PREFACE

Introduction

Welcome to the module, Construction Materials. This study guide is designed to provide
additional notes that expand on the content of the prescribed textbook, Construction Materials
for Civil Engineers, 2nd edition by E. van Amsterdam.

I recommend that you study the content covered in this module, together with the prescribed
book. The notes alone will not prepare you for the exam that you will write at the end of the
course.

The testing of materials used in construction is fundamental to the understanding of their

behaviour in engineering applications. This testing is performed according to the South Africa
National Standards (SANS). SANS documents can be bought online at www.store.sabs.co.za.
These documents should also be available in the university libraries and/or university
laboratories.

The old Standard methods of testing road construction materials (TMH1) can be obtained from
http://asphalt.csir.co.za/tmh/ for free.

Where reference is made to other publications, I recommend that you read these publications
to gain a better understanding of a particular topic. I also encourage you to read as widely as
possible, to improve your knowledge and understanding of construction materials.
Module structure
This module consists of the following six units:

Unit 1 covers soils

Unit 2 focuses on concrete and concrete mix design
Unit 3 covers bitumen and its applications
Unit 4 focuses on brick, timber, steel and aluminium
Unit 5 provides information on environmental issues
Unit 6 covers internal building construction materials

Your learning process

As mentioned above, you will use both this study guide and your prescribed textbook for this
module. I will also occasionally communicate with you on myUnisa, our online learning platform.
This means that you will have to register on myUnisa and regularly go online to check for
possible communiqués.

Look out for announcements and discussions that I will add on the CMN1501 module site from
time to time.

I wish you everything of the best in your studies and I hope your learning journey is fun and
beneficial to your growth.

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Table of Contents

1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 SOIL ORIGIN ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Soil formation ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2.2 Formation of rocks .................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Basic rock types ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 FIELD IDENTIFICATION ......................................................................................................... 11
1.4 MOISTURE CONTENT ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.5 CONSISTENCY ................................................................................................................................. 12
1.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY ........................................................................................................................... 15
1.7 RELATIVE AND APPARENT DENSITY............................................................................................... 16
1.8 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................................ 17
1.9 SOIL VOLUME CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................................... 19
1.10 SOIL CLASSIFCATION .................................................................................................................... 21
1.11 COMPACTION ............................................................................................................................... 23
1.12 MEASUREMENT OF COMPACTION .............................................................................................. 24
1.13 DEVELOPMENT OF QUARRY ........................................................................................................ 24
Quarries are important sources of construction materials. Aggregate for concrete and road
construction materials are obtained from quarries. ............................................................................ 25
1.14 STABILISATION SECTION .............................................................................................................. 25
1.6.1 Cement stabilisation ............................................................................................................... 26
1.6.2 Lime stabilisation .................................................................................................................... 27
1.6.3 Bitumen stabilisation .............................................................................................................. 28
1.6.4 Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) for stabilisation ........................................... 28
1.6.5 Fly ash for stabilisation ........................................................................................................... 29
1.15 MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY ............................................................................................................. 29
1.15.1 Maximum dry density test .................................................................................................... 29
1.16 UNIT 1 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS ..................................................................................... 31
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO UNIT................................................................................................................ 35
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE ...................................................................................................... 35

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2.3 GENERAL CONCRETE SPECIFICATIONS ........................................................................................... 35
2.3.1 Properties of fresh concrete ................................................................................................... 36
2.3.2 Properties of concrete at an early age ................................................................................... 41
2.3.3 Properties of hardened concrete............................................................................................ 42
2.4 MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE ........................................................................................................... 43
2.4.1 Cement .................................................................................................................................... 43
2.4.2 Extenders ................................................................................................................................. 45
2.4.3 Water ....................................................................................................................................... 46
2.4.4 Aggregate ................................................................................................................................ 46
2.3.5 Admixtures .............................................................................................................................. 47
2.5 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 49
2.6 CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT ......................................................................................................... 52
2.7 UNIT 2 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS ....................................................................................... 54
2.8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 57
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO UNIT................................................................................................................ 58
3.2 SOURCES OF BITUMEN ................................................................................................................... 58
3.3 BITUMEN AND TAR......................................................................................................................... 59
3.4 TYPES OF BITUMEN ........................................................................................................................ 59
3.4.1 Penetration grade bitumen .................................................................................................... 60
3.4.2 Cutback bitumens.................................................................................................................... 60
3.4.3 Blown grade bitumens ............................................................................................................ 60
3.4.4 Modified bitumens¹................................................................................................................. 61
3.5 TESTS ON BITUMEN ........................................................................................................................ 63
3.5.1 Tests on bitumen rubber......................................................................................................... 64
3.6 APPLICATIONS OF BITUMEN .......................................................................................................... 64
3.6.1 Applications of bitumen in road construction ....................................................................... 64
3.7 Unit 3 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 77
3.8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 81
4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 82
4.2 BRICKS ............................................................................................................................................. 82
4.2.1 Manufacturing of bricks¹ ......................................................................................................... 83
4.2.2 Classification of clay bricks ..................................................................................................... 85
4.2.3 Calcium silicate bricks ............................................................................................................. 86
4.2.4 Properties of bricks¹ ² .............................................................................................................. 87
4.2.5 Defects in bricks³ ⁴................................................................................................................... 89
4.3 TIMBER ........................................................................................................................................... 89

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4.4 STEEL/METAL .................................................................................................................................. 91
4.4.1 Deformation of metals ............................................................................................................ 91
4.4.2 Steel reinforcement of concrete³ ........................................................................................... 96
4.5 UNIT 4 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS ....................................................................................... 98
4.6 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 99
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 101
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS ............................................................................................ 101
6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 105

iv
UNIT 1 – SOILS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Soils are construction materials that are frequently used in civil engineering. The following
types of infrastructure are but a few examples of infrastructure constructed using soils:

 houses
 buildings
 roads
 airports
 harbours

Because soils are mostly used as construction material, it is necessary to understand soils in
terms of origin, classification and usage. Should the soils not have suitable construction
properties, the engineer needs to know what can be done to improve the engineering
properties of the soil.

1.2 SOIL ORIGIN

1.2.1 Soil formation

Human activities are limited to the earth’s crust, which is the outer layer of the earth. The soils
found in the earth’s crust mostly originate from the deeper earth layers below the crust. Figure
1-1 provides an illustration of the earth’s different layers.

1
 Figure 1-1: The earth's layers

As you can see from figure 1-1, the outer core and mantle are predominately in a liquid state.
This liquid is molten rock, which is called magma. When magma penetrates the earth’s crust it
is called lava. This cools down and forms various rock types.

1.2.2 Formation of rocks

A volcano is a crack in the earth’s crust through which magma flows to the surface of the crust.
Magma is found deep underneath a volcano and it is a liquid because of the extremely high
temperatures and pressures that are present at that level. If the pressure is very high at a
certain point below the crust, some of this magma erupts through the crust. Once magma
erupts through the crust, it is called lava.

1.2.3 Basic rock types

Igneous rocks

It is a lot cooler in the atmosphere and since wind and rain are also present in the atmosphere,
lava will start to cool down and solidify. This solidified, “cooled-down” lava is called igneous
rock. This rock is normally found along the edges of a volcano. The nature of the igneous rock
that is formed will depend on the minerals that were present in the lava that formed the rock
and on the rate of the cooling down of the lava. If lava cools down quickly, the rock will consist
of finer particles. If lava, for instance, comes into contact with water and cools down quickly, it
will consist of very fine, glass-like particles. An example of this type of rock is called obsidian
(figure 1-2).

2
 Figure 2-2: Obsidian

Lava that cools down a little bit slower, forms a fine-grained, grey-black coloured rock, with
a look similar to sand that has been glued together. This rock is called basalt (figure 1-3).
Light coloured basalt is called felsite (figure 1-4).

Figure 3-3: Basalt

3
 Figure 4-4: Felsite

Some lava remains within the volcano and cools down slowly. Due to the slow rate of cooling,
large crystals form within the rock. This rock is called porphyry (figure 1-5).

Figure 5-5: Porphyry

A times, some of the magma remains trapped in the earth’s crust and then cools down
extremely slowly. Due to the extreme slow rate of cooling, the rock will consist of very large
particles. This type of rock is called granite (figure 1-6).

4
 Figure 6-6: Granite

Sedimentary rocks

The various igneous rocks formed during volcanic eruptions, erode over time due to exposure
to wind, water and temperature fluctuations. Over time the rock will be eroded to pieces of
rock and dust of various sizes. Wind and rain will transport them to the valley alongside the
volcano, where they will group together in layers. This process is called sedimentation.

Over time, the wind and rain will deposit more pieces of rock and dust on the earlier
transported layers and a new layer will form. This layer will push down on the underlying layer
and this underlying layer will compress due to the upper layer providing compaction to the
bottom layer.

The type of rock that is formed during this process is called sedimentary rock. You should note
that this process takes place over millions of years and that this rock can be formed from either
clay, silt or sand.

Some of the more commonly known sedimentary rocks are:

a) Sandstone (figure 1-7), which consists of sand particles that are cemented
together.

5
 Figure 7-7: Sandstone

b) Shale (figure 1-8), which consists of clay particles cemented together. Clay particles
are smaller than sand particles and as such shale will normally have a much
smoother texture than sandstone.

Figure 8-8: Shale

c) Conglomerate (figure 1-9), which consists of much larger particles than sand.
Conglomerates normally are formed from well-worn, rounded pebble-like particles,
which are cemented together.

6
 Figure 9-9: Conglomerate

d) Limestone, which consists of calcium carbonate. This rock is formed from the
remains of living animal and plant particles, which sank to the bottom of water
bodies, where it compacted due to the weight of additional layers of materials
deposited on top of it.

Figure 10-10: Limestone

7
 e) Dolomite (figure 1-11), has almost the same consistency as limestone, but contains
more magnesium.

