒ lim𝜋 √sin 2x = lim𝜋√sin y
𝑥→ 𝑦→
12 6
𝜋 1
And now let 𝑧 = sin 𝑦 then as 𝑦 → 6 , 𝑧 = sin 𝑦 → 2

√2
⇒ lim𝜋√sin y = lim1√z =
𝑦→
6
𝑧→ 2
6

2
Exercise: find lim𝜋 tan5 𝑥
𝑥→−
4

3.1.1 Squeezing (sandwich) theorem

Suppose that 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in some open interval containing 𝑎 except
possibly at 𝑎 itself. Suppose also that:

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿 Then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑥2 𝑥2
Example: given that 1 − ≤ 𝑢(𝑥) ≤ 1 + for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 then find lim𝑢(𝑥)
4 2 𝑥→0

𝑥2 𝑥2
Solution: observe that lim (1 − ) = 1 = lim(1 + ) then by the sandwich theorem we
𝑥→0 4 𝑥→0 2

have that lim𝑢(𝑥) = 1

𝑥→0

3.2 One sided Limits

This method is applied to find the limit at 𝑥 = 𝑎 when the function is defined differently for
the cases when 𝑥 > 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 < 𝑎.
 1. Right hand limit: We say that the right hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎is 𝐿, if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿
as 𝑥 → 𝑎 through values greater than 𝑎. And we write:
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿If for every number 𝜀 > 0 there is a number 𝛿 > 0 such that if 𝑎 <
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝛿 then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀
2. Left hand limit: We say that the left hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎is 𝑀, if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑀
as 𝑥 → 𝑎 through values less than 𝑎. And we write:
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀 If for every number 𝜀 > 0 there is a number 𝛿 > 0 such that if 𝑎 −
𝑥→𝑎
𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 then |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀

Example1: Show that lim+ √𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0

Solution: here we have 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 , 𝐿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 0 then for every number 𝜀 > 0 we need
to find a number 𝛿 > 0 such that:

0 < 𝑥 < 0 + 𝛿 ⇒ |√𝑥 − 0| < 𝜀

0 < 𝑥 < 𝛿 ⇒ √𝑥 < 𝜀

0 < 𝑥 < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑥 < 𝜀2

Then we can choose 𝛿 = 𝜀 2

For checking 0 < 𝑥 < 𝛿 ⇒ √𝑥 < √𝛿 = √𝜀 2 = 𝜀 ⇒ |√𝑥 − 0| < 𝜀

Therefore lim+ √𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0

Exercise: Show that lim−√1 − 𝑥 2 = 0

𝑥→1

Limit of a function derived from one-sided limits

Definition: We say thatlim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) however, if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥) or if any one of the limits lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist,then we say that
𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑥) doesn’t exist.

𝑥→𝑎

2𝑥 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 2
Example1: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { then find lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 + 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 2 𝑥→2

67
Solution: using one sided limits we can solve as follows;

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 + 3 = 5and lim−𝑓(𝑥) = lim−2𝑥 + 1 = 5

𝑥→2+ 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

⇒ lim+𝑓(𝑥) = lim−𝑓(𝑥) = lim𝑓(𝑥) = 5

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

4 − 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 1
Exercise: Let ℎ(𝑥) = { then find lim ℎ(𝑥)
2 + 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1 𝑥→1

3.3 Infinite limits and limit at infinity

Infinite limits:

Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥in some open interval containing 𝑎 except possibly
that 𝑓(𝑥) need not be defined at𝑎. We will write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞If given any positive number M, we can find a number 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

satisfies: 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑀 𝑖𝑓 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 that is 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑀

Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥 in some open interval containing 𝑎 except possibly
that 𝑓(𝑥) need not be defined at𝑎. We will write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ If given any negative number M, we can find a number 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

satisfies: 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑀 𝑖𝑓 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 that is 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑀

1
Example: Show that lim 𝑥 2 = ∞
𝑥→0

Solution: let M be given positive number, then we need to find a number 𝛿 > 0 such that

1
0 < |𝑥| < 𝛿 ⇒ >𝑀
𝑥2

1 1 1
But 𝑥 2 > 𝑀 ⇔ 𝑥 2 < 𝑀 ⇔ |𝑥| <
√𝑀

1 1
Now if we choose 𝛿 = then 𝑥 2 > 𝑀
√𝑀

68
 1
Therefore lim 𝑥 2 = ∞
𝑥→0

Limit at Infinity:

Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥 in some infinite open interval extending in the
positive x-direction. We will write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿Ifgiven 𝜀 > 0, there corresponds a positive number N such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| <
𝑥→∞

𝜀 if 𝑥 > 𝑁

Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be defined for all 𝑥 in some infinite open interval extending in the
negative x-direction. We will write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 If given 𝜀 > 0, there corresponds a negative number N such that |𝑓(𝑥) −
𝑥→−∞

𝐿| < 𝜀 if 𝑥 < 𝑁

1
Example: Prove that lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

1
Solution: Applying the above definition 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 0 we need to find a number N>0

such that

1
| − 0| < 𝜀 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑁
𝑥

Since 𝑥 → ∞ we can assume that 𝑥 > 0, then we can write it without absolute values as

1
< 𝜀 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑁
𝑥

1
⇒𝑥> 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑁
𝜀

1
Then we can choose 𝑁 = 𝜀 which satisfies the required proof.

69
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Limits involving 𝜽

sin 𝜃
Theorem: lim = 1 (𝜃 in radians)
𝑥→0 𝜃

Proof:

The aim is to show that the right-hand and left-hand limits are both 1. Then we will know that
the two-sided limit is 1 as well.

From the figure Area 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝑃 < 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐴𝑃 < 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 Δ𝑂𝐴𝑇.We can express these areas
in terms of as follows:

1 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝑃 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (1)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 2 2

1 2 𝜃
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟 𝜃 =
2 2

1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝛥𝑂𝐴𝑇 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = tan 𝜃
2 2

1 𝜃 1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 < < tan 𝜃
2 2 2

1 𝜋
Dividing all terms by 2 sin 𝜃 (𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 0 < 𝜃 < 2 ) we get;

𝜃 1 sin 𝜃
1 < sin 𝜃 < cos 𝜃⇒1 > > cos 𝜃 and by taking limit as 𝜃 → 0 through and the sandwich
𝜃
sin 𝜃
theorem we get lim 𝜃
=1
𝜃→0
70
 sin 𝜃
Example: using lim = 1 show that:
𝑥→∞ 𝜃

cos ℎ−1 sin 2𝑥 2

a) lim =0 b) lim =5
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→0 5𝑥
ℎ
Solution: a) By using the half angle formula cos ℎ = 1 − 2 sin2 (2)then we can
ℎ ℎ
cos ℎ−1 −2 sin2 ( ) sin2 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ℎ
2
have;lim = lim 2
= −lim ℎ = −lim ∙ sin 𝜃(by letting 𝜃 = 2) thus
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 𝜃→0 𝜃
2

we get

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
−lim ∙ sin 𝜃 = −1(1)(0) = 0
𝜃→0 𝜃

2
sin 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 ( )sin 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
b) lim = 5 since lim = lim 5
2 = 5 lim =
𝑥→0 5𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥 𝑥→0 ( )5𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥
5
2 sin 𝜃
lim (𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜃 = 2𝑥) thus we get
5 𝜃→0 𝜃
2 sin 𝜃 2 2
lim = (1) =
5 𝜃→0 𝜃 5 5

Exercise: Find

tan 𝑥 sin 3𝑥
a) lim c) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0 5𝑥
sin 2𝑥
b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
Asymptotes

1. Horizontal Asymptote: a line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if either:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 Or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

5𝑥 2 +8𝑥−3
Example1: The curve 3𝑥 2 +2

5
Whose sketched is in the Figure below has the line 𝑦 = 3as a horizontal asymptote on both
5 5
the right and the left because; lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

71
 1
Example2: Find lim sin 𝑥
𝑥→∞

1
Solution: we can solve this by substituting a new variable 𝑡 = 𝑥 and as 𝑥 → ∞ 𝑡 → 0+ and

hence,

1
lim sin = lim sin 𝑡 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑡→0+

2. Vertical Asymptote: a line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if either:
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ 𝑜𝑟 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑥+3
Example: find the Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2

Solution: We are interested in the behaviour as 𝑥 → ±∞ and as 𝑥 → −2 where the

denominator is zero. Using long division we get;

1
𝑦 = 1+
𝑥+2

1
We now see that the curve in question is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥shifted 1 unit up and 2 units left

as in the figure below. The asymptotes, instead of being the coordinate axes, are now the
lines 𝑦 = 1and𝑦 = −2.

72
Continuity:
Definition: A function f is continuous at a point a, if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied:

1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined
2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist
𝑥→𝑎
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Example: Determine whether the following functions are continuous or not at 𝑥 = 2.

𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑥−2
3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2

Solution: now a function f is continuous at a point a, if and only if the above three conditions
are satisfied; then

In each case we must determine whether the limit of the function as 𝑥 → 2 is the same as the
value of the function at 𝑥 = 2. In all three cases the functions are identical, except at 𝑥 =
2, and hence all three have the same limit at 𝑥 = 2, which is,

𝑥2 − 4
lim𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = limℎ(𝑥) = lim = lim(𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2

The function f is undefined at 𝑥 = 2, and hence is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2(Figure a).

The function g is defined at 𝑥 = 2, but its value there is 𝑔(2) = 3, which is not the same as
the limit as x approaches 2; hence, g is also not continuous at 𝑥 = 2 (Figure b).
73
The value of the function h at𝑥 = 2is ℎ(2) = 4, which is the same as the limit as x
approaches 2; hence, h is continuous at 𝑥 = 2 (Figure c).

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4
Exercise: let 𝑓(𝑥) = determine the numbers where f is continuous.
𝑥 2 −9

Definition: a function 𝑓 is continuous from the right at a number 𝑎 if lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and f
𝑥→𝑎

is continuous from the left at 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

Example: The Greatest Integer Function𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋. It is discontinuous at every integer

because the limit does not exist at any integer n:

lim ⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 − 1 And lim+ ⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛

𝑥→𝑛− 𝑥→𝑛

So the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal as 𝑥 → 𝑛. Since ⌊𝑛⌋ = 𝑛 the greatest
integer function is right-continuous at every integer n (but not left-continuous).

74
Definition: A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval. If f is defined only on one side of an end point of the interval, we understand and
continuous at the end point to mean continuous from the right or continuous from the left.

Example: Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − √1 − 𝑥 2 is continuous on [−1,1]

Solution: we are going to check the continuity of 𝑓 at any point on the interval (-1,1) and at
the end points of the interval as follows;

For any 𝑎 ∈ (−1,1)𝑖. 𝑒 − 1 < 𝑎 < 1 using the limit laws we have:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (1 − √1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 1 − lim (√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 1 − (√ lim (1 − 𝑥 2 ))

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

= 1 − √1 − 𝑎2 = 𝑓(𝑎)

Thus by definition 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎 if −1 < 𝑎 < 1 now we are going to show that the
limit exists at the end points, that is:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(1 − √1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 1 = 𝑓(−1) And lim−𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(1 − √1 − 𝑥 2 ) =

𝑥→−1+ 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

1 = 𝑓(1)

Hence f is continuous from the right at -1 and continuous from the left at 1.

Therefore f is continuous on [−1,1]

Theorem: If f and g are cont. at 𝑎 and 𝑐 is constant, then the following functions are also
cont. at 𝑎.

1. 𝑓 + 𝑔 3. 𝐶𝑓
2. 𝑓 − 𝑔 4. 𝑓𝑔
𝑓
5. 𝑔

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Proof:

1. Since f and g are continuous at a we have:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)andlim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
⇒lim (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
= lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) (by limit laws)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
= 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑔(𝑎)
= (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑎)
Thus 𝑓 + 𝑔 is continuous at a

Proof the rest as an exercise

Theorem:

a) Any polynomial function is cont. everywhere. That is cont. on 𝑹 = (−∞, ∞)

b) Any rational function is cont. where ever it is defined; that is cont. on its domain.
Theorem: In general the following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:

 polynomial function  trigonometric and their

 rational function inverses
 root functions  exponential functions
 logarithmic functions

ln 𝑥+tan−1 𝑥
Example1: where is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = continuous?
𝑥 2 −1

Solution: by the above theorem 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 is continuous for all 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 is continuous on
𝑹. Thus by theorem of addition from previous theorem 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 is continuous at (0, ∞).
The denominator 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 is polynomial, so it is continuous at all positive numbers 𝑥 except
where𝑥 2 − 1 = 0. So f is continuous on the interval (0, 1) and (1, ∞).

sin 𝑥
Exercise: Evaluate lim 2+cos 𝑥
𝑥→𝜋

Theorem: if f is continuous at b andlim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏, thenlim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑏). In other words

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(lim 𝑔(𝑥)).

