Chapter Three

Stability Analysis
• The concept of stability can
be illustrated by a cone placed
on a plane horizontal surface.

• A system is said to be
Stable if the response (output)
is predictable or under control.

• A stable system produces a

bounded output for a given
bounded input.

• A system is unstable if, for a bounded disturbing input signal, the output is of
infinite amplitude or oscillatory.
i) For a bounded i/p, it produces unbounded o/p.
ii) In the absence of i/p, o/p may not return to zero. It shows a certain
1 o/p
without i/p.
2
• The stability of a feedback system is directly related to the location of the
roots of the characteristic equation of the system transfer function.

3
Transfer Function

• When the order of the denominator polynomial is greater than the

numerator polynomial the transfer function is said to be ‘proper’.
Otherwise ‘improper’
 Stability of Control System

• Roots of the denominator polynomial of a transfer function are called

‘poles’.
• And the roots of numerator polynomials of a transfer function are called
‘zeros’.
• Poles of the system are represented by ‘x’ and zeros of the system are
represented by ‘o’.
• System order always equals the number of poles of the transfer function.
• The above transfer function represents the nth-order plant.
• Poles is also defined as “the frequency at which system becomes infinite”.
Hence the name pole where the field is infinite.
• And zero is the frequency at which the system becomes 0.
 Stability of Control System

• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane to check
the stability of the system.
• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the system is
said to be Stable.
• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said to be
unstable.
• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be marginally
stable. j

LHP RHP

Recall s =  + j


s-plane
 Stability of Control System

• For example
C
G( s ) = , if A = 1, B = 3 and C = 10
As + B
• Then the only pole of the system lie at
pole = −3

j

LHP RHP

X 
-3

s-plane
Location of Root on the Plane
Location of Root on the Plane
Location of Root on the Plane
Location of Root on the Plane
 Necessary conditions for stability

• All the coefficients of a characteristic polynomial are positive.

• If any coefficient is zero or negative, we can immediately say that
the system is unstable.

But not sufficient condition

s3+ s2+2s+8 = (s+2) (s- 0.5 – 1.93j) (s-0.5+1.93j)
Coefficients –positive but roots –Right Hand Side (RHS)

➢ So the system is Unstable.

 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• It was discovered that all coefficients of the characteristic
polynomial must have the same sign and non-zero if all the roots
are in the left-hand plane.
• These requirements are necessary but not sufficient. If the above
requirements are not met, it is known that the system is unstable.
But, if the requirements are met, we still must investigate the
system further to determine the stability of the system.
• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a necessary and sufficient criterion
for the stability of linear systems.
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Sufficient conditions for stability.
• Hurwitz – investigated stability in terms of determinants.
• Routh – in terms of array formulation.
Routh Stability criterion:
• The necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all the
elements in the first column of the routh array must be positive.
• If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the
number of sign changes in the elements of the first column of the
Routh array corresponds to the number of roots of characteristic
equation in RHS of s plane.
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Characteristic
an s n + an −1 s n −1 + an − 2 s n − 2 +  + a1 s + a0 = 0
equation, q(s)
sn an an − 2 an − 4
Routh array
s n −1 an −1 an −3 an −5
s n−2 bn −1 bn −3 bn −5
s n −3 cn −1 cn − 3 cn − 5
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
s0 hn −1

bn −1 =
(an −1 )(an − 2 ) − an (an −3 ) = −1 an an − 2
an −1 an −1 an −1 an − 3
−1 an − 2 an − 4
bn −3 =
an −1 an −1 an −3
−1 an −1 an −3
cn −1 =
bn −1 bn −1 bn −3
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Assignment Q-3

1. Determine the stable region of K and a for the following system.

26
 Root Locus Techniques

What is root locus?

• Root locus is a graphical representation of the closed loop poles as a

system parameter is varied.
• It can be used to describe qualitatively the performance of a system as
various parameters are changed.
• It gives a graphic representation of a system’s transient response and also
stability.
• We can see the range of stability, instability, and the conditions that cause a
system to break into oscillation.
The control system problem
• The poles of the open loop transfer function are easily found by inspection
and they do not change with changes in system gain.
• But the poles of the closed loop transfer function are more difficult to find
and change with changes in system gain.
• The poles of T(s) are not immediately known without factoring the
denominator and they are a function of K.
 Root Locus Techniques