Figure 11-11: Dolomite

Dolomite is well-known for its tendency to dissolve very quickly in the presence of water. Areas
where dolomitic rock is present, are high-risk areas for the constructing of infrastructure. If
infrastructure is constructed in these areas, rain water must be carefully managed to ensure
that it is drained away effectively. Rainwater seeping into the soil and coming into contact with
dolomite can cause sinkholes to form and these sinkholes can potentially collapse and cause
damage to infrastructure and loss of life.

Metamorphic rock

Over time, sedimentary rock can be forced down below the crust of the earth due to
movement of tectonic plates and earthquakes. The sedimentary rock will then be exposed to
tremendously high temperatures and pressures due to the presence of magma and because
the rock is now deep below the surface. The high temperatures and pressures over time
transforms the sedimentary rock to a different kind of rock, which is called metamorphic rock.

During the process of formation, the rock undergoes structural changes (metamorphosis),
which can include recrystallisation and becoming denser. A characteristic of this type of rock is
that the layers that were present in the sedimentary rock look like semi-dissolved, distorted
layers in the metamorphic rock that formed from the original sedimentary rock.

Marble (figure 1-12) is a well-known example of a metamorphic rock that has been formed
from limestone or dolomite due to metamorphism.

8
 Figure 12-12: Marble

Other examples of metamorphic rocks are:

a) Quartzite, which is formed from sandstone (figure 1-13).

Figure 13-13: Quartzite

b) Slate (figure 1-14), which is formed from shale through very slow and low-intensity
metamorphism.

9
 Figure 14-14: Slate

c) Schist (figure 1-15), which is formed from shale through very intensive metamorphism.

Figure 15-15: Schist

d) Gneiss, which is formed from quartz, feldspar and mica, which still shows distorted layers.

10
 Figure 16-16: Gneiss

1.3 FIELD IDENTIFICATION

The important descriptors of the engineering properties of soil are as follows:

 Moisture condition – determines the consistency

 Colour – means of correlation of soil layers from one hole to another
 Consistency – cohesiveness or hardness – affects bearing capacity
 Structure – a means of predicting behaviour under tensile stress
 Soil type – affects drainage characteristics
 Origin – guide to prediction of engineering behaviour

NB: Take note of the acronym MCCSSO, as it will help you remember the descriptors above.
These are used in soil profiling. In this section, we will deal with characteristics of soil in field
identification. The characteristics of soil, mentioned on pages 4 to 7 of the prescribed book,
helps in identifying the soil type by virtue of the fact that certain soils will or will not display
certain characteristics, for example, clayey soils display good plastic characteristics (described
on page 6 of the prescribed book) while sand lacks these characteristics. Gravels and sands are
generally free draining while silts and clays are slow draining.

11
1.4 MOISTURE CONTENT

When collecting a soil sample for testing, one must ensure that the sample is sealed in an
airtight PVC or similar container or bag. The moisture condition of the layer of soil should be
described, which is a necessary precursor to the assessment of consistency that is largely
dependent on the moisture content at the time of inspection.

The moisture condition should be recorded as one of the following:

 dry
 slightly moist
 moist
 very moist
 wet

The interpretation of moisture conditions in terms of approximate moisture content will

depend on the grain size of the soil. Sand with a moisture content of 5% to 10% will, for
example, be observed to be wet, while a clay at the same moisture content may be dry or only
slightly moist.
Whatever the soil type may be, the assessment of moisture condition provides a useful
indication of water requirements for compaction (discussed on pages 37 and 38 of the
prescribed book).

Dry and slightly moist materials will require the addition of water to attain the optimum
moisture content for compaction. Moist materials are near the optimum moisture content
while very moist soils require drying to attain optimum moisture content. Wet soil generally
comes from below the water table.

1.5 CONSISTENCY

Consistency is a measure of the hardness or strength of a soil and can be observed based on
the effort required to dig into the soil or, alternatively, to mould it with the fingers. The
following definition is given in the prescribed book: “Consistency is that property of soil that
displays resistance to flow.” Since these operations involve shearing, the assessment of
consistency is, in fact, a rough measure of a soil’s shear strength. As a result, consistency can
be used as a measure to gauge a soil’s bearing capacity (which is the soil’s ability to carry an
imposed load).

The separation of soils into cohesive and non-cohesive classes in order to describe consistency
arises because of differences in permeability or drainage characteristics that profoundly affect
shear strength. Cohesive soils are soils in which there are strong cohesive forces between the
soil particles. Clay soils are cohesive. Non-cohesive soils are soils in which there are no
cohesive forces between the soil particles. Sandy soils are non-cohesive.

Study figure 1.9 on page 12 of your prescribed book. This will help you to understand fully the
relationship and boundaries between the defined limits of the consistency of soil. Section 1.6
introduces you to the defined limits of the consistency of soils. These defined limits, also
known as the Atterberg limits or constants, are as follows:

12
• Liquid limit (LL) – The liquid limit is the minimum water content at which a soil will flow
under a specified small disturbing force. In other words, it is the minimum moisture
content at which a soil behaves like a liquid.

• Plastic limit (PL) – The plastic limit is the minimum water content at which a soil can be
deformed plastically with the ability to be moulded into a shape and to retain that shape.
When moisture content is below the plastic limit, it behaves like a solid (non-plastic)
material. As the moisture content increases past the plastic limit, the liquid limit will be
approached.

• Plasticity index (PI) – The plasticity index is the range of water content at which the soil is
in a plastic condition (PI = LL - PL).

• Shrinkage limit (SL) – The shrinkage limit is the water content below which no further
shrinkage (volume reduction) takes place as the soil has dried.

• Liquidity index (LI) – The liquidity index expresses the natural water content in terms of
the liquid and plastic limits.

The Atterberg limit tests that are performed according to SANS 3001-GR10 and SANS 3001-
GR12 (previously TMH A2 and A3), are a series of empirical tests. It is possible to estimate the
engineering properties of fine-grained soils from the results of these tests.

Note: SANS is an acronym for South African National Standards. The SANS document provides
specifications for various processes, tests and materials.

In terms of the liquid limit, take note that irrespective of which method is used (3-point, 2-
point or 1-point method as explained in section 1.3.4 of the prescribed book), the point where
25 taps are reached is the point where the LL is determined.

In figure 1.11 on page 14 of the prescribed book, the LL will be 25,5% and in figure 1.12 it will
be 27%. In the case of the 1-point method, the LL is determined between 22 and 28 taps. The
moisture content is calculated and then adjusted using the following formula:

Moisture content (LL) = (moisture content at N number of taps) X Constant (see table 1-1)

Table 1-1: Constant for calculating liquid limit

N Constant
22 0,985
23 0,99
24 0,995
25 1,000
26 1,005
27 1,009
28 1,014

13
 The liquid limit test is explained on page 13 of the prescribed book. The plastic limit and
shrinkage limit tests are explained in more detail below:

The plastic limit test

For the plastic limit a small amount of the soil is taken out of the cup when determining the
liquid limit of the soil in the 28 to 35 taps range. This is the part of the liquid limit test where
the least amount of water is added. For the plastic limit, soil is needed that still contains a little
water to determine the percentage of water where the soil changes from the plastic state to
the semi-solid state. As the sample was taken when too much water was present in the soil
(remember, the sample was taken when trying to determine the liquid limit of the soil) water
must be removed from the sample. This is done by rolling the sample into a sausage and then
determining the point where the sausage crumbles at 3,2 mm thickness. The water will
evaporate from the soil due to the temperature of the hand while rolling the sample. If there is
a high water presence, the heat of a desk lamp can be used while rolling the sample on a glass
plate. This test is normally repeated two to three times to determine the point at which the
soil changes from the plastic state to the semi-solid state.

The shrinkage limit test

When the test to determine the liquid limit is done, the left-over soil is used to determine the
shrinkage limit. This soil is put into a shrinkage through, 150 mm by 10 mm. This must be done
exactly as described in the TMH1 test method A4. After 24 hours the amount of shrinkage is
measured, and the percentage shrinkage is calculated.

Example of PI (Plasticity Index) Calculation

Read section 1.18 of these notes before working through this example.

After the PL and the LL of the portion of the material that had passed through the 0,425 mm
sieve had been determined, the following results were obtained:

Information for Liquid Limit (LL)

Mass of container = 184 g
Mass of dry soil and container = 4 012 g
Mass of wet soil and container = 5 480 g

Information for Plastic Limit (PL)

Mass of container = 175 g
Mass of dry soil and container = 3 681 g
Mass of wet soil and container = 4 528 g

Calculate the PI of the soil:

Plasticity index (PI) = LL – PL

14
Calculation of LL:

( ) ( )
LL = Moisture content = ( ) ( )
x 100

= x 100

= x 100

= 38,3% at 35 taps

Calculation of PL:
( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
x 100

= x 100

= x 100

= 24,2%

∴PI = 38,3% - 24,2% = 14,1%

Refer to SANS 3001- (previously TMH [Test methods for Highways]) for the full testing
procedures for the above-defined limits of soil.

The methods are as follows:

Method A2 – The determination of the liquid limit of soils by means of the flow curve method
Method A3 – The determination of the plastic limit and the plasticity index of soils
Method A4 – The determination of the linear shrinkage of soils

1.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is used to indicate how much lighter or heavier a material is compared to
water. The density of water has been standardised on 1 000 kg per cubic metre or

ρwater = 1 000 kg/m³

This means that there are exactly 1 000 litres of water in 1 cubic metre of water (where 1 cubic
meter is a volume of 1 metre length, 1 metre width and 1 metre height (refer to figure 1-17).

15
Figure 17-17: 1 cubic metre of water

When we refer to specific gravity (SG) of soil, it means that we are comparing the mass of the
solid matter in a soil sample with a given volume of the mass of that same volume of water.

If the SG of a given soil sample is 2,2 it means that this soil sample is 2,2 times as heavy as
water. The specific gravity of a soil is sometimes also referred to as the relative density (RD) of
the soil.

Both SG and RD are dimensionless numbers, i.e. there is no unit behind the number.
Sometimes the term specific weight is also used. This can be used in the same way as specific
gravity, but the major difference between the two is that specific weight is dependent on the
gravitational acceleration at the place on earth were the soil sample is located.