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
76
Proof: Exercise

1−√𝑥
Example: evaluate lim sin−1 ( 1−𝑥 )
𝑥→1

Solution: since inverse trigonometric functions are continuous then we can use the above theorem:
thus

1 − √𝑥 1 − √𝑥
lim sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 (lim )
𝑥→1 1−𝑥 𝑥→1 1 − 𝑥

1 − √𝑥
= sin−1 (lim ) (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 1 − 𝑥 = (1 − √𝑥)(1 − √𝑥))
𝑥→1 (1 − √𝑥)(1 + √𝑥)

1
= sin−1 (lim )
𝑥→1 (1 + √𝑥)

1 𝜋
= sin−1 ( ) = = 30°
2 6

Exercise: by using the above theorem show that: lim 𝑛√𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Theorem: if 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 and f is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎) then the composite function 𝑓𝑜𝑔 given by
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is continuous at 𝑎.

Proof: Because 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 we havelim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎). Now 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎); thus, we
𝑥→𝑎

can apply the above Theorem to the composite function 𝑓𝑜𝑔, thereby giving us

lim (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 (lim 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑎))

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Therefore 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎.

Example: where are the following functions continuous?

77
 a) ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 2 and b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(1 + cos 𝑥)
Solution:

a) ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 2 , here we can write ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥. Now
g is continuous on 𝑹, (because g is polynomial) and f is continuous everywhere. Thus
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is continuous on 𝑹by the above theorem.
b) 𝐹(𝑥) = ln(1 + cos 𝑥), now 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥is continuous and 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 + cos 𝑥 is continuous.
Then 𝐹(𝑥) = ln(1 + cos 𝑥) is continuous wherever it is defined. But ln(1 + cos 𝑥) is
defined when 1 + cos 𝑥 > 0. So it is undefined when cos 𝑥 = −1 that is when 𝑥 = ±𝜋,
±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … thus F is discontinuous when 𝑥 is an odd multiple of 𝜋 and is continuous on
the intervals between these values.

The intermediate value theorem

Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and let 𝑁 be any number between 𝑓(𝑎) and
𝑓(𝑏) where 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏). Then there exists a number 𝑐 in [𝑎, 𝑏] such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑁

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate value
between the function values 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏). It is illustrated by the Figure below. Note that the value
𝑁can be taken on once [as in part (a)] or more than once [as in part (b)].

Example: show that there is a root of the equation 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0 between 1 and 2

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2. We are looking for a solution of the given equation, that
is, a number 𝑐 between 1 and 2 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0 . Therefore we take, 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2 and 𝑁 = 0in
the above Theorem. Then we have

78
𝑓(1) = 4(1)3 − 6(1)2 + 3(1) − 2 = −1 < 0 And

𝑓(2) = 4(2)3 − 6(2)2 + 3(2) − 2 = 12 > 0

⇒𝑓(1) < 0 < 𝑓(2), that is 𝑁 = 0 is a number between𝑓(1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(2). Now is continuous since it is a
polynomial, so the Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number 𝑐between 1 and 2 such
that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0. In other words, the equation4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 = 0has at least one root 𝑐 in the
interval (1, 2).

From the basic limit theorems which we have seen in the previous section we have the following
special limits as a summary:

1. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 3. lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
4. lim √𝑥 = √𝑎 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + if n is negative we assume that 𝑎 > 0.
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
5. lim √𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Exercises

1. Evaluate the following limits.

𝑥 2 −25 5𝑥 2 −4 √𝑥+3−√3
a) lim b) lim c) lim
𝑥→5 𝑥−5 𝑥→0 𝑥+1 𝑥→0 𝑥
2𝑥+5 |𝑥|
d) lim e) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2−7𝑥+3 𝑥→0 𝑥
2. Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the following functions.
4𝑥−5 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥+2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
3. Show that whether the following functions are continuous or not at 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 if 𝑥 ≠ 2
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2
𝑥−2
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
4. Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − √4 − 𝑥2is continuous on the interval[−2, 2].
5. Find the value of k, if possible, that will make the function continuous.
7𝑥 − 2 if 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑘𝑥 2 if 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑘𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1 2𝑥 + 𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2

79
 CHAPTER 4

DERIVATIVES AND APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

4.1 Definition of derivatives; Basic rules

Definition: If point 𝑝(𝑥o, 𝑦o) is a point on the graph of a function f then the tangent line to the graph
of f at p is defined to be the line through p with slope 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim 𝑓(𝑥𝑜+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥
ℎ
𝑜)
ℎ→0

, provides this limit exist. Where ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑥o

Example: Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2, at the point (1,1).

Solution: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 which implies that 𝑓(𝑥o+ ℎ) = (𝑥o+ ℎ )2and f(xo)=xo2 ,p(xo, yo)=(1,1)

𝑓(𝑥𝑜 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥𝑜 ) (𝑥0 +ℎ)2 −(𝑥𝑜 )2 𝑥𝑜 2 +2ℎ𝑥𝑜 +ℎ2 −𝑥𝑜 2 2ℎ𝑥𝑜 +ℎ2
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0

= lim 2𝑥𝑜+ℎ=2𝑥𝑜.
ℎ→0

But our 𝑥o= 1, so 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 2

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
Definition: Let a be a number in the domain of 𝑓. If lim exist, we call this limit the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
derivative of f at a and we write it 𝑓’(𝑎) so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

If this limit exist we say that f has a derivative at a. i.e 𝑓 is differentiable at a or 𝑓’(𝑎) exist.

𝑓’(𝑎) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of 𝑓 at (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)).

80
 𝑥2
Example: Let f(x) = 4 + 1. Find 𝑓’(−1)and 𝑓’(3) and draw the lines tangent to the graph of 𝑓 at the

corresponding points.

𝑥2 (−1)2 𝑥2
( +1)−( +1) ( +1)−1/4
4 4 4
Solution: 𝑓’(𝑥) = lim = lim = −1/2.
𝑥→−1 𝑥−(−1) 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

Similarly we obtain 𝑓’(3) = 3/2

Exercise

Find 𝑓’(𝑎)for the given values of 𝑎.

i)𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 ,a=-2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = −4𝑥 + 7 C)𝑓(𝑥) = x at a=- 2

𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 2
d)𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑎=2
4𝑥 − 4 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑥 ≥ 2

Derivative notation

The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. When the independent variable is 𝑥, the
𝑑
differentiation operation is often denoted by 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

Derivatives of constants

Theorem: The derivatives of constant function are 0. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, where c is any real number, then
𝑓’(𝑥) = 0

Proof: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 .From definition derivative we have

81
 𝑓(𝑥𝑜 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥𝑜 ) 𝑐−𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim = 0.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

Theorem : The power Rule

If n is positive integer and f(x)=xn,then f’(x)=nxn-1.

Proof. Left as Exercise

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥5, then 𝑓’(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4

Basic rules
If f and g are differentiable at x and c is any constant then 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔 , 𝑓. 𝑔, 𝑐𝑓, 𝑓/𝑔 where 𝑔 ≠ 0
are differentiable at x

1) (𝑓 + 𝑔)’ = 𝑓’ + 𝑔’ (sum rule)

2) (𝑓 − 𝑔)’ = 𝑓’ − 𝑔’ (difference rule)
3) (𝑓. 𝑔)’ = 𝑓’. 𝑔 + 𝑓. 𝑔’ (product rule)
4) (𝑐𝑓)’ = 𝑐𝑓’ constant multiple rule
𝑓 ′ .𝑔−𝑓.𝑔′
5) (𝑓/𝑔)’ = provided 𝑔 ≠ 0. (Quotient rule).
(𝑔)2

Proof. (1-3) are left as exercise

Proof .4 From definition of derivative, we have

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑔(𝑥+ℎ)
( ) = lim = lim
𝑔 ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ. 𝑔(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)

Adding and subtracting 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) in the numerator yields

𝑓 ′ 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
( ) = lim
𝑔 ℎ→0 ℎ. 𝑔(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ ℎ
= lim ( )
ℎ→0 𝑔(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)

82
 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑔(𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥) lim − lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim
ℎ ℎ
. = (ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0
)
lim 𝑔(𝑥) . lim 𝑔(𝑥 + ℎ)
ℎ→0 ℎ→0

𝑔(𝑥). 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)

=
(𝑔(𝑥)2

𝑥 2 −1
Example: Let ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 +1 ,then find ℎ’(𝑥)

Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥4+1,which implies 𝑓’(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔’(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3

𝑔(𝑥). 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) (2𝑥)(𝑥 4 + 1) − (𝑥 2 − 1)(4𝑥 3 )

= =
(𝑔(𝑥))2 (𝑥 4 + 1)2
−2𝑥 5 +4𝑥 3 +2𝑥
= .
(𝑥 4 +1)2

Theorem: The chain Rule

If 𝑔 is differentiable at the point 𝑥 and f is differentiable at the point 𝑔(𝑥), then composition 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is
differentiable at the point 𝑥 and (𝑔𝑜𝑓)’(𝑥) = 𝑔’(𝑓(𝑥))𝑓’(𝑥).

Example; 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑘(𝑥) = 1  x 4 then find 𝑘’(𝑥)

1
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = x then 𝑓’(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 and 𝑔’(𝑥) = for 𝑥 > 0
2 x

4𝑥 3 2𝑥 3
𝑘’(𝑥) = 𝑔’(𝑓(𝑥))𝑓’(𝑥) = =
2√𝑓(𝑥) √1 + 𝑥 4

Derivatives of some functions

1) Derivative of trigonometric function
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 from the definition of derivative we have
sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 sinxcosh + cosxsinh − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ
= lim [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ( ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ( )]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ

83
 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ
= lim [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ( ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ( )]
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥lim − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥lim = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(−1) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

The derivative of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 can be obtained in the same way and (𝑐𝑜𝑠)’ = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

Note 1)(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)′ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 2)(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥)’ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 3) (𝑐𝑜𝑡)’ = −𝑐𝑠𝑐2𝑥 4)(𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥)’ = −𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥

Example: Find 𝑓’(𝑥) = 𝑥2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

Solution: using the product rule.

𝑓’(𝑥) = 𝑥2(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)’ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥(𝑥2)’ = 𝑥2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 + 2𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥.

Derivatives of exponential Functions

Let 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥+ℎ −𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 ℎ −1)

From definition of derivatives 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑒 ℎ −1
= 𝑒 𝑥 lim = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥
ℎ→ ℎ

Therefore,(𝑒 𝑥 )′ = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥

′
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1, then (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑎

′
Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 , then (𝑓(𝑥)) = 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛2.

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 , 𝑏 ≠ 1,then from the definition of derivative we obtain

log 𝑏 (𝑥 + ℎ) − log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑥+ℎ ℎ

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim 1/ℎ log 𝑏 ( ) = lim 1/ℎ log 𝑏 (1 + )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 𝑥 ℎ→0 𝑥
84
 1
= lim 𝑣𝑥 log 𝑏 (1 + 𝑣) ( let 𝑣 = ℎ/𝑥)
ℎ→0

= 1/𝑥 lim log 𝑏 (1 + 𝑣)1/𝑣 = 1/𝑥 log 𝑏 [lim(1 + 𝑣)1/𝑣 ]

ℎ→0 𝑣→0

1
= 1/𝑥 log 𝑏 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑏

Note. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 then 𝑓’(𝑥) = 1/𝑥

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥2+1), then find 𝑓’(𝑥)

4.1. Higher order derivatives

If 𝑓 is a function then 𝑓’ is the function that assigns the number 𝑓(𝑥) to each 𝑥 at which f is
differentiable. Since 𝑓’ is a function we can carry the process at step further and define 𝑓’’(𝑥) by

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)−𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
𝑓"(𝑎) = lim whenever this limit exists we call 𝑓”(𝑎) the second derivative of 𝑓 at a.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, find 𝑓’’(𝑥).

Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥  𝑓’(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥  𝑓’’(𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

For 𝑛 ≥ 3 we define the 𝑛𝑡ℎ of 𝑓 (n)(𝑎) at a by

𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑎)

𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

𝑓 is 𝑛 times differentiable if 𝑓 (n)(𝑥) exists for all 𝑥 in the domain.