• Consider the closed loop system in the figure below

a) Closed-loop system
b) Equivalent closed loop transfer function
Note: KG(s)H(s) = Open Loop Transfer Function, or loop gain
 Root Locus Techniques
• Since the system’s performance depends on the knowledge of the
poles’ location, we will not be able to know the system’s performance
readily.
• Root locus can be used to give us a picture of the poles of T(s) as the
system gain, K, Varies
• Consider the closed-loop system in the figure with its Equivalent closed-
loop transfer function.
• We use root locus to analyze the transient response qualitatively. (E.g.
the effect of varying gain upon percent overshoot, settling time, and
peak time)
 Root Locus Techniques
• If we plot the poles of the closed-loop transfer function for values K=0
to 50, we will obtain the following plots
Root Locus Techniques
 Root Locus Techniques

• Root locus show the changes in the transient response as the gain K,
varies.
▪ For 0 < K < 25
▪ poles are real and distinct (jω = 0)
▪ overdamped response
▪ For K = 25
▪ Poles are real and multiple
▪ Critically damped response
▪ For 25 < K < 50 (or K > 25)
▪ Poles are complex conjugate
▪ Underdamped response
▪ Since Ts is inverse ∞ to the real part of the pole and the real
the part remains the same for K > 25
▪ The settling time, Ts, remains the same regardless of the value of
gain (Note that Ts = 4 / σd).
 Root Locus Techniques
• For K > 25
• As the gain increases, the damping ratio, ζ = cos θ decreases and
thus the %OS increases. Note: %OS inversely related to ζ
• As the gain increases, the damped freq. of oscillation, ωd, which is
the imaginary part of the complex pole also increases
• Since peak time, Tp = π / ωd , thus an increase in ωd will result in a
decrease in Tp

• Finally, since the root locus never crosses over into the RHP, the system
is always stable, regardless of the value of gain.

• Knowing the properties of the Root Locus will enable us to sketch the
root locus without having to factor the denominator of the closed-loop
transfer function
 Root Locus Techniques

• Consider the general representation of the C.L.T.F:

T(s) = KG(s) / 1 + KG(s)H(s)
NB: A pole exists when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator
becomes zero.
• Hence, KG(s)H(s) = -1 = 1∟(2k + 1)180° , k = 0, 1, 2,…
• Or |KG(s)H(s)| = 1 and ∟KG(s)H(s) = (2k + 1)180°

• Hence, Given the poles & zeros of the open loop Transfer function,
KG(s)H(s), a point in the s-plane is on the root locus for a particular value of
gain, K, if the angles of the zeros minus the angles of the poles, all drawn
to the selected point on the S-plane, add up to (2k + 1)180°
 Root Locus Techniques
• Example: Given a unity feedback system that has the following forward
transfer function:

a. Calculate the angle of G(s) at the point (-3 + j0) by finding the algebraic
sum of the angle of the vectors drawn from the zeros & poles of G(s) to
the given point.
b. Determine if the point specified in (a) is on the root locus
c. If the point is on the Root Locus, find the gain K using the lengths of
the vectors
Root Locus Techniques
 Sketching the Root Locus
Properties and general rules for the construction of the Root
Loci are as follows:
• Symmetry: The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis. (Since
complex poles always exist in complex conjugate form.)

Symmetrical
about real axis
 Sketching the Root Locus

• Number of branches: The no. of branches of the Root Locus equals

the number of open-loop poles. (Since a branch is the path that one
poles traverses.)
 Sketching the Root Locus

• Real-axis segment: On the real-axis, for K>0, the root locus exists to
the left of an odd number of real-axis( sum of finite open-loop poles
and finite open-loop zeros). (Due to the angle property of R-L.)

Locus exist
 Sketching the Root Locus

• Starting & Ending Points: The root locus begins at the finite &
infinite poles of G(s)H(s) & ends at the finite & infinite zeros of
G(s)H(s).

Ending

Starting
 Sketching the Root Locus
• Behavior at infinity/Asymptotes: The root locus approaches straight
lines as asymptotes as the locus approaches infinity.
• The equation of the asymptotes is given by the real axis intercept, σa &
angle θa :
 Sketching the Root Locus

• Real-Axis Breakaway & Break-in Points:

 Sketching the Root Locus

• Finding the jω axis crossings:

• Angle of departure & arrival from

complex poles & zeros

Recall that a condition for a point on the

s-plane to be on the root
locus is that the angles of the zeros minus
the angles of the poles, all drawn to the
selected point on the s-plane, add up to
(2k + 1) 180°
∟KG(s)H (s) = (2k + 1 ) 180°
Consider the next Figure:
 Sketching the Root Locus
Example:

Step 1: The first step in constructing a root-locus plot is to locate

the open-loop poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) in s-plane.
 Sketching the Root Locus

Step 2: Determine the root loci on the real axis.

• The loci on the real axis are to

the left of an ODD number of
REAL poles and/or REAL zeros of
G(s)H(s)
• Red lines on the S-plane are parts
of the real axis where the root
locus exists.
 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.