1.7 RELATIVE AND APPARENT DENSITY

Page 17 of the prescribed book contains a discussion on relative density. Read this section
carefully before you continue with reading the text below.

Apparent density

Crushed stone is frequently used for the construction of road bases. It is a cohesionless
material and therefore the individual particles of this material do not bind to each other. The
material also does not have a defined moisture curve (as determined in the maximum dry
density test, explained in section 5.3) and therefore it is difficult to determine the maximum
density and optimum moisture content in a similar manner to that of natural gravels.

Therefore, instead of using the maximum dry density, the density of crushed stone is
controlled using another reference density, referred to as the apparent density. This apparent
density is the density, which would theoretically be achieved if the material was compacted so
that no air or moisture remains between the aggregate particles. This is similar, although not
exactly the same, as the specific gravity of the material as some small voids are present within

16
the aggregate particles themselves which cannot be eliminated in the test procedure. The
apparent density depends on the type of material and its specific gravity as well as the degree
to which moisture is absorbed by the aggregate particles.

1.8 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

All soils used in construction originate from the breakdown and weathering from one of the
rock types discussed earlier in this unit. The soil will consist of particles of the following varying
sizes:
 big boulders or cobbles (larger than 75 mm),
 gravel (between 75 mm and 4,75 mm),
 sand (between 4,75 mm and 0,075 mm) and
 fines (smaller than 0,075 mm).

The type of parent rock will determine the characteristics of the soil. For example, soil that
originates from rocks such as granite and quartzite are considerably stronger soils since these
rocks are formed far below the crust under high pressure and temperatures.

It is important to know the amount and size of the soil particles, since it influences the
engineering properties of the soil. Soil needs to have a good grain size distribution throughout.
That means that there must be enough small-sized grains to fill the gaps between the large-
sized particles. Table 1-2 shows how grain size as defined according to the American
Association of State, Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO):

Table 1-2: Grain size definition

Grain size (mm)

Gravel Sand Slit Clay
>2 0,075 – 2 0,002 - 0,075 <0,002
Fines
<0,075

The designer (the engineer or technician undertaking the design) needs to know the particle
size distribution of the soil. If certain sizes are absent or if there are not enough fine materials
to fill the holes in between the bigger particles, it is necessary to add soil material with the
correct particle size. If this is not done, the soil will not compact to maximum density or may
even collapse in on itself.

To determine the particle size distribution of a soil, grading analysis is performed on the
material. This is achieved by sieving the material through sieves of different specified sizes.
Refer to page 19 of the prescribed book for examples of sieves. The mass of the soil that stays
behind on every sieve is calculated back to the original mass of the soil sample as a percentage.

TMH1 Method A1: The preparation and sieve analysis of gravel, sand and soil samples and
Method A6 are the old methods that were used to determine the particle size distribution of
soil. Refer to page 16, “Particle size distribution test or sieve analysis”, of the prescribed book.
The new methods for determining particle size distribution are as follows:

17
• SANS 201:2008 (Ed. 2.02): Sieve analysis, fines content and dust content of aggregates
• SANS 3001-AG1:2014 (Ed. 1.02): Particle size analysis of aggregates by sieving

Figure 1-17 provides an example of the sieves used for soil sieving. The sieve sizes used in
South Africa are displayed in table 1-3.

Figure 18-18: Example of soil sieves

Table 1-3: South African sieve sizes

TMH1 Sieve sizes SANS 201:2008 Sieve sizes SANS 3001-AG1:2014 Sieve sizes
(mm) (mm) (mm)
- 75 76
63 - -
53 53 50
37,5 37,5 37,5
26,5 26,5 25
19 19 20
- 16 -
13,2 13,2 14
- 9,5 10
- 6,7 7,1
4,75 4,75 5
- 2,36 2
2 2
- 1,18 1
- 0,6 0,6
0,425 0,425 -
- 0,3 0,3
- 0,15 0,15
0,075 0,075 0,075

18
1.9 SOIL VOLUME CHARACTERISTICS

To get an idea of the relation between bank, loose and compacted volumes, see table 1-4,
which gives typical soil volume conversion factors. The different soil states are discussed on
pages 27-28 of the prescribed book.
Table 1-4: Soil volume conversion factors

Condition
Soil type representing Altered condition (m3)
1 m3 Bank Loose Compacted
Sand Natural state 1 1,11 0,95
Loose 0,9 1 0,86
Compacted 1,05 1,27 1
Average soil Natural state 1 1,35 0,81
Loose 0,8 1 0,72
Compacted 1,22 1,29 1
Clay Natural state 1 1,43 0,9
Loose 0,7 1 0,63
Compacted 1,11 1,59 1

Important to note: The above values are indicative only of the typical variation in volume
between the states of density that may occur in the process of earthmoving operations. The
precise values can only be determined by density tests conducted on the actual materials
encountered in the field.

The formulae for load and shrinkage factors in section 1.3.8 of the prescribed book are
incorrect. The correct ones are displayed below:

( )
Load factor = ( )

( )
Shrinkage factor = ( )

When soil is excavated from its natural, undisturbed state (i.e. from bank to loose condition),
swelling (bulking) occurs. The percentage by which the soil swells can be calculated as follows:

Swell (%) = − 1 x 100

Bank density =

And

19
Loose density =

Swell (%) = − 1 x 100

Since =

Swell (%) = − 1 x 100

And

Load factor =

Shrinkage

Shrinkage is the term used to describe a reduction in the volume of a material that has been
excavated when it is used to fill an embankment. A small proportion of this loss may be
attributed to spillage during transport from the cut to the fill, but the main loss occurs because
the unit volume of the material is greater when it is in its natural state before it is excavated
than the unit volume after it has been compacted to form an embankment. This shrinkage
factor must be determined for the material concerned and included in the calculations of the
earthworks cost estimate and claims for payment. Shrinkage is usually not applicable to rock
but is significant for most soils. When soil is compacted, there is a volume reduction, but mass
is kept constant.

Shrinkage (%) = 1 − x 100

Bank density =

And

Compacted density =

Shrinkage (%) = 1 − x 100

Since shrinkage factor =

Shrinkage (%) =[1 − 𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟] x 100

Shrinkage factor = 1 – shrinkage/10

Swell

20
Swell is the converse (opposite) of shrinkage. The swell factor is the ratio of embankment
volume to excavation volume greater than one. It is usually only applicable to rock where the
rock in situ unit volume prior to (before) excavation is less than the final compacted
embankment unit volume. This factor should also be included in costing calculations. Swell is
the ratio by which the loose-measure volume is greater than the bank volume after excavation.

What these three conditions of soil basically mean is that the amount of soil that one
excavates from a borrow pit, hole or quarry, Lm3, will be more in volume but less in weight
than the amount of undisturbed soil, Bm3, for one cubic metre of soil.

This is due to the presence of voids of entrapped air and moisture within the disturbed soil. In
other words, if one excavates 1 m3 of in situ soil weighing, say, 1 500 kg/m3, the excavated
material will also weigh 1 500 kg, but its volume will be, say, 1,5 m3. Conversely, when soil is
compacted, making the voids smaller and driving out the air, one requires more soil, Cm3, than
the excavated soil, because the voids are reduced, and the designed moisture content is
achieved by compaction. In other words, the density of the soil decreases (Lm3) with
excavation or increases (Cm3) with compaction from the undisturbed (Bm3) state.

Figure 1-18 illustrates the foregoing notes.

Bulking factor

(1,11 to 1,43)
Compaction

factor
Volume of material to
(0,86 –0,63)
be transported by the
contractor
In-situ or bank volume.
In place in cut or
borrow pit

Volume in place and

Shrinkage compacted
(0,9 – 0,95) (Paid for)

Figure 19-19: Soil state relations

1.10 SOIL CLASSIFCATION

It is clear that there are various kinds of soil. Since there are so many different types of soil, it is
important that the engineer knows what type of soil he is working with, since the type of soil
will determine the properties of the soil. Over many years, various soil classification systems
have been developed, with the aim of grouping soils together based on their properties.

The two common systems of classifying soils are:

21
1) The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Soil
Classification System
2) The Unified Soil Classification System

Both systems are based on the grading (particle distribution) of the soil and the Atterberg
limits of the soil.

The AASHTO classification system

The AASHTO classification system is preferred by road authorities while the Unified Soil
Classification system is preferred by the agricultural sector and geotechnical engineers.

In this study unit, we will focus on the AASHTO soil classification system.

The basic system was originally developed in 1929 by Hogentogler and Terzaghi and was called
the Public Roads Classification System. From 1945 onwards, a lot of the work done by
Professor A. Casagrande was incorporated into this system and this has led to the AASHTO
classification system as we know it today.

Let us look at the characteristics of this system.

a) The system makes provision for eight (8) major soil groups, namely groups A1 to A7 with
subgroups. Sometimes group A8 (organic soils) is also mentioned.
b) The system makes use of the results of a grading analysis as well as Atterberg limits that
are done on the soil.
c) The system divides soil groups as follows, A1 to A3: granular material, which means that
35% or less of the soil particles is passing the 0,075 mm (No 200) sieve, and A4 to A7:
silty-clayey material, which means that more than 35% of the soil particles is passing the
0,075 mm (No 200) sieve.
d) Soils are divided into subgroups according to liquid limit and plastic limit, from which the
Plasticity Index is calculated (Atterberg limits).

Table 1-5 displays the AASHTO classification system.

Table 1-5: AASHTO classification system

22
1.11 COMPACTION

Soil needs to be compacted so that all the air voids are removed and to ensure that as much
solid material is compacted into a certain volume.

To achieve this, the air voids in a volume of soil must be reduced, which means that air voids
that were present in the volume of soil before the compaction effort will be filled with solid
particles after the compaction effort.

Through compaction the volume of soil becomes denser, i.e. the density gets higher.