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒cx. Find a formula for the 𝑛th derivative of 𝑓.

Solution:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒cx  𝑓’(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑒cx  𝑓”(𝑥) = 𝑐 2𝑒cx 𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = 𝑐 3𝑒cx

In general for any positive integer 𝑛.

85
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝑐n𝑒cx.

1
Example: Let :𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥, then find a formula for the 𝑛th derivative of f.

Solution : By applying the quotient rule

1 2 6
:𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)2 , 𝑓"(𝑥) = , 𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)4
(1−𝑥)3

Now , 1 = 1! , 2 = 2! 6 = 3!

𝑛!
So by proceeding in this way we obtain 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = (1−𝑥)𝑛+1
)

Implicit differentiation

Function defined Explicitly and Implicitly.

Up to now, we have been concerned with differentiating functions that are expressed in the form 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥). An equation of this form is said to be defined y explicitly as a function of x, because the variable
y appears alone on one side of equation. However, sometimes function are defined by equation in
which y is not alone on one side.

For example :the equation 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥 (1)

is not of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥),however, this equation still defines y as a function of 𝑥 since it can be 𝑦 =
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
. Thus we say that (1) defines y implicitly as a function of x the function being 𝑦 = 𝑥+1
𝑥+1

In general, it is not necessary to solve an equation for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 in order to differentiate the
function defined implicitly.

𝑑𝑦
Example: Find if 𝑥𝑦 = 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solution: One way to find is writing this equation as y=1/x  𝑑𝑥 = −1/𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

However, there is another way to obtain this derivative.

86
 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
i.e𝑑𝑥 [𝑥𝑦] = 𝑑𝑥 [1]  𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0

𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑦/𝑥 but 𝑦 = 1/𝑥

1
𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑥 = −1/𝑥 2

This method of obtaining derivative is called implicit differentiation.

𝑑𝑦
Example: Use implicit differentiation to find if 5𝑦2+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Solution:𝑑𝑥 (5𝑦 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 )  5 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) = 2𝑥( the chain rule)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 10𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
Solving for , we obtain = 10𝑦+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 (*)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Note that this formula involves both 𝑥 and 𝑦 .In order to obtain a formula for , that involves 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

alone, we would have to solve the original equation for 𝑦 in terms and then substituting in to (*).
𝑑𝑦
However, it is impossible to do this. So we are forced to leave the formula for 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

𝑑2 𝑦
Example: Use implicit differentiation to find if 4𝑥 2−2𝑦2= 9.
𝑑𝑥 2

Solution: Differentiating both side of 4𝑥 2−2𝑦2= 9 implicitly yield

𝑑𝑦
8𝑥 − 4𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
= (*)
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑦)(2)−(2𝑥)(𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥)
Differentiating both side of (*) implicitly yields 𝑑𝑥 2 = (**)
𝑦2

87
Substituting (*) in to (**) and simplifying using the original equation we obtain

2𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑦 2𝑦 − 2𝑥 ( 𝑦 ) 2𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2
= = = −9/𝑦 3
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦3

Example: Find the slope of the tangent line at (2, −1) and (2,1) to 𝑦2−𝑥 + 1 = 0.

Solution: Solving for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 and then evaluating the derivative of 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1 at (2,1) and
the derivative of 𝑦 = −√𝑥 − 1 at (2, −1).

𝑑 2 𝑑
(𝑦 − 𝑥 + 1) = (0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 1 = 0

𝑑𝑦
∴ = 1/2𝑦
𝑑𝑥

At (2, −1), we have 𝑦 = −1 and at (2, 1) we have 𝑦 = 1 the slope of the tangent lines at those points
dy x2
are 𝑚tan= y 1  1 / 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚tan=
dx

dy x2
y  1  1/ 2
dx

88
Exercise

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,find 𝑑𝑥 2 ,by implicit differentiation

1) y  3 2 x  5 5) 3𝑥 2−4𝑦2= 7
2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥2𝑦2) = 𝑥 6) 𝑥3+𝑦 = 1
3) 𝑡𝑎𝑛3(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦) = 𝑥 7) 𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑦
4) 𝑥 2 = 1+𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑦

4.3. Derivatives of Inverse functions.

Let 𝑓 be a function, then f has an inverse provided that there is a function g such that the domain of 𝑔
is the range of 𝑓 such that that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 iff 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑥, for all x in the domain of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 in the range
of 𝑓.

Definition: Assume that the function 𝑓 has an inverse and let 𝑓 −1 be the unique function having as its
domain the range of 𝑓 satisfying 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 iff 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 and 𝑦 in the
range 𝑓. Then 𝑓 −1 is the inverse of 𝑓.

From the above definition we can see that, if 𝑓 is a function the inverse of 𝑓 is 𝑓 -1 such that for each x
in the domain of f

(𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥 = (𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥).

Domain of 𝑓= range of 𝑓 −1

Range of𝑓 −1 =domain of 𝑓

Theorem: A function f has an inverse iff for some numbers 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in the domain of 𝑓, if 𝑥1≠ 𝑥 2,
then 𝑓(𝑥1) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2).

i.e. A function 𝑓 is said to be invertible iff it is one to one.

Steps to find inverse of a function

89
1) write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

2) Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦

3) Solve for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 in step 2

4) Write 𝑓-1(𝑦) for 𝑦

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2,then find the inverse of 𝑓

x
Solution: Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2  𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 2  𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3𝑦  𝑦 =  2/3
3

𝑥
 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 3 + 2/3

Theorem: Let 𝑓 be continuous on an interval 𝐼, and let the values assigned by 𝑓 to the points in 𝐼 form
an interval 𝐽. If 𝑓 has an inverse, then 𝑓 −1 is continuous on 𝐽.

Theorem: Suppose that f has an inverse and is continuous on an open interval I containing a. Assume
also that𝑓’(𝑎) exists and 𝑓′(𝑎) ≠ 0 and 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐.Then(𝑓-1)’(𝑐) exist and

1
(𝑓-1)’(𝑐) =
f ' (a)

Proof. Using the fact that 𝑓-1(𝑐) = 𝑎 and definition of derivatives we find that

𝑓 −1 (𝑦)−𝑓 −1 (𝑐) 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)−𝑎

(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐) = lim = lim 𝑓(𝑓−1 (𝑦))−𝑓(𝑎) (*)
𝑦→𝑐 𝑦−𝑐 𝑦→𝑐

First notice that 𝑓 −1 is continuous at c. Therefore lim 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) = 𝑎

𝑦→𝑐

So that if 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) then 𝑥 approaches a as 𝑦 approaches 𝑐.

More over the fact that 𝑓 −1 has an inverse and 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) = 𝑎, implies that 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) ≠ a for 𝑦 ≠ 𝑐

90
 1
𝑓 −1 (𝑦)−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎) 1
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (∗)(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐) = lim 𝑓(𝑓−1 (𝑦))−𝑓(𝑎) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎) = lim = 𝑓′ (𝑎)
𝑦→𝑐 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7+8𝑥 3+4𝑥 − 2 , Find (𝑓-1)’(−2)

Solution: Let us find the value of a for which 𝑓(𝑎) = −2,but 𝑓(0) = −2, so 𝑎 = 0

Since 𝑓’(𝑥) = 7𝑥6+24𝑥 2+4. It follows that 𝑓’(0) = 4.

 (𝑓 −1 )′(−2) = 1/𝑓’(0) = 1/4.

We conclude this section with brief discussion of the general relation ship between the derivative of 𝑓
and 𝑓 -1. For this purpose suppose that both function are differentiable and

let 𝑦 = 𝑓-1(𝑥)  𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) (*)

𝑑 𝑑
and differentiating implicitly with respect to x yields 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑦))

𝑑𝑦
 1 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑦) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑓′(𝑦).

Thus from (*) we obtain the formula that relates the derivative of 𝑓-1 to the derivative of 𝑓

𝑑 1
(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = ′ −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑓 (𝑥))

4.3.1.Inverse Trigonometric Functions and their derivatives.

.None of the six basic trigonometric functions is one to one because they all repeat periodically and do
not pass the horizontal line test. Thus to define inverse trigonometric function we must first restrict the
domain of trigonometric function to make them one to one.

The inverse of these restricted functions are denoted by

91
sin−1 𝑥,cos−1 𝑥 , tan−1 𝑥,sec −1 𝑥,csc −1 𝑥 and cot −1 𝑥.(or alternatively by 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥,
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥,𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥,𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 and 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)

y=sin−1 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 1  x  1 and−𝜋/2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋/2

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠-1𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 𝑥 if−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛-1𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑥 if−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ and−𝜋/2 < 𝑦 < 𝜋/2.

𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 is equivalent to cot 𝑦 = 𝑥 for−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ and 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋.

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 -1𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥, if |𝑥| ≥ 1 and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 𝜋/2.

𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 is equivalent tocsc 𝑦 = 𝑥 if |𝑥| ≥ 1. – 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 0.

Identities for inverse trigonometric functions.

1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛-1𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠-1𝑥 =  / 2 5)𝑠𝑒𝑐(𝑡𝑎𝑛-1𝑥) = 1  x 2

x2 1
2) sin(sin−1 𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 2 , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 6) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑒𝑐-1𝑥) = , x 1
x

3) sin(cos−1 𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 2 , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

𝑥
4)𝑡𝑎𝑛(tan−1 𝑥) = √1−𝑥 2 ,−1 < 𝑥 < 1

92
Now let us use implicit differentiation to obtain the derivative formula for 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛-1𝑥

𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 iff 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦

𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = cos(sin−1 𝑥) = √1−𝑥2

𝑑𝑦 1
Therefore, 𝑑𝑥 = √1−𝑥 2

By applying the same procedure, we obtain the following

1 1
(cos −1 𝑥)′ = − (sec −1 𝑥)′ =
√1−𝑥 2 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

1 1
(tan−1 𝑥)′ = (cot −1 𝑥)′ = −
1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2

1
(𝑐 sc −1 𝑥)′ = −
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

4.3.2 Hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions.

The hyperbolic functions are special combinations of the exponential functions 𝑒x and 𝑒-x that occurs
in certain applications. These functions have properties very similar to the properties of trigonometric
functions. We shall define the hyperbolic functions and its inverse hyperbolic.

The two important hyperbolic functions are defined as follows

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
Definition: The hyperbolic sine function is defined by ℎ𝑥 = .
2

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 = .
2

From the definition, we conclude that the hyperbolic sine and cosine are defined for all real number x
and y and differentiable
93
Notice that sinhx is an odd function with sinh0=0 and the coshx is an even function with cosh0=1

Since 0<ex<1 for x<0 and ex>1 for x>0, it follows that sinhx<0 for x<0and sinhx>0 for x>0 and
coshx>0 for all x.

Direct calculation shows that

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 = 1

This can be proved by writing.

𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 2 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = ( ) −( ) = 4 (𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 ) − 4 (𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )=1
2 2

We define the other four hyperbolic functions in terms of sinhx and coshx

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 = = 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 1 2
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥 = = 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥

𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

94
𝑑
𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 = −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 ℎ𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The six hyperbolic functions are related by many identities called hyperbolic identities. We list a few
of them.

𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 ℎ = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 ℎ = 1

sin h(−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 cosh(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 (*)

cosh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 (**)

𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦
tanh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) =
1 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦

In verifying (*) we use the following relation

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑒x 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑒-x

If we let 𝑥 = 𝑦 in (*) and (**), we obtain the hyperbolic double angle formulas.

𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥

Using the identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥 = 1 one can show that

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥 + 1

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 − 1

95
Note To obtain the above hyperbolic formulae from the corresponding trigonometric formulae of

circular function, replace cosx by coshx and sinx by 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 where i=  1 .For instance we know that

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 1.Making substitutions described above, we get

𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 + (𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥)2= 1𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥 = 1. Other formulae can be similarly obtained

If u is a differentiable function of x then

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖ℎ𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑢 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The function f(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 is one to one for 𝑥 ≥ 0 and has inverse 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ-1𝑥 for all 𝑥 ≥ 0

Definition: a) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 for all 𝑥 and 𝑦.

b) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 for 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≥ 0

c) 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦 for −1 < 𝑥 < 1 and for all 𝑦

d) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑦 for x >1 and y≠ 0

e) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑦 for 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 and𝑦 ≥ 0

f) 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ-1𝑥 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑦 for 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≠ 0

96
Theorem: 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥=ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) (−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞)

2)𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) (𝑥 ≥ 1)

1 1+𝑥
3)𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 ln (1−𝑥) (-1< 𝑥 < 1)

1 1+𝑥
4)𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 ln (𝑥−1) (|𝑥| > 1)

1 1+√1−𝑥2
5)𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 ln ( ) (0< 𝑥 ≤ 1) .
𝑥

1 1 √1+𝑥2
6) 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 ln (𝑥 + |𝑥|
) 𝑥≠0

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓1: 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥

𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 2𝑦 −1
 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 = 2
= 2𝑒 𝑦

𝑒 2𝑦 −1
𝑥 = 2𝑒 𝑦
 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1 𝑜𝑟(𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 + 1 = 0

Our interest is to write y as a function of x so using quadratic formula

2𝑥 + √4𝑥 2 + 4
𝑒𝑦 = = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥
2

Proof (2-6) left as exercise

Derivative of inverse Hyperbolic.

2𝑥
𝑑 1+ 1
2√𝑥 2 +1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1

97
Theorem:
𝑑 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1

𝑑 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1

𝑑 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2

4.5 Application of derivative

4.5.1 Extreme of a function.

Definition

a. A function ƒ has a maximum value (absolute maximum) on a set I if there is a number 𝑑 in

𝐼 such that ƒ (𝑥) ≤ ƒ(𝑑) for all 𝑥 in 𝐼 (figure below). We call ƒ(𝑑) the maximum value of ƒ on
𝐼.
b. A function ƒ has a minimum value(absolute minimum.) on a set 𝐼 if there is a number 𝑐 in 𝐼
such that ƒ(𝑥) ≥ ƒ(𝑐) for all 𝑥 in 𝐼 (see figure below). We call the minimum value of ƒ on 𝐼.
c. A value of ƒ that is either a maximum value or minimum value on 𝐼 is called an extreme value
of ƒ on 𝐼.

98
If the set 𝐼 is the complete domain of ƒ, and if ƒ has a maximum value on 𝐼, then this maximum value
is called the maximum value or (sometimes global maximum value) of 𝑓 similarly, when it exists, the
minimum value of ƒ on its domain is the minimum value (or some times the global minimum value) of
ƒ.

A function ƒ may or may not have extreme value on a set 𝐼 depending on ƒ and on𝐼.

Example: 1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, then on [0,1] the function 𝑓has the maximum value of 1 and
minimum value of 0 (as shown in the figure a below)

𝜋 𝜋
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥, then on (− 2 , 2 ), the function 𝑓 has neither a maximum value nor a

minimum value (as shown in figure b below)

3. If 𝑓(𝑥) =|𝑥|, for −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 and 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1and 𝑓(0) = 1, then on [-1,1] the function has
the maximum value of 1 but has no minimum value because 𝑓 does not assume the value 0( as
shown in figure c below).

4. if𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, then (−∞, ∞) the function has neither a maximum value nor a
minimum value.

Theorem
(Extrem –value theorem)

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on a finite closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 has both an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum on [𝑎, 𝑏]

Example:the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, is continuous and hence has both an absolute maximum and
absolute minimum on every closed interval and in particular on the interval [0,3] i.e 𝑓(0) = 1
99
(Minimum value) and 𝑓(3) = 7 (maximum value)

Theorem: suppose c is an interior point of an interval I and 𝑓(𝑐) is an extreme value of 𝑓 on I.

If 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists then 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 .

Proof:the statement of the theorem is equivalent to the assertion that if c is any number interior to I
such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) exists and is not equal to 0, and then 𝑓(𝑐) is not an extreme value of 𝑓 on I. therefore
we assume that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) ≠ 0

Consider the following cases

Case 1𝑓′(𝑐) > 0

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)
Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = lim >0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐)
>0
𝑥−𝑐

For all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in some open interval about c.

For such 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)
If 𝑥 > 𝑐, then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) = (𝑥 − 𝑐) >0
𝑥−𝑐

Because (𝑥 − 𝑐) > 0

Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑐), so that 𝑓 does not have a maximum value at c. in the same way

𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)
If 𝑥 < 𝑐, then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) = (𝑥 − 𝑐) ( )<0
𝑥−𝑐

Thus 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑐), so that 𝑓 does not have a minimum value at c hence if 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) > 0 then 𝑓 has neither
a maximum value nor minimum value at c.

The case 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) < 0 is treated in the same way.

100
The points at which either 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 or 𝑓 is not differentiable are called the critical points of 𝑓.

Finding extreme values on [𝒂, 𝒃]

1. Compute the values of 𝑓 at all critical numbers in (𝑎, 𝑏) and at the end points 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. The
largest of those value i.e the maximum value of 𝑓 on (𝑎, 𝑏), the smallest of those values i.e the
minimum value of 𝑓 on (𝑎, 𝑏)
Example: let𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 , find the extreme values of 𝑓 on [0, 1] and determine at which
number in [0,1] they occur.
Solution: since 𝑓 is continuous on [0,1] it has extreme value on [0,1]
First let us find the critical number.
√3 √3 √3
𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 this implies that 1 − 3𝑥 2 = 0 ,⇒ 𝑥 = − 3
or 𝑥 = 3
but − 3
 [0,1]

Thus the extreme value of 𝑓 on [0,1] can occur only at one of the end points 0 and 1 or at the
3
√3 √3 √3 √3 2√3
critical numbers in (0,1) 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓( 3 ) == −(3) = and 𝑓(1) = 0, so the
3 3 9

2√3 2√3
maximum value of 𝑓 on [0,1] is occurs at and its minimum value is 0. Which occurs at
9 9

0 and 1.
Exercise

1)A sheet of card board 12 in square is used to make an open box by cutting a square of equal size
from the four corners and folding up the sides. what size squares should be cut to obtain a box with
largest possible volume?

2)Find all critical number (if any ) of the given functions

1 1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 c. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2
+1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 d. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 2| e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
2) Find all extreme value (if any) of the given function on the given interval. Determine at which
numbers in the interval their value occur.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥, [0.2]
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = √1 + 𝑥 2 , [-2,3]
1
c. 𝑓(𝑥)= cos 𝜋𝑥,( 3 , 1)

101
 3) A mass connected to spring moves along the x-axis so that its x co-ordinate at a time t is given
by: 𝑥(𝑡) = 2 sin 2𝑡 + √3𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡
What is the maximum distance of the mass from the origin?

4.5.2.Mean value theorem

Theorem (Rolle’s theorem)

Let 𝑓 be continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on [a,b]. if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then there is a number c in
(a,b) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

Proof. If 𝑓 is constant, then its derivative is 0, so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0, for each c in (a,b). if 𝑓 is
not constant, then its maximum and minimum values (which exist by the maximum-
minimum theorem) are distinct. Since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), either the maximum or the minimum
must occur at a number c in (a,b). by hypothesis,𝑓 is differentiable atc so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0

Theorem (Mean value theorem)

Let 𝑓 be continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b). then there is a number c in (a,b)
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎

Proof:
We introduce an auxilar function 𝑔 that allows us
to simplify the proof by using Rolle’s theorem

(see adjacent fig.)

102
 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑏−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) − [𝑓(𝑎) + ] (𝑥 − 𝑎)for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑏−𝑎

𝑔 is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑏) = 0, so by Rolle’s

theorem there is a number c in (a, b) such that 𝑔′ (𝑐) = 0
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
⇒ 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − , for 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
𝑏−𝑎

And thus
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
0 = 𝑔′ (𝑐) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) −
𝑏−𝑎

1
Example: let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥, the show that f satisfies the mean value theorem on the interval [0, 2]

𝑓(3)−𝑓(0)
Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = =5
3−0

We find a number c in (0, 3) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 5

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑐 2 + 2
⇒ 5 = 𝑐2 + 2
⇒ 𝑐 2 = 3 ⇒ 𝑐 = ±√3
Since c must be in (0, 3), so 𝑐 = √3
Exercise: find all number c in the interval (a, b) for which the mean value theorem
satisfied.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥; 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 4
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥, 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 0
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = −3 + √𝑥 , 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1
1 1
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 (𝑥 + 𝑥) , 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑏 = 3
Increasing and decreasing function
Let 𝑓 be defined on an interval I then
a. 𝑓is increasing on I if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ), where ever 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are in I and x1<x2.
103
 b. 𝑓is decreasing on I if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ), where ever 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are in I and x1<x2.
Graphically, a function is increasing on I if its graph slopes upward to the right and
it is decreasing on I if its graph slopes down ward to the right.

Theorem:let 𝑓 be continuous on an interval I and differentiable at each interior point of I

a. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 at each interior point of I then 𝑓 is increasing on I more over 𝑓 is

increasing on I if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 except for a finite number of points x in I
b. If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 at each interior point of I, then 𝑓 is decreasing on I moreover, 𝑓 is
decreasing on I if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 except for a finite number of points x in I
Proof .left as exercise
1
Example:let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5, show that 𝑓 is increasing on (−∞, ∞)

Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)2

Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for all x except x=1, where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
Hence f is increasing on (−∞, ∞)

4.5.3.The first and second derivative tests.

Definition: a function 𝑓 has a relative maximum value (respectively a relative
minimum value) at c if 𝑓(𝑐) is the maximum value (respectively, the minimum
value) of 𝑓 on an open interval containing c. A value that is either a relative
maximum value or relative minimum value is called a relative extreme value.

104
Theorem: let 𝑓 be differentiable on an open interval about the number c except possibly at c, where 𝑓
is continuous.

a. If𝑓’ changes sign from positive to negative at c, then 𝑓 has a relative maximum
value at c.
b. If 𝑓’ changes sign from negative to positive at c then 𝑓 has a relative minimum
value at c.
1
Example: let (𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥, find the relative extreme value of 𝑓

1
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥

3 3 3
⇒𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 𝑥 2 − 3 = 4 (𝑥 2 − 4) = 4 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

-2 2

𝑥+2 - - 0 + + +

𝑥 −2 - - - - - 0 + +

3
f(𝑥) = 4 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2) + + 0 - - 0 + + +

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) Changes sign from positive to negative at -2, so 𝑓(−2) = 4 is relative maximum value.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) Changes sign from negative to positive at 2, so 𝑓(2) = −4 is relative minimum value of 𝑓.

Theorem of second derivative test

105
Assume that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0

a. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 0 then 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative maximum value of 𝑓

b. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0 then 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative minimum value of 𝑓
c. If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) = 0 then we cannot draw any conclusion about a relative extreme value of 𝑓 at c.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)−𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
Proof: a. by hypothesis 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) = lim <0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 by hypothesis, it follows that for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐 in some open interval (𝑐 − 𝜎, 𝑐 + 𝜎)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)−𝑓 ′ (𝑐)

= <0
𝑥−𝑐 𝑥−𝑐

If 𝑐 − 𝜎 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 then 𝑥 − 𝑐 < 0, so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0. If 𝑐 < 𝑥 < 𝑐 + 𝜎 then 𝑥 − 𝑐 > 0 so that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) <
0. This means that 𝑓′ changes sign from positive to negative at c.

So by first derivative test 𝑓 a. relative maximum value at c.

The proof (b) is analogous to the proof of (a)

Example; Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 2. Using the second derivative test. Find the relative extreme value
of 𝑓.

Solution; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 − 2

⇒𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3 = 3(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0, when 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1

Since 𝑓 ′′ (−1) = −6 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′′ (1) = 6 > 0

𝑓(−1) = 0 is relative maximum value of 𝑓 where 𝑓(−1) = −4 is a relative minimum value of 𝑓

these are the only relative extreme of 𝑓.

106
Exercise

1. Determine the value of c at which

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 11
𝑡 2 −𝑡+1
b. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 +𝑡+1
1
c. 𝑓(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 + 2 𝑡
2. Use the first derivative test to determine the relative extreme values (if any) of the following.
1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2
3. Use the second derivative test to determine the relative extreme value (if any) of the function.
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = −4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 1
c. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡

4.5.4.Concavity and inflection point.

Definition: If f is differentiable on open interval I, then f is said to be concave up on I if f’ is

increasing on I and f is said to be concave down if f’ is decreasing on I.

Theorem. Let f be twice differentiable on an open interval I

a) If f’’(x)>0 on I then f is concave up ward on I

b) If f’’(x)<0 on I then f is concave downward on on I.