• Number of Asymptotes = n – m,
where n=no of poles, m= no of zeros
• Centroid: intersection point of asymptotes with real axis:

∑Pi − ∑ Zi
σa =
𝑛−𝑚

• Angles of asymptotes with real axis:

 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 3: Determine the asymptotes of the root loci.
 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point
• The breakaway or break-in points are the closed-loop poles that satisfy:

• It should be noted that not all the solutions of dK/ds=0 correspond to

actual breakaway points.

• The characteristic equation of the system is

 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point

• The breakaway point can now be determined as

• Set dK/ds=0 to determine the breakaway point.

 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 4: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point
 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 5: Intersection points with the imaginary axis.

• jω axis crossing is a point on the Root Locus that separates the stable
operation of the system from the unstable operation.
• The value of ω at the axis crossing yields the frequency of oscillation.
• The gain at the jω axis crossing yields the max. positive gain for system
stability.
• First Approach: jω-axis crossing can be found by using Routh-Hurwitz
criterion as follows:
• Forcing a row of zeros in the Routh Table will yield the gain.
• Going back one row to the even polynomial equation & solving for the
roots yields the frequency at the imaginary axis crossing.

(Recall that a row of zeros in the Routh Table indicates the existence of
poles on the jω axis.)
 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 5: Intersection points with the imaginary axis.

• Now the characteristics equation of the previous example is:

𝑠 3 +3 𝑠 2 +2s+K = 0

𝑠3 1 2 0
𝑠2 3 K 0
𝑠1 6−𝐾 0 0
3
𝑠0 K 0 0

6−𝐾
• Then, to find value of K on jω-axis = 0, K=6
3
• Going back one row to the even polynomial equation & solving for the
roots yields
3 𝑠 2 + K = 3 𝑠 2 + 6 = 0, s= ±j 2
• The root-locus crosses the jω axis at + j 2 at a gain of 6
• The system is stable for 0 < K < 6
 Sketching the Root Locus
Step 5: Intersection points with the imaginary axis.

• An alternative approach is to let s=jω in the characteristic equation,

equate both the real part and the imaginary part to zero, and then solve
for ω and K.
• For present system the characteristic equation is
𝑠 3 +3 𝑠 2 +2s+K = 0
(𝑗ω)3 +3 (𝑗ω)2 +2 (𝑗ω) +K = 0
( K- ω2 ) + j(2 ω− ω2 ) = 0
ω= ± 2, K=6 or
ω= 0, K=0 or
Sketching the Root Locus
 Frequency Response Analysis
▪ The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient
response and the steady-state response.
▪ We can find the transient response by using Fourier integrals.
▪ The steady-state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is
known as the frequency response.
▪ If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI)
system, then it produces the steady state output, which is also a
sinusoidal signal.
▪ The input and output sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but
different amplitudes and phase angles.
▪ The steady-state output of a transfer function system can be obtained
directly from the sinusoidal transfer function, that is, the transfer function
in which s is replaced by jω, where ω is frequency.
 Frequency Response Analysis

Fig. Input and output sinusoidal signals of Linear, Time-invariant (LTI) system.
 Frequency Response Analysis

▪ Consider a linear system with a sinusoidal input

r(t) = A sin ωt
where r(t) can be represented by x(t) and amplitude A can be represented by X
▪ Under steady-state, the system output as well as the signals at all other
points in the system are sinusoidal.
▪ The steady-state output is c(t)= B sin (ωt+Ø), where c(t) = y(t) and B=Y
▪ The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the
steady state of a system is termed as Frequency Response.
▪ The frequency response is evaluated from the sinusoidal transfer function
which has both magnitude and phase angle.
▪ The open loop transfer function will be
G(s) = G(jω)
▪ We can represent in terms of magnitude and phase as shown below
G(jω) = |G(jω)|∠G(jω)
▪ The output signal is
c(t) = A|G(jω)| sin(ωt + ∠G(jω))
 Frequency Response Analysis
▪ The amplitude of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by multiplying
the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal and the magnitude of G(jω).
▪ The phase of the output sinusoidal signal is obtained by adding the phase
of the input sinusoidal signal and the phase of G(jω).
▪ We can write, angular frequency as shown below
ω = 2πf
▪ Here, f is the frequency of the input sinusoidal signal
Example: Consider the system shown in the figure below. The transfer
function G(s) is

Fig. First-Order system

 Frequency Response Analysis
▪ The Amplitude ratio of the output to the input is

▪ And the phase angle is

▪ Thus, for the input r(t)=x(t)= Xsinωt, the output

 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are
✓ resonant frequency ωr,
✓ resonant peak (Mr) and
✓ Bandwidth (BW).
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control
system as,

Substitute, s=jω in the above equation.

 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
Let, Substitute this value in the above equation.