During soil compaction, it is common practice to add water to the soil as this acts as a
“greasing/lubrication” agent for the soil particles. The addition of moisture results in the soil
particles sliding over each other. The final result is as follows:

 The soil particles will form a structure in which all the particles lie alongside each other
and touch each other
 The original air voids between the large particles present before compaction, will now
be filled with finer particles

It is important to know what amount of water to add for proper compaction. If too little water
is added, the soil will be too dry and the sliding of particles will be limited. If too much water is
added, soil particles are forced away from each other and an uncompactable mud is formed.

23
To obtain the optimum moisture content for compaction, a soil sample is tested to determine
the “Optimum moisture content (OMC)” during the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) test
(discussed in section 5.3)

Compaction is achieved by various types of compaction equipment. Refer to pages 37 – 39 of

the prescribed book for examples of compaction equipment.

1.12 MEASUREMENT OF COMPACTION

Density: In order to understand compaction, one must be aware of the different types of
density and what each type of density refers to.
The density of any soil type is its mass divided by its volume:

∴ Density =

Relative density (RD), also called particle relative density: This is the density of a particle,
relative to the density of water.

Remember that 1 000 litres of water weigh 1 000 kg. Therefore, the RD of water is 1.

Bulk density: This is the mass of soil or aggregate that would fill a container with a capacity of
1 m3 .

Loose bulk density (LBD): This refers to non-compacted soil or aggregate that is just placed,
poured or shovelled into a container of 1 m³.

Consolidated bulk density (CBD), also referred to as compacted bulk density: This refers to
soil or aggregate that is compacted into a 1 m³ container.

Difference between dry density and bulk density: By saying dry density is the mass of solid
material per unit volume of soil, the author means that you must use the DRY MASS of the soil.

If we put that into a formula, it will be:

( )
Dry density = ( )

( )
Bulk density = ( )

Remember that density is mass divided by volume. Therefore:

Volume =

1.13 DEVELOPMENT OF QUARRY

24
Quarries are important sources of construction materials. Aggregate for concrete and road
construction materials are obtained from quarries.

Dust control

Quarries are the source of natural soils, which are used in construction. The control of dust is
not restricted to quarries alone, but also extends to construction sites where dust, aggravated
by the wind, has a serious effect on the surrounding area, both environmentally and
socioeconomically. Residents within the immediate vicinity of such a site will be negatively
influenced and communication channels should be established with them to deal with the
impact of the construction operation for the period of its duration. The project may be
required to repaint or clean certain properties due to the construction operation. It is
therefore necessary to ensure as effective a dust control policy as possible. The following
measures will help to keep the dust down:

• Keeping the earth moist by applying water by means of a water tank.

• Retaining as much natural vegetation for as long as possible.
• Limiting the size of the stockpile and the periods of stockpiling.
• Regularly removing temporarily stockpiled (stored) material to spoil where applicable.
• Moistening the stockpiled material during loading by spraying.
• Producing an efficient execution of earthworks to ensure there is no prolonged activity.
• Applying common sense – do not load or move soil in extremely windy conditions.
• Providing earth berms (raised area of ground) around the quarry to break wind velocity.

1.14 STABILISATION SECTION

Suitability of soil for construction

Soil is a natural material, which is found in abundance. Although abundantly available, some
soils may not be suitable for use in construction. It may either be too sandy, too clayey or the
grading may not be suitable.

When unsuitable soils are encountered, the following options are available:

1) Move construction to a more suitable site.

2) Modify the design of the project so that structures can still be constructed on the soil.
3) Import good quality soil and spoil the poor quality soil.
4) Improve the poor soil’s characteristics.

To import entails hauling away the poor soil and hauling in good quality soil. This is expensive,
especially when the haul distances are long. It therefore makes sense from an economical
perspective to improve the properties of the in-situ soil if possible.

Stabilising the soil

25
The process of improving the properties of soil to match the design parameters of the project
is called stabilisation.

The purpose of soil stabilisation is normally to increase the durability and bearing capability
(strength) of the soil. Soil stabilisation can also be used to resist soil erosion or dust formation.

The end goal of soil stabilisation is to alter the soil properties of the soil in such a way that over
time the soil stays in the same place and in the same shape as when it was initially constructed.

Soil stabilisation is achieved in two ways:

1) Mechanical stabilisation is when the properties of the soil are changed physically. This
could entail using heavy construction equipment or by adding additional soil or
aggregate to change the grading of the soil. Another option is to add soil cement to the
soil, which alters the soil without changing the soil on a chemical level.
2) Chemical stabilisation is a process through which the soil is chemically modified.
Materials like cement, lime, bitumen and chemical additives are used to improve the
properties of the soil.

Both these stabilisation methods are discussed in the prescribed book, however, some of the
chemical stabilisation methods are described in more detail below:

1.6.1 Cement stabilisation

Cement and lime are the most commonly used chemical stabilisers. In the past, Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC), which was invented in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, was used for
stabilisation. During the past few years, the classification for cement and cement blends has
changed.

OPC used to be specified under SABS Standard 471. The new specification is contained in SABS
EN 197-1. The cement normally used for chemical stabilisation is specified as (former
specification stated first):

1) 100 % OPC: CEM I, with grades from 32,5 to 52,5 MPa

2) Masonry cement (like wallcrete): CEM II A and B-L and LL, where limestone is added.
3) Composite cement: CEM V A and B, where blast furnace slag and/or fly-ash and/or
Pozzolane is added.

Stabilising with cement results primarily in cementation of the soil, where a lattice is formed
throughout the soil due to the hydration (reaction with water) of the cement particles. During
hydration, calcium hydroxide is released which results in the chemical component of
stabilisation.

The amount of clay decreases when cement or lime is added, which results in a reduction of
the Plasticity Index (PI) of the soil. Because the calcium ions formed during the cementation
process are taken up by the clay particles present in the soil, it is advisable to use cement as a
stabiliser on soils with a PI of less than 10, which means that not much clay is present in the
soil. Because lime is cheaper than cement it is advisable to use lime as a stabilisation agent
when the PI of the soil is higher than 10%.

26
Stabilising with cement results in compounds, which require a high pH to be present in the soil
for long-term durability. The formation of calcium hydroxide results in an increase in pH
throughout the soil where cement is added, which helps with the long-term durability of the
cementitious products formed during the stabilisation process.

Care should be taken when selecting cement to be used for chemical stabilisation. Cement has
become so expensive that producers are developing different types of blended cement. These
blended cements still need to be tested for suitability for chemical stabilisation. If no or very
limited history is available for a product, that product should be avoided as a stabiliser.

Normally, not more that 4% of cement is added during stabilisation. Care should also be taken
when stabilising with cement in cold regions as the drop in temperature slows down the
cementation reaction. The cement reaction will not take place under temperatures below 5ºC.
Very high temperatures will also have an effect on the reaction of the cement as this will speed
up the reaction. Rather seek the advice of an expert who has experience in stabilisation. A lot
can go wrong with stabilisation if the person in charge is not knowledgeable with stabilisation
processes.

1.6.2 Lime stabilisation

There are two types of lime suitable for stabilisation:

1) Hydrated lime and

2) Unhydrated lime or quicklime

Hydrated lime is used most frequently. If less than 2% of hydrated lime is used, the soil will be
mechanically modified. If 2 to 4 % of lime is used, the soil will be stabilised on a chemical level.

The use of unhydrated lime is limited as this product is highly caustic (which means it can
cause burns to human tissue) and dangerous to use. Hydrated lime is supplied in bags or in
bulk while unhydrated lime is only supplied in bulk. Unhydrated lime is manufactured by
heating limestone, for which the chemical formula is CaCO3, or dolomite, for which the
chemical formula is CaCO3·MgCO3.

This process forms as a result of calcium oxide combining with different percentages of
magnesium oxide. When this product is treated with steam or water, hydrated lime is formed,
which mostly consists of calcium hydroxide. Depending on the initial percentage of
magnesium carbonate present in the heated dolomite, a sufficient amount of magnesium
hydroxide can form, which is less reactive than calcium hydroxide. It is therefore important to
know the percentage of calcium hydroxide in the lime that is to be used for stabilisation.

If a soil has a high clay content (i.e., the plasticity index is more than 10), it is preferable to use
lime for stabilisation. Clay consists of atoms, two of which are hydrogen and sodium. When
clay particles come into contact with calcium hydroxide, a process called ion-exchange takes
place in which the sodium and calcium ions are exchanged. The sodium is replaced by a
calcium ion on the clay particle.

27
A sodium ion is much smaller than a calcium ion. Therefore, there is space for the sodium ion
to hold more water molecules: 79 water molecules for sodium, compared to 2 for calcium.
When sodium was present in the clay structure, the clay in the soil used to attract a lot of
water before stabilisation. After stabilisation, when the sodium is exchanged with calcium, the
clay particle cannot hold as much water. The soil has a much lower affinity for water and will
dry out quickly, which results in a decrease of the liquid limit and the Plasticity Index.

An additional benefit of the stabilisation process is that the calcium atoms on the surface of
the clay particles attract each other strongly, which ensures that there are also stronger
attraction forces between the clay particles. This is known as flocculation and it aids in
lowering the Plasticity Index of the soil. If sufficient time is left for the lime to react with the
clay, the remaining lime will be used in the cementation process. The combined cementation,
ion-exchange and flocculation process ensures that the resultant stabilised soil has a higher
bearing capacity.

1.6.3 Bitumen stabilisation

Emulsions are materials in a water solution in which bitumen is dissolved. Bitumen does not
naturally dissolve in water and therefore an emulsifying agent needs to be added. Depending
on the type of emulsifying agent used, the bitumen emulsion will either be a positively charged
(cationic) emulsion or a negatively charged (anionic) emulsion.

Soil particles are either negatively or positively charged, depending on the parent rock from
which the soil is formed. This can result in compaction problems, since the charges on the
particles can be strong enough to repel each other. This results in the soil not compressing
optimally under compaction as the charges on the particles can be strong enough for the
particles to repel each other.

By adding an emulsion with an opposite charge to that of the particles in the soil, a bridge is
formed between the soil particles and the emulsion acts as a stabilising agent. A strong bond
can now be formed between the soil particles and the density and bearing capacity of the soil
will be increased.