Example: Find open intervals on which on which the function f(x)=x3-3x2+1 is concave up and
concave down.

Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1  𝑓’(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥.

 𝑓’’(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 6 = 6(𝑥 − 1)

107
 𝑓’’(𝑥) < 0 if 𝑥 < 1 and 𝑓’’(𝑥) > 0 if 𝑥 < 1

 f is concave up on (1, ∞) and concave down ward on (−∞, 1)

Inflection points.

Definition: If f is continuous on an open interval I containing xo and if f changes the direction of

concavity at that point then we say that f has an inflection point at xo and we call the point
(𝑥𝑜 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑜 )) on the graph of f an inflection point of f.

How to find inflection point.

1) Find the value of c for which 𝑓’’(𝑥) = 0

2) For each value of c found in step 1 determine whether 𝑓’’(𝑥) changes sign at c.
3) If 𝑓 changes sign at 𝑐, the point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) is inflection point of 𝑓.
Example. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 10. Find the inflection point of the graph of 𝑓
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 10
 𝑓’(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 + 8  𝑓’’(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 12 = 12(𝑥 2 − 1) = 12(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
_______________________ -1_________________ 1______
𝑥+1 - - - 0 + + + + + +
𝑥−1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 + +
𝑓’’(𝑥) = 12(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + + + 0 - - - - - - - 0 + ++
From the sign chart
𝑓 changes sign at -1 and 1
(1, 𝑓(1)) = (1,13) and (1, 𝑓(𝑥)) = (1, −3) are inflection points of 𝑓

Exercise
Find the inflection point of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒-x

4.5.5.Curvesketching.

A knowledge of derivative helps greatly in sketching the graph of function.

108
 2
Example. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥 2 , sketch the graph of 𝑓 by noting all the relevant properties.

Solution. 𝑦 –intercept: 𝑓(0) = 2.

No x-intercept because 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥

−4𝑥
𝑓’(𝑥) =
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2

Since 𝑓’(𝑥) > 0 for 𝑥 < 0 and 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 for 𝑥 > 0, it follows that f is increasing on (,0] and

decreasing on 0,   and 𝑓(0) = 2 is the maximum value of f.

4(3𝑥 2 − 1) 4(√3𝑥 − 1)(√3𝑥 + 1)

𝑓”(𝑥) = =
(1 + 𝑥 2 )3 (1 + 𝑥 2 )3

3
 3
3 3

3x  1  0
3x  1                  0   
4(3x 2  1)
f ' ( x)  00
(1  x 2 ) 3

From the sign chart

√3 √3 √3
𝑓 is concave up ward on (−∞, − ) and (√3/3,  ) and concave downward on(- 3 , ) with inflection
3 3
√3 √3
point at ( 3 , 3/2) and (- 3 , 3/2)

2 2
and lim = lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 1+𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 1+𝑥 2

109
This implies that x-axis is the horizontal asymptote of 𝑓.

Exercise

Sketch the graph of a)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 3.

𝑥+2
b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−3

4.6.Related rate.
When spherical balloon is inflated, the radius r and the volume v of the balloon are function of
time t.
4 3
𝑉= r .
3
Using the chain rule to differentiate v with respect to t
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The rates 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡and 𝑑𝑟/𝑑𝑡 are related
Example: Suppose a spherical balloon is inflated at the rate of 10 cubic centimeter per minute
How fast the radius of the radius of the balloon increasing when the radius is 5cm?
𝒅𝒗 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑣
Solution: =4𝜋𝑟 2 But = 10 ,𝑟 = 5𝑐𝑚.
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 1
 10=4𝜋(5)2 𝑑𝑡  𝑑𝑡
= 10𝜋.

Therefore, when the radius is 5𝑐𝑚, the radius is increasing at the rate 1/10𝜋 per minute.

Example: One end of a 13 feet ladder is on the floor and the other end rests on a vertical wall. If the
bottom end is drawn away from the wall at 3 feet per second, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding
down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 5 feet from the wall?
110
Solution: Let y be the height of the top of the ladder above the floor and let x be the distance beween
the base of the wall and the bottom of the ladder.

𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = 3, we required to find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡.

From Pythagoras we have

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2= 132

 2𝑥𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = 0

 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = −𝑥/𝑦 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 .at the instant 𝑥 = 5  𝑦 = 12

 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = −5/12(3) = −5/4

When the bottom of the ladder is 5 feet from the wall, the top is sliding down at the rate 5/4 feet per
second.

Exercise.

A ladder 15 feet long leans against a vertical wall .Suppose that when the bottom of the ladder is x feet
from the wall the bottom is being pushed toward the wall at the rate of 𝑥/2 feet per second. How fast
is the top of the ladder rising at the moment the bottom is 5 feet from the wall.

L’Hopital’s rule.

Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) are both 0 assume 𝑔’(𝑥) ≠ 0 for x near ∗
𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗

111
 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
Then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′(𝑥).
𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗

The indeterminate form 0/0

𝑓(𝑥)
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑔(𝑥), we say that lim 𝑔(𝑥) has indeterminate form 0/0
𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗

𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
Example: Find lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution:lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 = lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 0.

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

By applying L’Hopital’s Rule

𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 4𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥
lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = lim 3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 = 4/3.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

The indeterminate form ∞/∞

𝑓(𝑥)
Suppose lim 𝑓(𝑥)=∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ then we say that lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗

has indeterminate form ∞/∞, L’ Hopital’s rule is valid in this case.

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′(𝑥) (provided that the later limit exist as a number ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞).
𝑥→∗ 𝑥→∗

Example: In each part confirm that the limit is an indeterminate form of the type ∞/∞

And apply L’Hopital’s rule

𝑥 𝑥
a) lim b) lim+ 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑒𝑥 𝑥→0

solution:a) The numerator and the denominator have a limit of ∞ so we have indeterminate form of
the type ∞/∞.

Applying the L’Hopital’s rule

112
 𝑥 1
lim 𝑥
= lim 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥→∞ 𝑒

b)The numerator has a limit of −∞ and the denominator has alimit of +∞ so we have
indeterminate form of the type ∞/∞. Applying L’Hopital’s rule we get.

𝑥 1/𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = lim+ lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = (−1)0 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0+
Other Indeterminate Forms
Indeterminate form Example
1)0. ∞ lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0

2)00 lim x x
𝑥→0

1 𝑥
3) 1 lim (1 + 𝑥)
𝑥→∞

4) ∞0 lim 𝑥1/𝑥
𝑥→∞

5) ∞ − ∞ lim (𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)

𝑥→𝑜 +

When we find the limit of the indeterminate forms of the type listed above, we have to rewrite
the given limit in a way that enable us to L’ Hopital’s rule

Example: Find lim xlnx

+𝑥→𝑜

Solution: lim x limlnx = −∞

𝑥→0+ =0 and 𝑥→0+

The limit is of the form

0. ∞
𝑙𝑛𝑥 1/𝑥
lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 = lim+ ( ) = lim+ ( ) = lim+ (−𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1/𝑥 𝑥→0 −1/𝑥 2 𝑥→0

∴ lim xlnx
+
=0
𝑥→𝑜

113
Chapter 5

Integration
One of the great achievements of classical geometry was to obtain formulas for the areas and volumes
of triangles, spheres, and cones.In this chapter we will study methods of finding formulas and
calculate the areas and volumes of these and other more general shapes.The method we develop, called
integration.The integral has many applications in statistics, economics, the sciences, and engineering.
Estimating with Finite Sums

Consider the following plane region under the curve y=f(x)=−x 2 + 5.Use the five rectangles as in the
figure below for the function f(x) =- x 2 +5 and the x-axis between the graph of x=0 and x=2

2
Solution: The right end points of the five interval are i where i=1,2,3,4,5 the width of each
5
2
rectangle is .
5

 2 2 4 4 6  6 8   8 10 
0, 5  , 5 , 5 , 5 , 5 5 , 5 , 5 , 5 
         

Evaluate f at the right end point

5  2
 2  162
5
 2i  2   2i 
Area (a) =  f          5  =
 5  5  i 1   5    25
=6.48
i 1  5

Evaluate f at the left end point

5   2  202
 2i  2  2   2i  2 
5 2

Area (b)=  f   =       5  = =8.08

i l  5  5    5 
i 1   5  25

114
By combining the results in parts (a) and (b), you can conclude that

6.48  (area of the region under f)  8.08

We get an upper estimate of the area of R in fig (b) by using five rectangles containing R is 8.08.

We get lower estimate of the area of R in fig (a) by using five rectangles containing R is 6.08.

Note: As the number of rectangles increase the upper sum decreases but lower sum increases. At
some point the two sums will overlap as the number of rectangles tends to infinity.

Example. Consider the functionf(x) = x 2 .

115
 Definition: Let f(x) be a nonnegative and continuous function on an interval a, b. and let S be the
region bounded by the graph of f and the vertical line x=a, x=b and the x-axis as show in figure below,
Then, the area A(s) is given by

ba
A(S) = lim ∑ni=1 f(zi ) ∆xi wherezi = [xi−1 , xi ] i = 1,2,3, … , n and x 
n→∞ n

The Definite Integral

The Definite Integral as a Limit of Riemann Sums

If f is continuous function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b,we divide the interval [a,b] in to n subintervals of
b−a
equal width ∆x = . We let a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ⋯ < xn = b be the endpoints of these subinterval
n

116
and we let zi = [xi−1 , xi ] i = 1,2,3, … , n be any sample points in these subintervals, where z1 =
[x0 , x1 ],z2 = [x1 , x2 ] and so on. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is

b n

∫ f(x)dx = lim ∑ f(zi ) ∆x

n→∞
a i=1

Note-1.The component parts in the integral has names as follows

Note-2. The sum is called a Riemann sum after the German Mathematician Bernhard
Riemann (1826-1866). If f(x) is positive then the Riemann Sum can be interpreted as the sum areas of
the approximating rectangles.
Note-3. The value of the definite integral of a function over any particular interval depends on the
function, not on the letter we choose to represent its independent variable.
If we decide to use t or u instead of x we simply write the integral as

b b b
∫a f(t)dt or ∫a f(u)du instead of ∫a f(x)dx

THEOREM 1
The Existence of Definite Integrals
A continuous function is integrable. That is, if a function ƒ is continuous on an interval [a, b],
then its definite integral over [a, b] exists.

Properties of the Definite Integral

117
Example: Suppose that f and g are integrable and
2 5 5

∫ f(x)dx = −4 , ∫ f(x)dx = 6 and ∫ g(x)dx = 4

1 1 1
Then, find
2 1 5 5

a. ∫ g(x)dx b. ∫ f(x)dx c. ∫ f(x)dx d. ∫(4f(x) − g(x))dx

2 5 2 1

Solution.

a. ∫ g(x)dx = 0 By rule two (the zero width interval)

2
1 5

b. ∫ g(x)dx = − ∫ g(x)dx = −(4) = −4 By rule 1

5 1

118
 5 2 5

c. ∫ f(x)dx = ∫ f(x)dx + ∫ f(x)dx from rule 5

1 1 2
5 5 2

∫ f(x)dx = ∫ f(x)dx − ∫ f(x)dx = 6 − (−4) = 10

2 1 1
5 5 5

d. ∫(4f(x) − g(x))dx = 4 ∫ f(x)dx − ∫ g(x)dx combination of rule 3 and 4

1 1 1
4(6) − 4 = 20
Example: show that the value of
1

∫ √1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 < 1.5

0
Solution:The Max-Min Inequality for definite integrals (Rule 6) says that minf. (b − a)
b
is the lowerbound for the value ∫ f(x)dx and maxf. (b − a) is the upper bound
a
minf=1 and maxf=√1 + 1 = √2 ≈ 1.414
1

∴ The upper bound for the integral ∫ √1 + cosxdx ≤ √2(1 − 0) = √2

0
1
Since the integral ∫0 √1 + cosxdx is bounded above by √2, then it is less than 1.5.
Exercise:
1. Suppose that f and g are integrable and
2 3 3

∫ f(x)dx = 2 , ∫ f(x)dx = 4 and ∫ g(x)dx = 1

1 1 1
Then, find
1 1 3 5

a. ∫ g(x)dx b. ∫ f(x)dx c. ∫ f(x)dx d. ∫(2f(x) + 5g(x))dx

1 3 2 1

2. Use the min-max Inequality to find the upper and lower bounds for the values of
1 0.5
1 1
a. ∫ dx b. ∫ dx
1 + x2 1 + x2
0 0

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

119
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is appropriately named because it establishes a connection
between the two branches of calculus: differential calculus and integral calculus.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1
𝑥
If ƒ is continuous on [a, b] then𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b) and
its derivative is f(x);
d x
F ′ (x) = ∫ f(t) dt = f(x)
dx a

Example
Use the Fundamental Theorem to find
x
d
a. ∫ costdt
dx
a
x
d 1
b. ∫ dt
dx 1 + t 2
0
Solution:
x
d
a. ∫ cosxdt = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
dx
a
x
d 1 1
b. ∫ 2
dt =
dx 1 + t 1 + x2
0

Fundamental Theorem, Part 2 (The Evaluation Theorem)

If ƒ is continuous at every point of [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of ƒ on [a, b], then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑎

The theorem says that to calculate the definite integral of ƒ over [a, b] all we need todo is:
a. Find an antiderivative F of ƒ, and
b. Calculate the number
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎) 𝑖𝑠
𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 or[𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 depending on whether F has one or more terms.