Magnitude of T(jω) is

Phase of T(jω) is
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
Resonant Frequency
▪ It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has
peak value for the first time.
▪ It is denoted by ωr. At ω= ωr, the first derivate of the magnitude of T(jω)
is zero.
▪ Differentiate M with respect to u.

Substitute, in the above equation.

 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications

Substitute, in the above equation.

 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications

Resonant Peak
▪ It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω).
▪ It is denoted by Mr. At u = ur, the Magnitude of T(jω) is

Substitute, and in the above equation

 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
▪ Resonant peak in frequency response corresponds to the peak overshoot
in the time domain transient response for certain values of damping ratio.
▪ So, the resonant peak and peak overshoot are correlated to each other.

Bandwidth
▪ It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to
70.7% from its zero frequency value.
▪ At ω = 0, the value of u will be zero.
▪ Substitute u = 0, in M.

▪ Therefore, the magnitude of T(jω) is one at ω = 0

▪ At 3-dB frequency, the magnitude of T(jω) will be 70.7% of
magnitude of T(jω) at ω = 0
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications

Let,
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications
Consider only the positive value of x.

Substitute,

▪ Bandwidth in the frequency response is inversely proportional to the

rise time in the time domain transient response.
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications

Problem 1
Consider the system as shown in figure,

(a) Find the value ‘k’ and ‘a’ to satisfy the following
frequency domain specifications:
Mr = 1.04
ωr = 11.55 rad/sec
(b)For this value of k and a , calculate settling time and bandwidth of the
system
 Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency Domain Specifications

Problem 2
Consider Unit- step response data of a second-order system given below.
Obtain the corresponding frequency response specifications for the system,

Hint: from the table tp = 0.2

Mp = 0.12

Then, Find ζ and ωn

Determine Mr, ωr and BW
 Frequency Response Analysis
Representing Frequency Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms

Bode Plot

▪ The Bode plot of a transfer function is a useful graphical tool for the analysis
and design of linear control systems in the frequency domain
▪ The Bode plot consists of two plots drawn on semi-logarithmic paper.
1. Magnitude of the frequency response in decibels, i.e., 20 log| (G(jω)|
on a linear scale versus frequency on a logarithmic scale.
2. Phase of the frequency response function on a linear scale versus
frequency on a logarithmic scale.
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Basic factors
Consider the following general transfer function

1. Gain k (Constant Term)

2. Integral or Derivative factors (jω)±1
(Poles or zeros at origin)
3. First-order factors (1+jωT)±1
(poles or zeros not at origin)
jω jω 2 ±1
4. Quadratic factors [1 + 2ζ( )+( ) ]
ωn ωn
(Complex poles or Complex zeros)
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
The gain factor multiplies the overall gain by a constant value for all
frequencies.
• It has no effect on phase.
G(s)=K
G(jω)=k
M = 20log │G(jω)│
M = 20log K = constant
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Integral Factor 1/jω – pole at origin

Magnitude is a straight line with a

slope of -20 dB/decade

Phase is constant at -90 deg at all

frequencies.
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Derivative Factor jω – Zero at origin

Magnitude is a straight line

with a slope of 20 dB/decade

Phase is constant at 90 deg. at

all frequencies
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Poles not at origin
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Poles not at origin
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Zeros not at origin
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Zeros not at origin
 Frequency Response Analysis
Bode Plot
Complex Poles

Complex Zeros
 Frequency Response Analysis
Problem 1: Draw the Bode plot for the transfer function

Solution:
Frequency Response Analysis
 Frequency Response Analysis
Gain Crossover frequency
The gain crossover frequency is the frequency at which the magnitude of
the open loop transfer function, │G(jω)│ is unity. In logarithmic scale this
corresponds to zero db.
 Frequency Response Analysis
Phase Cross over frequency

The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase of

the open loop transfer function, ∠G(jω) is -180o.
 Frequency Response Analysis
Gain margin
• The gain margin is the amount of additional gain required at the phase
crossover frequency to bring the system to the verge of instability.
• The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude │G(jω)│ at the phase
crossover frequency.

Phase margin
• The phase margin is the amount of additional phase lag required at the
gain crossover frequency to bring the system to the verge of instability.
• The phase margin is 180° plus the phase angle of the open-loop transfer
function at the gain crossover frequency ωg.

PM=180°+Ø
Frequency Response Analysis
 Frequency Response Analysis
Stability

Stable System
Where ωp > ωg
 Frequency Response Analysis
Stability

Unstable System
Where ωg > ωp
 Frequency Response Analysis

Problems
1. Draw the Bode plot for the transfer function

G(s) =

and hence comment on stability.

2. Obtain the phase and gain margins of the system shown in Figure for
the two cases where K=10 and K=100 and comment on the stability.