An emulsion with an opposite charge can be added to the soil as a stabiliser that will form a
bridge between the particles. In this way a strong bond can be formed between the particles
which, together with the bitumen added, will increase the density of the soil.

1.6.4 Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) for stabilisation

When iron is refined from iron ore in a blast furnace, a layer of slag forms at the bottom of the
furnace. A granular material results from quenching this material in water. When this granular
material is milled to a fine powder it forms a product, which is called ground granulated blast-
furnace slag (GGBS).

GGBS is not reactive on its own and needs a high pH to become reactive. This is why GGBS is
mixed with cement or lime as these increase the pH of the mix, which will ensure that GGBS
becomes reactive. GBBS will have the same stabilisation effect as cement, if the pH of GBBS is
high enough.

28
1.6.5 Fly ash for stabilisation

Fly ash is a by-product, which is formed in electrical power stations where coal is burned to
generate electricity. Fly ash doesn’t react as a stabiliser on its own. It is a pozzolanic material (a
silicate-based material that reacts with calcium hydroxide generated during cement hydration
and in the process forms cementitious materials) that contains high amounts of silicon and
aluminium and is able to react with lime. Therefore, it can be used as a chemically active
stabilising agent.

1.15 MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY

1.15.1 Maximum dry density test

The test for Maximum Dry Density (MDD) is one of the most important tests in soil mechanics.
The following is a basic introduction to the test.

The test determines the maximum density that can be achieved under controlled
circumstances (i.e. in a soil laboratory). Once the laboratory test is performed, the density of
soils compacted on the construction site, can also be determined. The density of the soils on
site will almost always be less than the density that was determined in the laboratory. The in-
situ density (i.e. the density of the soil on the construction site) is expressed as a percentage of
the maximum dry density as determined in the laboratory. This is then used as a compaction
specification in construction contract documents and drawings.

Road construction example

Road pavements are in general constructed from gravel layers of 150 mm thick. Construction
equipment compacts the soil so that as many soil particles as possible are compacted into a
certain volume of the road layer. The aim is therefore to increase the density and bearing
capacity of the soil.

The maximum number of particles of soil that can be compacted into a certain volume has
been determined in the soil laboratory before compaction. It is important to note that the soil
sample used for laboratory testing is a sample obtained from the soil that is to be compacted
in the field (that is an “in situ” soil sample).

If the specification for a road layer is that it must be compacted to 98% of relative density, it
means that the soil must reach a density of 98% relative to the density of this soil as
determined in the laboratory (which is taken as 100%).

The test in the soil laboratory is done under optimum conditions which means that the test
was done under conditions that are much better than those on a construction site.

Calibration and Optimum moisture content

Calibration and determination of the optimum moisture content is based on SANS 3001-GR31
(previously Test methods for Highways (TMH) method number A7). In this test, a cylindrical

29
mould is used in which as much as possible soil is compacted. The volume of this mould is
known, since this is the volume that is used in further calculations during the test.

Calibration

In order to perform accurate calculations later during the test procedure, the mould must be
calibrated, and the following steps need to be followed:

1. The mould is cleaned before the calibration process starts and a mould reference number
is painted on the mould.

NB: The reference number is important since one needs to keep track of the mould during
testing.
In commercial laboratories, hundreds of these moulds are used and every one of these is
calibrated separately.

2. The mould is weighed on a scale and the mass is noted to 2 decimal points.
3. A glass plate will also be used and it must therefore be weighed.
4. The mass of the glass plate is also noted to 2 decimal points.
5. The following procedure is applied during use of the scale, so that the mould is not moved:
 The mould is placed on a baseplate with a known weight.
 The gap between the baseplate and the mould is sealed with wax.
 The baseplate, glass plate and mould are weighed together.
 The mould is then filled with water until it is full, and the glass plate is placed on top of
the mould.

NB: No air bubbles are allowed under the glass plate.

 The total weight of the baseplate, mould, glass plate and water is recorded.
 The weight of the baseplate, mould and glass plate is subtracted from the total
weight.
 The weight of the water, if measured in gram, is divided by 1 000 to get the weight
of the water in kilogram.
 Since 1 kilogram of water is equal to 1 litre, the volume of the mould can be
calculated.

Optimum moisture content

A mechanical hammer is used for this test. The purpose of the test is to determine the
percentage of water that has to be added to the soil to result in the highest density that this
soil can reach.

A soil sample, which has been obtained from the construction site, is compacted by a
mechanical hammer according to SANS 3001-GR31 (previously TMH method number A7).

Different samples (normally not more than 5 samples) are compacted at different water
contents in increments of 0,5%. The weight of every sample is recorded, and the density is
calculated (ρ = V/M).

30
A graph is drawn where the x-axis represents the moisture content in percentage, and the y-
axis represents the density in kg/m³. Refer to figure 1-19.

2390

2380

2370

2360
Dry Density (kg/m^3)

2350

2340

2330

2320

2310

2300
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Moisture Content (%)

Figure 20-20: Moisture-density graph

For the above graph, the density of the soil was determined at 4 different moisture contents,
namely 4%, 4,5%, 5% and 5,5%, in 0,5% increments. At a moisture content of 5,5%, the dry
density is again at a lower value than the previous value and this is normally the point at which
the testing is stopped. The graph shows that this soil will reach the highest density of 2 380
kg/m³ at an optimum moisture content of 5%.

1.16 UNIT 1 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1) From what parent rock is marble formed?

2) Draw an annotated sketch to indicate the layers of the earth.

3) Discuss the process of how soil is formed.

4) What is the difference between magma and lava?

5) Show, with the aid of a diagram, how the three different basic types of rock are formed.

Indicate the following on the diagram:

31
  The names of the three different kinds of rock.
 The agents and processes that cause the change from one type of rock to another

6) Describe how the following rock types are formed:

 Basalt

 Porphyry

 Granite

7) Name four examples of sedimentary rock.

8) Describe how the following types of rock are formed:

 Conglomerate

 Limestone

 Metamorphic rock

 Schist

 Slate

9) From what rock is quartzite formed?

10) From which rocks is gneiss formed?

11) Why are metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks harder than sedimentary rocks?

12) Provide the formula for density.

13) Explain what specific gravity of a material is and how it is used when comparing
materials.

14) Discuss what apparent density is and how the term is used in describing the density of
crushed stone materials.

15) Discuss what compaction of a soil is.

16) How does compaction influence the density of a soil?

17) Name the four ways of compacting soils.

18) What test is used to determine the density of a soil sample in a soils laboratory?

19) Discuss how a grading or particle distribution test is performed on soil.

20) What formula is used to calculate the Plasticity Index (PI) of a soil?

21) What is a non-plastic soil?

22) Discuss the following terms, which are associated with the Plasticity Index of a soil:

32
 a) Liquid limit
b) Plastic limit

23) How is the Plastic limit and the Shrinkage limit of a soil determined?

24) The following are results obtained in a soil laboratory for a liquid and a Plastic limit test:

Liquid limit test results

Test no 1 2 3
Mass of container (g) 17,12 31,63 17,08
Mass of container with wet soil (g) 35,4 33,69 35,51
Mass of container with dry soil (g) 32,56 31,65 33,7
Number of taps (Cassagrande apparatus) 18 27 33
Plastic limit test results
Test no 1 2 3
Mass of container (g) 16,35 16,05 16,15
Mass of container with wet soil (g) 26,53 25,98 25,55
Mass of container with dry soil (g) 25,25 24,7 24,31

a) Determine the Liquid limit of the soil.

b) Determine the Plastic limit of the soil.

c) Determine the Plasticity Index of the soil.

25) Name four choices a designer has when he/she encounters a soil that is unsuitable for
construction purposes.

26) Discuss two methods of soil stabilisation.

27) Name four methods of stabilising a soil mechanically.

28) Discuss compaction as a mechanical method to stabilise soil.

29) Discuss blending as a mechanical method to stabilise soil.

30) Discuss soil-cement as a mechanical method to stabilise soil.

31) Name five commonly used chemical stabilisers.

32) Discuss cement as a chemical method to stabilise soil.

33) Discuss lime as a chemical method to stabilise soil.

34) Discuss ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) as a chemical method to stabilise
soil.

35) Discuss fly ash (FA) as a chemical method to stabilise soil.

36) Discuss bituminous materials as a chemical method to stabilise soil.

33
37) The following shows the grading and Atterberg limits of soil samples A, B and C: (Check
your answers against the example in the notes)

Classify the samples according to the AASHTO classification system.

Sample Sample Sample

A B B
Grading: % passing
2,00 mm sieve 72 8802 75
0,425 mm sieve 10 44 45
0,075 mm sieve 19 25 43
Atterberg limits:
Liquid limit 12 28 50
Plastic limit 6 13 15
Plasticity Index (to be
calculated)

34
UNIT 2 – CONCRETE

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO UNIT

This guide, along with the prescribed textbook provide a good introduction to concrete
material. However, I encourage you to read wider. The Concrete Institute (Midrand, Gauteng)
provides excellent additional resources, which are free and is available on the institute’s web
page: http://www.theconcreteinstitute.org.za/. Go to “Resources & Publications” on the home
page and double-click on “Leaflets”.

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE

Refer to section 2.1 in your prescribed textbook for detailed information on this topic.
Advantages of concrete are:
1) When concrete is not in a hardened state it can be cast in any desired shape. These
include:
 bridges
 parking structures
 barriers
 foundations
 roads
 columns
 beams
 architectural structures, etc
2) The design of concrete makes provision for many different types of concrete of which
properties like strength, durability, resistance to environmental elements, workability,
etc. can be varied according to need.
3) Concrete can withstand very harsh situations and is able to resist very high
temperatures. It can even be used in radioactive environments without sustaining any
damage.
4) Concrete can be used as a part of an architectural design while simultaneously being part
of the structural integrity of the design. Concrete can also be very pleasing aesthetically.

2.3 GENERAL CONCRETE SPECIFICATIONS

Refer to section 2.2 in your prescribed textbook for detailed information on this topic.