120
Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Rule
A definite integral is a number defined by taking the limit of Riemann sums associatedwith partitions
of a finite closed interval whose norms go to zero. The Fundamental Theoremof Calculus says that a
definite integral of a continuous function can be computed easilyif we can find an antiderivative of the
function. Antiderivatives generally turn out to bemore difficult to find than derivatives. However, it is
well worth the effort to learn techniquesfor computing them.The set of all antiderivatives of the
function ƒ is called theIndefinite integral of ƒ with respect to x, and is symbolized by
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
When we to find the indefinite integral of a function ƒ, remember that it always includes an arbitrary
constant C.

𝑏
Note:A definite integral∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥is a number. But an indefinite integral
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥is a function plus an arbitrary constant C.
Here are some examples of derivative formulas and their equivalent integration formulas:

PROPERTIES OF THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

If f and g are continuous, and if k is any constant, then
a)  kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx
b)   f ( x)  g ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
Some of the most important are given in Table in the table below

121
Integration Formulas
Differentiation Formula Integration Formula
𝑑
[𝑥] = 1 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑟+1 𝑥 𝑟+1
[ ] = 𝑥 𝑟 (𝑟 ≠ −1) ∫ 𝑥 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 (𝑟 ≠ −1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑟 + 1 𝑟+1
𝑑
[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥] = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ∫(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥] = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[−𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥] = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 ∫(𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥] = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
[−𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥] = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ∫(𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
[𝑒 ] = 𝑒 𝑥 ∫(𝑒 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 1
[𝑙𝑛|𝑥|] = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example:Describe the anti-derivative of 3x

Solution We have k=3 and f(x)=x

x2
 kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx ⟹  3xdx  3 x dx  3c
1

2
Example: Fill the following table using the basic rules of integration

Original integral Rewrite Integrate simplify

x x 31 x 2 1
1 3

 x 3 dx
dx
+C  C  2 +C
 3 1 2 2x

1
 x 2 dx
1 1 3
x dx x2 2x 2
1
1
+C C
2
3

122
  2 sin xdx 2  sin xdx 2(-cosx)+C -2cosx+C

 2e __________ _________ _________

x
dx

csc x  C
 cos x 
  sin dx
 cos x 
  sin x sin x dx  cot x csc xdx
2
x

Example: Evaluate

a.  2x  3 cos xdx b. x  x 3 dx

Solution: a.

Using the above properties

 2 x  3 cos xdx =  2 x)dx  3 cos xdx

= 2 xdx  3 cos xdx
 x2 
=2    C1  3 sin x  C 2
 2 
= x 2  3 sin x  C where C=C1+C2

Solution: b.
𝑥2 𝑥3
∫(x + x 3 ) dx = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶1 + + 𝐶2
2 3
𝑥2 𝑥3
+ + 𝐶where𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
2 3
The above property (b) can be extended to more than two functions, which can be formulated as
follows:
∫[𝐶1 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝐶2 𝑓2 (𝑥) + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐶1 ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶2 ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 ∫ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Example: Evaluate
3
2x 2 + 𝑥 2 √𝑥 − 1
∫ dx
x𝟐

Solution: First we need to write the integrand in a simpler form

3
2x 2 + 𝑥 2 √𝑥 − 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ (2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
x𝟐
123
 1
= ∫ (2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
= 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
3
= 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −1 + 𝐶

3 1
= 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − +𝐶
𝑥

Exercise:Evaluate

1.

2.

3.

Techniques of integration
Integration by Substitution
Theorem: Let f(x) and g(x) be functions with both fog and g  continuous on an interval I. If F is an
antiderivative (indefinite integral) of f on I, then

(i)  f g ( x)g  ( x)dx  F ( g ( x))  C

Example: Find  x  621 dx

Solution To solve this we use integration by substitution

Let g(x)=x+6 implies g/(x)=1 and f(g(x))=(g(x))21

 f g ( x)g ( x)dx  F ( g ( x))  C

/

124
 ( g ( x)) 211 ( x  6) 22
 g ( x) g ( x)dx = 21  1  C  22  C  22  C
21 / ( g ( x)) 22

Equivalently we can let

u=x+6 implies du=dx

22
x  622  C
 x  6 dx   u  du 
u
C 
21 21

22 22

Example: consider the following patterns

Original integral g(x)=u g  (x)=du f g ( x)g / ( x)dx

 2 xx  u
2
 1 dx
4 u=x2+1 du=2xdx 4
du __________

 3x
2
 x 1dx
3 u=x3+1 du=3x2dx
 u du __________

 2 sin 6 xdx u=6x du=6dx 1 __________

3
sin udu

 2e u=3x du=3dx 2 u __________

3x

3
dx e du

The logarithm as an integral

x
1
Definition: The natural logarithm is the function defined on the integral (0  ) by lnx =  t dt
1

d  1  1
x
  dt    ln x  
d 1
Corollary  
dx  1 t  x dx x

6
1
Example: Evaluate  x dx
2
in terms of logarithm

125
 6 6
1 6
Solution:  dx  ln x   ln 6  ln 2  ln  ln 3
2 x 2 2

1
Note:  xdx  ln x  c

x4
Example: Find  x5 1dx

Solution: let u x5 1 so that du  5x 4dx

x4 1 1 1
 x 1dx  x 1 x dx  5  u dx
4
5
= 5

1 1
 ln u  c  ln x5 1  c
5 5

Exercise:

1. Show that  tan xdx   ln cos x  c

2. Evaluate the integrals

1 2 x2
1
i)  x 1dx iii)  1  4 xdx v)  x 4 x  1dx
2
0

x x2
ii)  x 2 4dx iv) 
1  x2
dx

Integration by parts
Theorem Let F and G be differentiable on a, b , and assume that F’ and G’ are continuous on a, b
then.

 f xG ( x)dx  F xGx   F xGxdx.

b b
and  F x Gx dx  F x .Gx    F x Gx dx
a a

126
 udv  uv   vdu
Example: Find  x cos xdx
Solution: the integral xcos x can naturally be split in to the two parts x and cosx

Let u  x implies du  dx dv  cos xdx

v  sin x

uv   vdu   udv

x sin x   sin xdx   x cos xdx

x sin x  cos x  c   x cos xdx

Example: Find  2 xe 3 x dx

Since 2x is easily differentiable and e3x is easily integrable we can

Let u  2 x and dv e3 xdx

1
du  2dx and v  e3 x
3

1 2
2 xe3 x   e3 x dx   2 xe 3 x dx
3 3

2 3x 2 3x
xe  e  c   2 xe 3 x dx
3 9

x e
5 x
Exercise: Find dx
0

Reduction Formula

 1 n 1 n 1
Note: 1.  sin n xdx  sin x cos x   sin n  2 xdx
n n

127
 1 n 1
2.  cos n xdx  cos n 1x sin x   cos n  2 xdx
n n

Example: Find  cos 5 xdx

Let n=5 in the reduction formula

1 4
 cos xdx  5 cos x sin x  5  cos xdx
5 4 3

A second application

1 3
 cos xdx   3 cos x sin x  2  cos xdx
3 2

1 2
= cos 2x sin x  sin x  c,
3 3

Consequently
1 4 2 2 
 cos xdx  5 cos x sin x  5  3 cos x sin x  3 sin x  c 
5 4 2

1 4 8
= cos 4x sin x  cos 2x sin x  sin x  c
5 15 15

Tabular integration
We have seen that integrals of the form  f x g x dx in which f can be differentiated repeatedly to be
come zero and g can be integrated repeatedly with out difficultly, are natural conditions for integration
by parts. However, if many repeat are required the calculation that saves a great deal of work. It is
called tabular integration and is illustrated in the following examples.

 x e dx by tabular integration
2 2
Example: Find

Solution: with f x   x 2 and g x e2 , we list

f x  and its derivative g x  and its integrals

x2 (+) ex

2x (-) ex
128
 2 (+) ex

0 ex

We add the products of the functions connected by the arouse, with the middle sign changed, to obtain
 x e dx  x e
2 2 x
- 2 x e x 2e x c

x
3
Example: Find sin xdx by tabular integration

Solution: With f x  = x 3 and g x  = sinx, we list,

f x  and its g x  g x  and

Derivates its integrals

x(+)
3
sin x

3x 2 cos x
(-)
6x sin x
(+)
6 cos x
(-)
0 sinx

We add the products of the functions connected by the arouse, with every other sign changed,

x sin xdx   x3 cos x  3x 2 sin x  6 x cos x  6 sin x  c

5

Exercise

Evaluate the integrals by tabular Method.

 x e dx b)  x 5x e dx c)  p e
3 x 2 x 4 p
a) dp

129
Exercise:

7
6
a) Evaluate  cos 5 xdx.
0

 x ln x
2
b)

 xe dx
1
c)

2
d)  x  x sin x dx
0

sin x
e)  ex
dx

130
Summary of common integrals using integration by parts

1. for integrating of the form

x e dx,  x n sin kdx, or  x n cos axdx

n ax

Let u  x n and let dv eaxdx, sin axdx, cos axdx.

2) For integrals of the form

x
n
ln xdx, Arcs sin ax, or arctanax

Let dv  x ndx

3) For integrals of the form

e e
ax ax
sin bxdx Or cos bxdx

Let u  sin bx or cos bx and let dv eaxdx

Partial fraction
Consider the following rational functions

2 x3
1) We can divide the function by the long division as follows
x 2 3

2x 3  6x
 2x  2
x 3
2
x 3

131 | P a g e
 2 x3 6x
Then  2 dx =  2 xdx   x 3dx
x 3 2

2x  4 2x  4 2x  2 2
2) = = 
x 3x  2
2
x  2x  1 x  2x  1 x  1
2x  4 2
 x 3x  2dx
2
=  x  1dx
Examples of Integration by partial fraction:

2x  3
Example: Evaluate  x 2 x  xdx
3 2

Solution:

 3
2 x  
2x  3  2 A B C
= =  
x 2 x 2  x
3
x x  12 x x  1 x  12

Determine A,B and C

Ax  12  Bxx  1  2 x  3

   
A x 2 2 x  1  B x 2  x  cx  2 x  3

Ax 2 2 Ax  A  Bx 2  Bx  Cx  2 x  3

A B  0
A3 B  A
B  3

2A  B  C  2

C  1

2x  3 3 3 1
  
xx  12
x x  1 x  12

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 2 x  3 3 1 1
 xx  1 dx   xdx  3 x  1dx   x  1 dx
2 2

1
 ln x  3 ln x  3   C1
x 1

x 1
= 3lin   C1
x 1 x 1

x 2 2 x  7
Example: Evaluate  x3  x 2 2 dx

x 2 2 x  7 A Bx  C
Solution: = +
x 5  x 2 2 x 1 x 2 x  C
2

Find A and B and C

A  2, B  1 C  3

x 2 2 x  7 2 x3
= -
x  x 2
3 2
x 1 x 2 x  2
2

x 2 2 x  7 2 x3
Thus  3 2 dx   x  1dx   x 2 x  2dx
x  x 2 2

2 x3
=  x 1dx +  x  1 1dx
2

Let u  x  1 x  u 1  x  3  u  2

2 u2
=  x  1dx   u 1du
2

2 u 2
=  x  1dx   u 2
1
du   2 du
u 1

= 2 ln x  1  ln x  12 1
1
2 2 arctan x 1  c
2

133 | P a g e
Summary for determining the constants by partial fraction is given as follows.

numerrator A B
1.  
x  p x  q  x  p  x  q 

numeantor A B
2.  
x  p 2
x  p  x  p 2

numerator Ax  B C D
 2  
3.
 
x  p x  q 
2 2
x  p x  q x  q 2

The Heaviside “cover-up” method for linear factor

When the degree of the polynomial f(x) is less than the degree of g(x), and

g ( x)  x r1 x r 2 ...........x r n  is a product of n distinct linear factors, each raised to the first

power, there is a quick way to expand f x 

g x 
by partial fraction.