Concrete mixtures may differ based on consistency or workability of the mix. Let us now look
at properties of concrete at the following different stages of setting:

35
 Fresh concrete
 Hardened concrete
 Concrete at an early age

Consistency

Consistency is a measure of how easily a wet mix flows. It is determined by the wetness
(sloppiness) or dryness (stiffness) of the mix. Consistency and cohesiveness are concrete
properties that are related to the workability of the mix.
Generally, the workability of concrete is better when it is wet than dry, but it is possible for
concrete mixes of the same consistency to have different workabilities.
Water content is the main factor that influences the consistency of a concrete mix. Various
tests to determine the consistency of a concrete mix are normally performed to control the
water content and the water to cement ratio (w:c). If the tests indicate that the mix falls
outside of the specifications, the mix design must be revised by adjusting the water content.
The resulting strength of the concrete mix after the change in water content of the concrete
mix must be investigated before the design has been implemented on site.

2.3.1 Properties of fresh concrete

Refer to section 2.2.3 in the prescribed textbook for an introduction to the properties of fresh
concrete.

It is also important to note that the time in which the concrete sets is dependent on the
following:

 Temperature at which the hydration reaction (the chemical reaction during with the
compounds in cement react with water) takes place
 The amount and type of cement that is used for the concrete mix
 If admixtures are used, the amount and type of admixture/s that is/are used in the
concrete mix

It is very important to know the properties of fresh concrete and how admixtures can influence
these properties, so that concrete can be handled correctly during construction. Below is the
list of important properties of fresh concrete:

1) Workability
2) Consistency (refer to section 2.2.2 of the prescribed book)
3) Cohesiveness
4) Bleeding
5) Plastic cracking
6) Density

36
7) Air content

Workability
Refer to p83 in the prescribed book for the definition of the term workability.

A workable mix will have the following attributes:

 The concrete can be transported easily to and on the construction site

 It is easy to place into formwork and flows easily within the formwork
 The concrete can be compacted with ease with the available equipment on site. Most
of the air should be expelled from the concrete during construction
 It is easily finished-off

To hold the fresh concrete in place while its sets, it is placed in a formwork in order to shape it
while it is still in a workable state. The equipment used for this purpose is termed a formwork.

Formwork: Formwork consists of steel plates or wood shutters that keep the wet concrete in
place until the concrete sets.

Finishing of concrete: The exposed surfacing of concrete is finished off during construction, as
per the contract specifications.

Workability cannot be measured directly, but the slump test, described on page 94 of the
prescribed book, is used to assess workability.

Note: Never attempt to improve the workability of a concrete mix by adding water. This will
result in a less durable and lower strength concrete.

Consistency
Refer to section 2.2.3 of the prescribed book for a discussion of consistency.
A reduction of consistency (also known as slump loss), can take place if the concrete mix takes
too long to be transported to site or if the concrete truck stands on site for a long time before
the concrete is poured. The mix loses moisture and becomes too stiff, which results in the mix
not being able to be placed and compacted properly.

The main causes of slump loss are:

 Dry aggregates that absorb water from the mix

 Dry surfaces that is in contact with the mix
 Loss of water due to evaporation from the mix
 Loss of water due to extended time needed for the hydration of the cement reaction to
take place

37
Slump loss can be planned for by mixing a batch of concrete with a higher slump. The slump
will then decrease before the concrete is placed. Water should not be added to the concrete
mix to improve workability, since this may influence the strength of the mix.

Cohesiveness
Segregation in concrete causes a phenomenon known as honeycombing. Figure 1-2 shows
examples of honeycombing in concrete segregation. This means that some of the bigger
particles in the concrete mix separates from the rest of the mix.

Figure 2-1: Concrete honeycombing examples

Bleeding
Refer to page 89 of the prescribed textbook for a detailed discussion on bleeding.
There are two types of bleeding:

 Visible bleeding: Heavy aggregates settle downwards to the bottom of the concrete
mix and some of the water rises to the top of the mix.
 Internal bleeding: Some water gets trapped near the surface of aggregates or
reinforcement

Figure 2-2 shows visible bleeding on the surface of the wet concrete.

38
 Figure 2-2: Visible bleeding

The common causes of bleeding are:

1) Excessive water content
2) Lack of fine aggregates (minus 300 μm material) in the sand
3) Over vibration, in combination with the above factors

The following steps can be taken to limit bleeding:

1) Increase the proportion of minus-300 μm material in the mix
2) Increase the cementitious content by using CSF or a very finely ground GGBS
3) Reduce the water content which will give a lower slump
4) Use an air-entraining admixture (refer to page 116 of the prescribed textbook)

The following are measures, which can be used on site to reduce the damaging effects of
bleeding:

1) Finishing of the surface must not be done until bleeding has stopped and all surface
water has evaporated
2) The mix must not be over-vibrated
3) Remove cement foam (laitance) from the surface by washing and brushing the surface
4) Recompact the concrete mix within two hours or within the time the mix can still be
compacted, without causing damage

Plastic cracking
Plastic cracking in concrete, is cracking that occurs while the concrete is still plastic (when the
concrete is still busy hardening). There are two types of plastic cracking:
1) Plastic shrinkage cracking

39
2) Plastic settlement cracking

Plastic shrinkage cracking

This type of cracking is the result of rapid moisture loss. They most commonly occur in
reinforced and unreinforced horizontal slabs, and form cracks that are roughly parallel and 200
to 600 mm apart.

When the evaporation rate is higher than the bleeding rate, the concrete surface loses water,
which results in volume reduction in the concrete. Since the concrete is already starting to set,
stresses build up, which lead to cracks.

Figure 2-3 below shows plastic shrinkage cracks, which run parallel to each other.

Figure 2-3: Plastic shrinkage cracks

The rate of evaporation of the surface water can increase if the following happens:

1) A quicker cement hydration process, which increases the temperature in the mix
2) High air temperatures and wind speeds during construction
3) Dry air conditions (when air has a low humidity)

Plastic shrinkage cracking can be prevented by taking the following steps:

1) Schedule concrete construction operations for cooler periods of the day (likely early
morning) if the maximum daytime temperatures are high
2) Erect wind breaks and sun shades if wind speeds are high to protect the concrete from
the elements

40
3) Keep the concrete surface damp
4) Apply a curing compound to the concrete surface
5) Cover the concrete with plastic sheeting once finishing-off is complete

Plastic settlement cracking

After the concrete has been compacted, there is a tendency for solid particles to settle and
displace some mixing water, which then rises to the surface (bleeding). If this settlement of
solid particles is restrained plastic settlement cracking can occur.

Restraint may be present in the form of reinforcement, especially top bars in beams and slabs,
stirrups in columns, and changes in direction of formwork, e.g. in T-beams.
Density of fresh concrete

The density of a fresh concrete mix depends mainly on the density of the aggregates, the
amount of water in the mix, the air content and the degree of compaction.

The density of well compacted concrete can vary from 2 360 kg/m³ (granite aggregate) to 2
600 kg/ m³ (dolerite aggregate).

Water content changes of 10 l/m³ will alter the density of the concrete mix with approximately
15 kg/m3. If the air content in the concrete mix is increased by 1%, the density of the mix will
be reduced by about 25 kg/m3.

Air content

Even after compaction, a small percentage of air will remain within the concrete, which is
typically between 0,5 and 1%. This entrapped air is not the same air that is entrained in the
concrete mix with the aid of entraining admixtures. If entraining admixtures are used, the air
content must be closely monitored.

2.3.2 Properties of concrete at an early age

Refer to section 2.2.5 in the prescribed textbook for more detail on this topic.

Thermal cracking

During concrete mixing, cement comes into contact with water and fibres grow on the cement
particles due to the hydration reaction between the cement and the water. This reaction
generates heat and therefore the temperature of the concrete mix increases. Concrete will
expand and contract with changes in temperature. If the movement of the concrete due to
contraction is not restrained, it will lead to cracking. These cracks are called shrinkage cracks
and they also occur because of volume changes resulting from the concrete drying out due to
heat and due to different temperatures within the concrete.

41
Temperatures in concrete depend on the following:

1) The type of cement used in the concrete mix: Extenders in cement will have a lower or
slower hydration reaction which will result in less heat being generated
2) The cement content: The more cement present in the concrete mix, the higher the
hydration reaction will be (if enough mixing water is present) which will result in the
generation of more heat
4) The weather conditions during construction: Air temperature, wind speed and humidity
5) The thickness of the concrete
6) The type of formwork

The movement of concrete should be constrained during construction to ensure that shrinkage
cracking is kept to a minimum.

The following can reduce the occurrence of thermal cracking:

1) Using cement extenders such as GGBS or fly-ash

2) Keeping the cement content as low as possible
3) Keeping the concrete as cool as possible
4) Cooling the concrete during mixing. In extreme cases, ice, instead of water, can be used
5) Placing the concrete in thin layers
6) Insulating the surface of the concrete in order to reduce temperature differences within
the concrete

2.3.3 Properties of hardened concrete

Strength of concrete

Hard concrete has high compressive strength and low tensile and shear strength. Study figures
2-4 and 2-5 below, for an illustration of the interaction between compressive and tensile
strength.

Figure 2-4: Compressive and tensile forces

42
 Figure 2-5: Compression and tension in a concrete beam

In sections where tensile forces are present, reinforcement is used to carry the tensile forces
(i.e. forces that pull a structure apart). Reinforcement is also placed within concrete in areas of
the structure where shear forces are high. We will discuss reinforcement of concrete later in
this study unit.

Compressive strength

Compressive strength is defined as the resistance to crushing of a hardened, plane-ended

concrete sample. Compressive strength is measured by performing a cube test on the concrete
sample.

Refer to page 92 in the prescribed book for a discussion on the cube test.

2.4 MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE

Refer to section 2.3 in the prescribed textbook for more detail on this topic.

2.4.1 Cement

Classification of cement

Refer to section 2.3.1 in the prescribed textbook for more detail on this topic.