Example: find A, B, and C in the partial fraction expansion

x 2 1 A B C
  
x  1x  2x  3 x  1 x  2 x  3

Solution: If we multiply both sides of the above expression by x  1 to get

x 2 1 Bx  1 C x  1
 A 
x  1x  3 x  2 x  3
And let x=1

12 1 2
  A00  A 1
 1 2 2

These the value of A is the number we would have obtained if we covered the factor x  1 in
the denominator of the original function.

134 | P a g e
 x 2 1
and evaluate the rest at x=1
x  1x  2x  3

A=
12 1 
2
 1
x  11  21  3  1 2

22 1 5
B=   5
2  1x  22  3 1 1

Finally C is found covering the x  3 in above equation and evaluating at x=3

3 2 1 10
C=  5
3  13  2x  3 2  1
Example: Evaluate

x4
 x 3x 10 x dx
3 2

Solution: the degree of f x   x  4 is less than the degree of g x   x3 3x 2 10 x , and with
g x  factored.

x4 x4 A B C
   
x 3x 10 x xx  2x  5 x x  2 x  5
3 2

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 x4 2 3 1
Therefore:   
xx  2x  5 5 x 7x  2 35x  5

x4 2 3 1
and  dx = ln x  ln x  2  ln x  5  C
xx  2x  5 5 7 35

Home Task

Evaluating the following indefinite integral

x2
a)  x  1 x2 2 x  1 dx
 
z
b) z 3
 z 2 6 z
dz

Exercise

x x2 3x
1. a)  x  1dx b)  x 2 1 c)  x  2 dx
2

136 | P a g e
 2. Evaluate the following integrals

ex
a.  1 e 3 x dx

sin 2x cos x
b)  dx
sin 2x 1

 e x 
1 dx
x 2
c)

a  k axk
k
 sin xdx   cos xdx 
2 2
3. Verify that For k is any integer
a a
2

Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric integrals involve algebraic combinations of the six basic
trigonometricfunctions. In principle, we can always express such integrals in terms of
sines and cosines,but it is often simpler to work with other functions, as in the integral
Products of Powers of Sines and Cosines
We begin with integrals of the form:
∫ sinm x cos𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥
where m and n are non-negative

 When m is odd (𝑚 = 2𝑘 + 1) Substitute 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

 If m is even and n is odd Substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
Substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = and Substitute
2
 If both m and n are even 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 =
2

Example:
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
𝑎. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

137 | P a g e
 𝑏. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑐. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution a. Sincem is oddthen weSubstitute 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos2 𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos2 𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑢5 𝑢3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥
∫(1 − 𝑢2 )𝑢2 𝑑𝑢 = − ∫(𝑢2 − 𝑢4 )𝑑𝑢 = − +𝐶 = − +𝐶
5 3 5 3

Solution b.m=0 is Even and n=3 is Odd then we substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑢3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥
∫(1 − 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 − + 𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − +𝐶
3 3

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
Solution c.m=2 and n=2 are both even then we substitute𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = and
2

1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 =
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( )( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2 2 4

Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

1 1 1
∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = (∫ 1𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢𝑑𝑢) = (𝑢 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢𝑑𝑢)
2 2 2

1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑢 1 1 1
(𝑢 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢) = (𝑢 − 𝑢 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑢) + 𝐶
2 2 2 2 4
1 1
= (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥) + 𝐶
2 4

1 1
= (𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥) + 𝐶
2 4

138 | P a g e
Exercise:
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
𝑎. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑏. ∫ 4𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑐. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Products of Sines and Cosines

Integrals of the form
∫ sinm x sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , ∫ sinm x cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ cosm x cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Can be solved by using the following identities
1
i. sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = 2 [cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
1
ii. sin 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = 2 [sin(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + sin(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
1
iii. cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = 2 [cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]

Example:
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
𝑎. ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑏. ∫ cos 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑐. ∫ sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution a.By using property (i)with m=2 is Even and n=3

1
sin 𝑚𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 = [cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 − cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
2
1
sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 = [cos(2 − 3)𝑥 − cos(2 + 3)𝑥]
2
1
sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥 = 2 [cos(−𝑥) − cos(5𝑥)]then
1
∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[cos(−𝑥) − cos(5𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫[cos(−𝑥) − cos(5𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
2
1
= {∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑥𝑑𝑥}
2
139 | P a g e
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 cos(−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1 1
=2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛5𝑥) + 𝐶

Solution b.By using property (iii)with m=4 is Even and n=3

1
cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = [cos(𝑚 − 𝑛)𝑥 + cos(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑥]
2
1
cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = [cos(4 − 3)𝑥 + cos(4 + 3)𝑥]
2
1
cos 𝑚𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 = 2 [cos(𝑥) + cos(7𝑥)]then
1
∫ cos 4𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[cos(𝑥) + cos(7𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
2
1
= (∫ cos(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos(7𝑥)𝑑𝑥)
2
1 1
=2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 7 𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝑥) + 𝐶
Solution c. Exercise

Exercise: Evaluate the following definite integrals

𝜋

a. ∫ sin 3𝑥 sin 3𝑥𝑑𝑥

−𝜋
𝜋

b. ∫ cos 3𝑥 cos 4𝑥𝑑𝑥

0
𝜋
2

c. ∫ cos 3𝑥 sin 4𝑥𝑑𝑥

0

Trigonometric Substitutions
Trigonometric substitutions can be effective in transforming integrals
involving√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 and √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 into integrals we can evaluate directly we use the
table below.
Expressions in integrand Trigonometric substitution Interval(s)
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝜋 𝜋
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ≤𝜃≤ ,
2 2
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −𝜋 𝜋
√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 ≤𝜃≤ ,
2 2

140 | P a g e
 √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝜋 3𝜋
0≤𝜃≤ , 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤
2 2

The substitutions come from the reference of right triangles as shown below

Reference triangles for the three basic substitutions identifying the sides labeled x and
𝑎for each substitution.

Example:
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
𝑥2
𝑎. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 − 𝑥 2
3
𝑏. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 9𝑥 2
𝑥2
𝑐. ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 − 1)2
Solution: a. We set𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
−𝜋 𝜋
√9 − 𝑥 2 = √9 − 9 sin2 𝜃 = √9(1 − sin2 𝑥) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 for 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2
2 2
𝑥 (3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 9 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
√9 − 𝑥 2 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
From the above we substitute 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑏𝑦 hence we get
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
9 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 9 ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = (𝜃 − )+𝐶
2 2 2
𝑥
From 𝑥 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 we get 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (3) and sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 9 𝑥
(𝜃 − ) + 𝐶 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) + 𝐶
2 2 2 3
9 −1
𝑥 𝑥 √9 − 𝑥 2
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) − )+𝐶
2 3 3 3

141 | P a g e
 9 𝑥 𝑥√9 − 𝑥 2 9 𝑥 𝑥√9 − 𝑥 2
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − ) + 𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) − +𝐶
2 3 9 2 3 2

Solution: b. we set𝑢 = 3𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑥 and 𝑢2 = 9𝑥 2 then from this

3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√1 + 9𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑢2
From the above table we can set 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 and from the
trigonometric identities we have 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 then

1 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = ∫ =∫ 𝑑𝜃
√1 + 𝑢2 √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 √sec 2 𝜃 |sec 𝜃|

−𝜋 𝜋
For ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 , then we can have
2

𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫(1) sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
|sec 𝜃|
sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃 + sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
= ∫( ) sec 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃
sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃

Let v = sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑣 = (sec 2 𝜃 + sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃)𝑑𝜃

sec 2 𝜃 + sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 1
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑣| + 𝐶
sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 𝑣

= 𝑙𝑛|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃|+C but 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑢 =

tan−1 3𝑥

= 𝑙𝑛|sec(tan−1 3𝑥) + 3𝑥| + 𝐶

Solution c. Exercise
Exercise: Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
1
𝑎. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥√4 − 𝑙𝑛2 𝑥
1
𝑏. ∫ 𝑑𝑦
√𝑒 2𝑦 − 1
𝑥2
𝑐. ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1

142 | P a g e
Improper Integrals
DEFINITION Type I Improper Integrals
Integrals with infinite limits of integration are calledimproper integrals of Type I.
1. If ƒ(x) is continuous on [𝑎, ∞), then
∞
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏→∞ 𝑎
𝑎
2. If ƒ(x) is continuous on [−∞, 𝑎), then
𝑎
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏→−∞ 𝑏
−∞
3. If ƒ(x) is continuous on [−∞, ∞), then
∞
𝑐 ∞
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝑐
−∞
Where c is any real number.
In each case, if the limit is finite we say that the improper integral converges and that the limit is
the value of the improper integral. If the limit fails to exist, theimproper integral diverges.
Example:
Evaluate the following improper integrals
∞
1
𝑎. ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
−∞ 1 + 𝑥
0
𝑏. ∫ 𝜃𝑒 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
−∞
Solution: a. According to the definition in part 3above we have

∞
0 ∞
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0
−∞

∞ 0 ∞
1 1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
−∞ 1 + 𝑥 −∞ 1 + 𝑥 0 1+𝑥

0 𝑏
1 1
= lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑏→−∞ 𝑏 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑏→∞ 0 1 + 𝑥 2

𝜋 𝜋
= lim tan−1 𝑥]0𝑏 + lim tan−1 𝑥]𝑏0 = + =𝜋
𝑏→−∞ 𝑏→∞ 2 2

143 | P a g e
 ∞
1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋
−∞ 1 + 𝑥

Solution b. Exercise

DEFINITION Type II Improper Integrals

Integrals of functions that become infinite at a point within the interval of integration are
improper integrals of Type II.
1. If ƒ(x) is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a then
𝑏
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐→𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
2. If ƒ(x) is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b then
𝑏
𝑐
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑐→𝑏 𝑎
𝑎
3. If ƒ(x) is discontinuous at c, where𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏,and continuous on
[𝑎, 𝑐) ∪ (𝑐, 𝑏],then
𝑏
𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
In each case, if the limit is finite we say the improper integral converges and thatthe limit is the
value of the improper integral. If the limit does not exist, the integraldiverges.
Example:
Show weather the following improper integrals converge or diverge.
1
1
𝑎. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1−𝑥
3
1
𝑏. ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
0 (𝑥 − 1)2

1
Solution: a.The function 1−𝑥 is discontinuous at x=1 the as defined in 2 above we can have

1 𝑐
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim− 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝑥)]𝑐0 = lim−[ln(1 − 𝑐) − 0] = ∞
0 1−𝑥 𝑐→1 0 1 − 𝑥 𝑐→1 𝑐→1

The limit is infinite, so the integral diverges.

Solution: b.
The integrand has a vertical asymptote at x=1 and is continuous on [0, 1) and (1, 3]

144 | P a g e
Exercise:
Show weather the following improper integrals converge or diverge.
3
1
𝑎. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 1−𝑥

1
𝑏. ∫ (−𝑙𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

145 | P a g e
 CHAPTER SIX

APPLICATION OF THE INTEGRAL

The mathematical application will include area, volume, length of a curve, and
surface area and the other work, force and momentum so on are for physics,
engineering...

Area

Suppose we want to find the area of a region is bounded above by the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ,below by the curve = 𝑔(𝑥)and on the left and right by lines 𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑏 (𝐹𝑖𝑔 6.1) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 function we usually have the
area with an integral
We first approximate the region with n vertical rectangles based on a
partition
P = {𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } 𝑜𝑓 [𝑎 , 𝑏] (Fig 6.2)

The area of the kth rectangle (Fig 6.3) is ∆𝐴𝑘 = ℎ𝑒𝑖ℎ𝑡 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = [𝑓(𝑐𝑘 ) −
𝑔(𝑐𝑘 )]∆𝑥𝑘

We then approximate the area of the region by adding the areas of the n
rectangles

A≈ ∑𝑛𝑘=1 ∆𝐴𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑓(𝑐𝑘 ) − 𝑔(𝑐𝑘 )]∆𝑥𝑘 Riemann sum

146 | P a g e
 𝑏
As ‖𝑝‖ → 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒 area of the right approach the limit ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) −
𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 because 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are continuous. We take the area of the region to
be the value of this integral. That is,

Fig 6.1 Fig 6.2 Fig 6.3

DEFINIION Area Between Curves
If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are continuous with 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) thr

ONE

Solution First we sketch the two curves

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 Fig6.4

TWO

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Fig 6.5

Fig 6.5

149 | P a g e
 VOLUMES

𝑏
If 𝑓 is a function continuous on an interval [𝑎 , 𝑏] then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is the limit of the
Riemann sums for 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] as the lengths of the subintervals derived from the
partition of [𝑎, 𝑏] approach 0.

We will describe briefly here our procedure for introducing the application of the
integral. For each application our goal will be to find a formula for a quantity I
(such as the volume of solid region) we will proceed in the following way
150 | P a g e
 We will find a function 𝑓 continuous on an interval [𝑎 , 𝑏 ] for each partition
𝑃 of [𝑎 , 𝑏] there are numbers 𝑡1 , 𝑡2, … , 𝑡𝑛 in the n subinterval derives from P
such that I should be approximately equal to the Riemann sum ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) ∆𝑥𝑘

In each case it will be reasonable to expect that ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) ∆𝑥𝑘 should
approach I as the norm of the partition P tends to 0 this idea is expressed by
writing 𝐼 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) ∆𝑥𝑘

𝑏
We will conclude that I = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1.1The cross-sectional method

Consider the cross-sectional area A of the region D is a function that is

continuous on [𝑎 , 𝑏] let P= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ..., 𝑥𝑛 ) be a portion of [𝑎. 𝑏] for each
k between 1 and n ,let 𝑡𝑘 be an arbitrary number in the sub intervals
[𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ], if ∆𝑥𝑘 is small ,the volume ∆𝑣𝑘 of the part of D between 𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘
is approximately equal to the product of the cross-sectional area A(𝑡𝑘 ) and
the length ∆𝑥𝑘 (Fig 6.6) .
Thus ∆𝑉 ≈ (cross-sectional area)×(length)
≈ A (𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘

Since the volume V of D is the sum of ∆𝑣1 , ∆𝑣2 , … , ∆𝑣𝑛 . It follows that V
should be approximately ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐴(𝑡𝑘 ) ∆𝑥𝑘

Figure

151 | P a g e
 Fig 6.6

Example1 Find the volume V of the solid D in whose cross-section at x is

semicircular region with radius r is 𝑥 2 for 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1

1
Solution the area of a semicircular region with radius r is 𝜋𝑟 2 .
2

1
Thus the cross-sectional area A(x) of x is given by A(x) = 𝜋(𝑥 2 )2 .
2

There for we conclude that

1
V=∫0 𝐴(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

11
=∫0 𝜋𝑥 4
2

152 | P a g e
 𝜋
=
10

THE DISC METHOD

When the graph of a continuous non-negative function 𝑓 on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is

revolved about the 𝑥 axis, it generates a solid region having circular cross-sections,
that is cross-sections are circular disc (Fig) ,since the radius of the cross-section at
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) it follows that 𝐴(𝑥) = 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥)]2 (1 )

Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8

Thus from equation (1) we obtain a formula for the volume 𝑉 of the solid that is
𝑏
generated 𝑉 = ∫𝑎 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 (2)

Because the cross-sections are disc, the use of (2) to compute volume is called the
disc method

Example 1 Find the volume 𝑉 of a sphere of radius 𝑟

Figure 6.9

153 | P a g e
 Solution In Figure6.9 A sphere is generated by revolving a semicircle about its
diameter ,if we let

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 −𝑟 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑟 .Then from (2) we obtain

𝑟 4
V=∫−𝑟(√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

Figure 6.10

154 | P a g e
 THE WASHER METHOD

We present a formula for the volume of the solid region generated by revolving a
more general plane region about the 𝑥-axis .let 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 be function such that 0≤
𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

Then the plane region between the graph of 𝑓 and the x-axis on [𝑎, 𝑏] is composed
of the region between the graph of 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏] and the region between the graph of
𝑔 and the 𝑥-axis on [𝑎, 𝑏]

Figure 6.11

155 | P a g e
The volume 𝑉 of the solid generated by revolving the region between the graph of
𝑏
𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑖𝑠 given by V=∫𝑎 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥)2 − 𝑔(𝑥)2 ]𝑑𝑥 (3)

Example 1

Solution first sketches the region (Figure); then imagine revolving it about the x-
axis. From (6.11) the volume is

156 | P a g e
 Figure(6.12)

THE SHELL METHOD

We obtain a formula for the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the
x-axis the region between the graphs of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎, 𝑏].we can also revolve such
a region about the 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and find a corresponding formula for the volume of the
solid so generated.

To begin, let us determine the volume V of a cylindrical shell obtained by

revolving a rectangle about the y-axis (Fig6.13)

157 | P a g e
 Suppose the rectangle is bounded by the x-axis, the line y=c, the lines x=a and
x=b, where b≥ 𝑎 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≥ 0 then since the volume of the cylindrical shell is
the difference of the volume of the outer and the inner cylinders ,it follows that

V = volume of outer cylinder – volume of inner cylinder

= 𝜋𝑏 2 𝑐 − 𝜋𝑎2 𝑐 = 𝜋𝑐(𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 )

If we replace 𝑎 𝑏𝑦 𝑥𝑘−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑏𝑦 𝑥𝑘 then we obtain

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑐(𝑥𝑘 2 − 𝑥𝑘−1 2 ) = 𝜋𝑐(𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1 )(𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 ) ..............(*)

Now let 𝑓 be a continuous nonnegative function on [𝑎, 𝑏],with 𝑎 ≥ 0. We wish to

define the volume V of the solid region in Figure above ,obtained by revolving
about the y-axis the region R between the graph of f and the x axis on [a,b]. Let
P={𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } be any partition of [a,b]. For each k between 1 and n, let 𝑡𝑘
( 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑥𝑘−1 )⁄
be the midpoint 2 of the subinterval [𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ] .if ∆𝑥𝑘 is small, the
volume ∆𝑉𝑘 of the portion of the solid between the revolve lines𝑥 = 𝑥𝑘−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 =
𝑥𝑘 is approximately equal to the volume of the corresponding cylindrical shell with
height 𝑓(𝑥) by (*) ,with 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) replacing c, this means that∆𝑉 ≈ 𝜋𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )(𝑥𝑘 +
𝑥𝑘−1 )(𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 ) = 2𝜋𝑡𝑘 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘

Therefore the volume V of the solid, which is the sum of ∆𝑣1 , ∆𝑣2 , … , ∆𝑣𝑛

Should be approximately ∑𝑛𝑘=1 2𝜋𝑡𝑘 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 which is a Riemann sum for
𝑏
2𝜋𝑥𝑓 𝑜𝑛 [𝑎. 𝑏] .as a result 𝑉 = lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 2𝜋𝑡𝑘 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )∆𝑥𝑘 = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
‖𝑝‖→0

Thus we are led to the following formula for volume

158 | P a g e
 𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (4)
𝑎

Let 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≥ 0 ,and suppose that

𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

Then let R be the region between the graphs of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 on [𝑎, 𝑏] Figure.

The volume V of the solid obtain by revolving about the 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is given by

𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 (5)
𝑎

Solution. First sketch the region (Figure);then imagine revolving about y-axis

159 | P a g e
 LENGTH OF A CURVE

Consider the graph of a function 𝑓 with a continuous derivative on closed interval

[a,b]. If 𝑓 is linear, that is ,if the graph of 𝑓 is a line segment ,then the length L of
the graph is the distance between (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)) so that

𝐿 = √(𝑏 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎))2

When 𝑓 is not necessarily linear, we let P = {𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } be any partition of

[a,b] and approximate the graph of f by a polygonal line l whose vertices are
(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 ),( 𝑥1 , 𝑓(𝑥1 )),....,( 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )) figure. Let ∆𝐿𝑘 be the length of the portion
of the graph of f joining (𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 )) and (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 )). If ∆𝑥𝑘 is small, 𝐿𝑘 is
approximately equal to the length of the line segment joining (𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 ) and
(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 )). In other words

∆𝐿𝑘 = √(𝑥𝑘 −𝑥𝑘−1 )2 + (𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 ))2 (1)

The Mean value Theorem, applied to 𝑓 on the interval [𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ], implies that

𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )(𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 ) for some 𝑡𝑘 𝑖𝑛 (𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ). Therefore (1) can
be rewritten ∆𝐿𝑘 = √(𝑥𝑘 −𝑥𝑘−1 )2 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )(𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 ))2 =

√1 + (𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 ))2 (𝑥𝑘 − 𝑥𝑘−1 )

Therefore the total length L of the graph of 𝑓 ,which is the sum of the length
𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , … , 𝐿𝑛 should approximately ∑𝑛𝑘=1 √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 ∆𝑥𝑘 is a Riemann sum

for √1 + [𝑓 ′ ]2 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Therefore it seems that

160 | P a g e
 𝑏
𝑛
𝐿 = lim ∑ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 ∆𝑥𝑘 = ∫ √1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
‖𝑝‖→0 𝑘=1
𝑎

Figure 6.15

This leads us to make the following definition

Solution

161 | P a g e
Figure 6. 16

AREA OF A SURFACE

A higher-dimensional version of the length of a curve is the area of a surface. It has

been known that the surface area S of a cube of sides s is given by S =6s2 and the
surface area S of a cylinder of radius r and height h is given by S=2𝜋rh. However ,
our analysis of the areas of other surfaces will be based on the surface area of a
frustum of a cone. If the frustum has slant height l and radii r1and r2 ,then the
surface area S is given by

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 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝑆 = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑙 = 𝜋(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )𝑙 (1)
2

Fig 6.17

More generally, suppose 𝑓 is defined on[𝑎, 𝑏], and𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.we

will derive a formula for the S of the surface obtained by revolving the graph of
𝑓 about x axis Figure. In order to be able to use the length of the graph of 𝑓 on
[𝑎, 𝑏]in our calculations of surface area, we will assume that 𝑓 is continuous
differentiable on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Now let P={𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } be a partition on [𝑎, 𝑏] ,and let
∆𝑆 be the area of the portion of the surface between the revolved lines 𝑥 =
𝑥𝑘−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑘 . 𝑖𝑓 ∆𝑥𝑘 is small, the surface area 𝑠𝑘 is approximately equal to the
surface area of the frustum of the corresponding cone. that is the frustum whose
slant height is equal to the length of the line between (𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 )) and
𝑥𝑘 , 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) and the radii of whose ends are 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) from (1) this means
that

∆𝑠𝑘 ≈ 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 )]√(𝑥𝑘 −𝑥𝑘−1 )2 + [𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 )]2

The Mean Value theorem can be applied to show that for some 𝑡𝑘 𝑖𝑛 [𝑥𝑘−1 , 𝑥𝑘 ],

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√(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑥𝑘−1 )2 + (𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) − 𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 ))2 =√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 ∆𝑥𝑘 3

Since ∆𝑥𝑘 is assumed to be small 𝑥𝑘−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑘 are close together, with
𝑡𝑘 between them. Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 are continuous on [𝑥𝑘 , 𝑥𝑘−1 ] it follows that
𝑓(𝑥𝑘−1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) should be approximately 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) + 𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) , 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 2𝑓(𝑡𝑘 ) .so
from (3) and (2) we deduce that

∆𝑆𝑘 ≈ 𝜋[2𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )]√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2

Consequently the area S of the complete surface, which equal the sum of
∆𝑆1 , ∆𝑆2 , … , ∆𝑆𝑛 should approximately ∑𝑛𝑘=1 2𝜋𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 ∆𝑥𝑘

Which is a Riemann sum for 2𝜋𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 on [𝑎, 𝑏]. Therefore we
define the surface area S by

𝑏
𝑛
𝑆 = lim ∑ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑡𝑘 )√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 ∆𝑥𝑘 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 𝑑𝑥
‖𝑝‖→0 𝑘=1
𝑎

DEFINITION Let 𝑓 be nonnegative and continuously differentiable on [a,b].

The area of the surface obtained by revolving the graph of 𝑓 about the x axis is
defined by

𝑏
S = ∫𝑎 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥)√1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑘 )]2 𝑑𝑥

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