The prescribed book provides a short discussion on the classification of cement on pages 100–
102. I have expanded this discussion for you below:

The family of common cements is classified according to SABS standard EN 197-1. This
standard defines the following products:

43
  CEM I: Portland cement (contains 95-100% Portland cement)
 CEMII: Portland cement blended with one of the following: slag, silica fume, pozzolana,
fly-ash, shale or limestone (contains more than 65% Portland cement)
 CEM III: Portland cement blended with blast furnace slag (contains less than 65%
Portland cement)
 CEM IV: Portland cement blended with pozzolana (contains between 45 and 89%
Portland cement)
 CEM V: Composite cement of Portland cement, blast furnace slag, pozzolana and fly-
ash

Hydration of cement

The hydration reaction occurs in the following three stages:

Stage 1: Short fibres start forming, but the concrete mix is still workable. This stage happens
within the first 45 minutes after pouring the concrete.
Stage 2: The fibres continue growing and are starting to interlock. The workability of the mix
reduces at this stage. This stage happens within 45 minutes to 2 hours after pouring the
concrete.
Stage 3: The fibres have now fully interlocked and therefore the concrete mix is not workable
anymore and is setting. This stage happens 2 to 4 hours after pouring the concrete.

The hydration process causes the concrete mix to heat. As discussed earlier in section 2.2.2,
steps must be taken to ensure that cracks do not form due to excessive heat and temperature
differentials (variations) in the mix.

Curing

Water is crucial for the hydration process, which in turn is crucial for concrete to reach full
strength. Once the water in a mix is depleted, the hydration process stops, and the concrete
will not reach its maximum strength. It is therefore advisable to ensure that there is sufficient
water available in the mix. This can be achieved by leaving a layer of water on top of the
concrete after construction so that additional water moves through the concrete capillaries.
Capillaries are small holes in the mix, which are interconnected. Evaporation of water from the
mix, caused by hydration heat and weather conditions, should also be prevented. The process
of ensuring that there is enough water present and that water does not evaporate from the
mix is called curing.

Let us look at some curing methods below:

1) Water: Leave a permanent layer of water on top of the concrete surface, which will lead
to more water being available for the cementing reaction. When using water as a curing
method, care must be taken not to use water that is too cold. As the cementing reaction
frees a lot of heat, the concrete will be reasonably warm and water that is too cold can
lead to thermal shock, which could result in damage to the concrete surface.

44
2) Impervious sheeting material: Limits evaporation and protects against the environment.
It is the most cost-effective and commonly used method of curing.
3) Curing compound: This compound prevents concrete from rapidly drying out before the
concrete hardens. It therefore helps to prevent shrinkage cracking and excessive heat
build-up.
4) The formwork: Formwork protects the concrete from weather conditions and prevents
deformation during the early stages.
5) Insulation: Once the concrete has set sufficiently, the formwork can be replaced by
insulating material to protect the concrete against thermal shock caused by the
environment (wind, cold, heat, etc).
6) Steam: Steam curing accelerates the rate of strength gain of the concrete. Special care
must be taken as this curing method can lead to excessive expansion of the concrete as
well as surface cracking. This is mainly used in the pre-casting industry.

2.4.2 Extenders

We now look at the following three cement extenders:

 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)

 Condensed silica fume (CSF)
 Fly ash (FA)

Cement is an expensive component of concrete and therefore it is blended with extenders to

make the cement more cost-effective, whilst not compromising on the strength of the final
concrete product. Extenders are mostly industrial waste products and are therefore relatively
cheap.

Study table 2-1 below to learn about the effects of the different extenders.

Table 2-1: Effects of extenders summary

Effect of extender
Extender
type Fresh Concrete Hardened Concrete
• Improves workability slightly • Slows development of strength
• Retards setting slightly • Increases later age strength
• Reduced permeability
GBBS
• Increases rate of carbonisation
• Reduces generation of heat during cementing
reaction
• Improves workability • Slightly reduces rate of strength development
• Reduces water requirements for given
slump •Increases later age strength
FA • Retards setting slightly • Reduces permeability
• Improves sulphate resistance
• Reduces generation of heat during cementing
reaction
• Reduces workability • Increases strength
CSF
• Increases cohesiveness • Reduces permeability

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 • Reduces bleeding significantly

2.4.3 Water

Refer to section 2.3.2 in the prescribed textbook for more detail on this topic.

The water used in a concrete mix must be potable, which means it must be clean and
drinkable. Care must be taken to ensure that water that meets the specification, is sourced
whilst construction is taking place. The concrete mix design must make sufficient provision for
water used during the hydration process. And therefore, the water:cement ratio must be
accurately determined.

2.4.4 Aggregate

Refer to a discussion on aggregates for use in concrete covered on page 113, section 2.3.3 of
the prescribed book.

Figures 2-6 and 2-7 show examples of course and fine aggregates for use in concrete mixes.

Figure 2-6: Course aggregates for concrete mixes

46
 Figure 2-7: Fine aggregates for concrete mixes

2.3.5 Admixtures

Refer to a discussion on admixtures covered on page 116, section 2.3.4 of the prescribed book.
In addition to the functions of admixtures listed on page 116 of your prescribed textbook, I have
added the following(1):
1) To overcome difficult construction situations, such as hot or cold concrete placement
and/or pumping requirements
2) To make the setting time, according to what is needed
3) To reduce segregation (separation of big aggregate particles from the total mass) in the
concrete mix
4) Increase or decrease the slump of a concrete mix according to need
5) Increase the rate of strength gain at early age
6) Increase the final strength of the concrete mix, without adding more cement
7) Increase the durability of a concrete mix
8) Increase the resistance of the concrete mix to harsh exposure conditions
9) Decrease the permeability (voids) of the concrete mix
10) Increase the bond between the concrete and the reinforcing steel
11) Increase the bond between new and existing concrete
12) Inhibit corrosion of the steel present in the concrete
13) Reduce bleeding
14) Produce concrete with a different colour

Refer to page 116 of the textbook for a discussion on the following:

 Water-reducing admixtures

47
 Super plasticiser
 Retarders
 Accelerators
 Air-entraining admixtures

In the following sections, I provide you with an in-depth discussion of the admixtures listed
above.

Water-reducing admixtures (WRA) or plasticisers

These admixtures are added to the concrete mix to improve the workability of the concrete
mix without changing the water to cement (w:c) ratio of the mix. It results in the slump of the
concrete mix increasing, without adding water to the mix. The mix therefore becomes more
fluid/workable.
Alternatively, these admixtures can be used to reduce the water content, whilst the slump
remains the same. Therefore, if the same w:c ratio is required, it means that the amount of
cement can also be reduced.
WRAs can also improve durability, be used to control setting time and help in ensuring a better
finish is easier achieved.

Super plasticisers

The difference between plasticisers and super plasticisers is that super plasticisers can reduce
the water content up to 30%, without causing extreme retardation (retardation means slowing
of the hydration reaction). When super plasticisers are used in concrete mixes, it causes the
mix to be highly flowable (and with a high slump) and self-levelling. These kinds of mixes are
used for constructing high strength concrete structures, which are heavily reinforced and
where the use of compaction is difficult/not possible. The w:c ratio for mixes with super
plasticisers is usually 0,3 to 0,4.

Retarding admixtures

Retarding admixtures delay the setting time of concrete mixes by decreasing the speed of the
hydration reaction in the concrete mix. They are used in the following cases:

 When high temperatures during construction increase the setting time or decrease the
28-day strength
 When there is a long delay between mix production and delivery to site, usually due to
long distances from the concrete plant to the site

Accelerating admixtures

Accelerating admixtures are used to increase the rate of early strength development in a
concrete mix and/or to decrease the setting time of a concrete mix.

The advantages of using accelerators are:

48
 1) Construction can take place in cool conditions
2) Formwork can be removed earlier
3) Finishing of concrete can take place earlier
4) The concrete can be loaded earlier (with approval from the designer)

Since drying shrinkage can be a problem when using accelerants, care should be taken when
using these admixtures.

Air-entraining admixtures

Air-entraining admixtures entrain small air bubbles in the concrete.

Advantages of air-entraining admixtures are:

1) They improve cohesion of the concrete mix

2) They reduce bleeding as space is supplied for the water that would normally bleed to the
surface
3) Improved workability, which offsets the minimal strength loss of the concrete mix
because of the introduction of air bubbles
4) Improved resistance to the freeze/thaw cycle in cold regions. This is usually not a
problem in South Africa

General note on admixtures

A qualified and experienced person must always oversee the use of admixtures. If care is not
taken, overdosing concrete mixes will lead to major problems with the concrete and could also
lead to major financial losses for the contractor. It should also be noted that admixtures cannot
be used to compensate for using poor quality materials or bad practice.

2.5 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Refer to an introductory discussion on concrete mix design in your prescribed book, section 2.5
on pages 118 and 119. On page 118, you will find more information on the following:
For a mix design to be good, it should encapsulate the following:

 Fresh concrete must be easily transported, without segregation and setting (hardening)
taking place.
 The concrete mix must be easy to shape into the required form and to be compacted.
 The hardened concrete must achieve its design strength, must be durable and able to
withstand the design loads during the design period.

For each concrete mix, the materials constituting the mix differ because they come from
different sources. Therefore, the density, shape, texture and other properties of the materials
vary considerably for each mix.

49
This variation in materials is one factor that makes concrete mix design challenging. Due to the
challenges, “eye-ball” mixes are often used. This entails the use of a generic mix design, which
is later adapted by an experienced designer to improve the design.

Concrete mixes are either specified by volume or by mass. The specification is based on the
ratios of the different constituents to each other. When specifying by volume, the design is
proved as 1:2:3, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand and 3 parts aggregate will be used.
For simple mixes, this will entail that one wheelbarrow of cement, 2-wheelbarrows of sand and
3 wheelbarrows of aggregate is used. Water is then added until the consistency is correct. As
can be seen, this procedure can be followed for simple mixes, for instance, for the construction
of floor slabs for garden structures. For bridges and high-rise structures, a proper mix design
procedure needs to be followed.

Refer to pages 119 – 123 of the prescribed book for a detailed discussion on the basic mix
design procedure covering steps 1 – 5.

Let us look at additional steps 6 – 8 below:

Step 6: Produce a trial mix

Mix a sample of the concrete according to the quantities calculated in the previous steps. A
mix of approximately 20l should be sufficient.

Step 7: Assess the stone content and cohesiveness of the concrete

An experienced person should take the following steps to assess the concrete:

 During the slump test, the stones should move away from the tamping rod with ease.
When doing the slump test, the stones should easily move away from the tamping rod.
If a grating sound is heard and it is difficult to compact the concrete in the cone, it is
possible that the stone content is too high.

 On completion of the slump test, tap the base plate with the tamping rod. If the heap
of concrete collapses in one solid mass, the concrete is cohesive. If the heap of
concrete breaks apart in more portions, the concrete mix lacks cohesion.

 Transfer a portion of the concrete mix to a container, i.e. a bucket. Smooth the surface
of the concrete mix with a trowel. No voids should be visible on the surface. Compact
the concrete at least 250 mm deep. If the surface is scratched, the stones should be
about 1 mm deep. This means that the stone content of the concrete mix is correct. If
the stones are deeper, this means that there are not enough stones in the concrete
mix. If stones are protruding above the surface, it means that the stone content of the
concrete mix is too high. This principle is illustrated in figure 2-8 below.

50
 Figure 2-8: Correct stone and sand content in concrete

Step 8: Modify the concrete mix design

If the concrete assessment is unsatisfactory, take the following steps to modify the design:

1) If the mix is too stony, reduce the stone content with 100 kg/m³.
2) If the mix is too sandy, increase the stone content with 100 kg/m³.
3) If the mix lacks cohesion, use finer sand or use a sand with a higher percentage passing
the 0,300 mm sieve.
4) If the mix is too sticky, use a coarser sand or a sand with a lower percentage passing
the 0,075 mm sieve.

51
 5) If the slump is not as per specification, adjust the water content with ± 10 to 15 l/m³.
Adding 10 to 15 l/m³ can double the slump; reducing the water with 10 to 15 l/m3 can
halve the slump.
6) To improve workability, one should simply add water to the mix.

2.6 CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

Refer to section 2.7 in the prescribed textbook for more detail on this topic.

The various kinds of reinforcement used in concrete are discussed in the prescribed textbook.
Let us now look at some additional information on the topic.
Deformed Cold Worked Mild Steel Bars

Plain mild steel round bars can be deformed or twisted after manufacture. This deformation
can increase the tensile strength of these bars up to 450 MPa (=High Yield, Y-, steel) from 250
MPa (=Mild, X-, steel). An example of deformed cold worked mild steel bars is displayed in
figure 2-9.

Figure 2-9: Deformed Cold Worked Mild Steel Bars (1) = High Yield steel when hot deformed
(normal practice)

Steel mesh

Steel mesh reinforcement is manufactured from hard-drawn plain steel wire, welded to the
required pattern. It is mainly used as reinforcement in slabs and precast concrete elements.
The use of steel mesh is beneficial since it reduces labour costs due to reduced handling and
steel fixing time. The reduced labour cost must be off set against increased material costs.
Figure 2-10 provides an example of steel mesh.

52
 Figure 2-10: Steel mesh reinforcement

Fibres

Fibres with a diameter of about 1 mm, consisting of either glass, plastic or steel are used to
reinforce concrete. They assist in improving the tensile strength of concrete, through
interlocking in the mix. From an economic perspective, it makes sense to use fibres to improve
tensile strength where the use of reinforcement is not required. Fibres can also be used in
cases where the shape of concrete is complex and where normal reinforcement cannot be
used.

Fibres also have the following advantages:

1) Reduces plastic shrinkage and settlement cracking during the early stages of curing
2) Increases hardness and impact resistance of concrete
3) Reduces segregation in concrete
4) Reduces bleeding during curing of the concrete
5) Improves resistance of the completed structure against frost and fire

Cover of reinforcement in concrete

NB: Cover of reinforcement is not discussed in the prescribed book.

When reinforcement is used in concrete, the designer must ensure that there is sufficient
cover between the reinforcement and exposed surfaces of the concrete. If sufficient cover is
not provided, the reinforcement may rust. As rust forms on the surface of the reinforcement, it
needs space to form and starts breaking the concrete next to the reinforcement. This will lead
to pieces of the concrete structure breaking off. This phenomenon is called spalling.

Spalling can be prevented by providing sufficient cover between the reinforcement and
exposed surfaces of the concrete. This will keep moisture away from the reinforcement.

53
Table 2-2 provides the requirements for minimum cover as set out in SANS 10100-2:1992.
Figure 2-2: Minimum cover requirements as per SANS 10100-2:1992
Conditions of exposure
Concrete type Mild Moderate Severe Very severe Extreme
Normal density
concrete 20 30 40 50 60
Low-density concrete 20 40 50 60 70

2.7 UNIT 2 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1) List four advantages of concrete.

2) Name the four main constituents used in producing concrete.
3) Name and discuss the five different cement classes.
4) Discuss the process of curing concrete.
5) Discuss six methods that are used for curing concrete.
6) List three extenders that are commonly used in concrete.
7) Discuss the importance of the water:cement (w:c) ratio of a concrete mix.
8) State the unit in which the strength of concrete is measured.
9) Discuss, with the help of graphs, how the compressive strength of concrete increases
over time. Explain what the effects of improper curing are on the strength development
of concrete. You must indicate this on the graph.
10) Describe how the concrete slump test is performed on a concrete mix.
11) Discuss the three common types of slump that can be encountered.
12) Describe how concrete cubes (which are used for testing the concrete strength) are
made.
13) Describe how concrete cubes are tested for compressive strength.
14) Name the eight important properties of fresh concrete.
15) To what does workability of concrete refer?
16) How can workability be assessed?
17) The slump test can be used on site to test the workability of a concrete mix. Name the
two properties of concrete that can be tested to check the workability of a concrete mix
and describe how you would use the slump test to check these two properties of
concrete.
18) What factors influence the workability of concrete?

54
19) Discuss what is meant by the consistency and cohesiveness of concrete.
20) Discuss six ways to improve the cohesiveness of a concrete mix.
21) Discuss bleeding of a concrete mix.
22) Name four ways to reduce bleeding of a concrete mix.
23) Name four measures, which can be used on site to reduce the damaging effects of
bleeding.
24) What is meant by plastic cracking of concrete? Name the two types of plastic cracking.
25) Discuss plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete.
26) Name three circumstances which can lead to an increase in the rate of evaporation of
surface water in a concrete mix.
27) Name five methods that can be used to prevent plastic shrinkage cracking.
28) How can plastic settlement of a concrete mix be prevented?
29) Discuss the phenomenon of slump loss in a concrete mix.
30) What is the approximate density of well-compacted concrete if dolerite is used as an
aggregate?
31) What is the typical air content of a well-compacted concrete mix?
32) What is green concrete?
33) Explain how heat of hydration can lead to shrinkage cracks in the concrete.
34) Name six factors that can lead to an increase in the temperature of a concrete mix.
35) Name six methods that can reduce the risk of thermal cracking.
36) Explain the difference between compressive strength and tensile strength in concrete.
Use diagrams to explain which type of strength is the strongest and which type of
strength is the weakest in concrete.
37) Discuss the types of loading which must be kept in mind when designing a concrete
structure.
38) What is the concrete mix designer trying to achieve when mixing the ingredients of
concrete together?
39) What three factors influence the amount of water needed to mix into the concrete mix?
40) Describe how the surface texture of the sand that is going to be used for a concrete mix
can influence water that has to be added to the concrete mix.
41) Name 14 functions of concrete admixtures.
42) Based on the functions of chemical admixtures, they can be classified into five groups.
Name these five groups.

55
43) What quantity of a chemical admixture is usually added to a concrete mix to improve or
change the properties of a concrete mix?
44) Discuss the properties of five different admixtures that are used to improve or change
the properties of a concrete mix.
45) Discuss how a water-reducing admixture or plasticiser is used to improve or change the
properties of a concrete mix.
46) Discuss how a super plasticiser is used to improve or change the properties of a concrete
mix.
47) Discuss how a retarding admixture is used to improve or change the properties of a
concrete mix.
48) Discuss how an accelerating admixture is used to improve or change the properties of a
concrete mix.
49) Discuss how an air-entraining admixture is used to improve or change the properties of
a concrete mix.
50) State four advantages of adding an air-entraining admixture to a concrete mix.
51) Discuss five types of steel reinforcement that can be used to reinforce a concrete
structure.
52) Discuss the steel reinforcement type hot rolled mild steel bars. Explain how the
classification system works, what the minimum tensile strength of this type of steel
reinforcement is and when it is used.
53) Discuss the steel reinforcement type high yield stress deformed bars. Explain how the
classification system works and what the minimum tensile strength of this type of steel
reinforcement is.
54) State three reasons why high yield stress bars are more economical than plain bars.
55) Discuss the use of fibres as a way to reinforce concrete.
56) Name six advantages of using fibres as a way to reinforce a concrete mix.
57) Discuss why it is important to maintain adequate cover between the steel reinforcement
and the surface of the concrete structure.
58) Discuss the advantages of pre-stressing of concrete.
59) Name two methods to pre-stress concrete.
60) Discuss how pre-tensioning of steel reinforcement used in concrete is done.
61) Discuss how post-tensioning of steel reinforcement used in concrete is done.
62) Discuss three reasons why concrete is used as a trafficked surface (i.e. used as a surface
on which traffic moves).
63) Name four reasons why joints are provided into a concrete road pavement.

56
64) Describe how a contraction joint is built, use a diagram to support your answer.
65) Describe how a construction joint is built, using a diagram to support your answer.

2.8 REFERENCES

(1) http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Cyclopedia-Carpentry-Building-4-6/images/Fig-
13-Ransome-Twisted-Steel-Bar.jpg

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UNIT 3 – BITUMEN

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO UNIT

In this study unit, we will cover bitumen and asphalt materials. To start off, let us look at the
terminology associated with bitumen, a product widely used in the road construction industry.
This product is used worldwide, but the terminology used varies in different regions of the
world. Table 3-1 provides a summary of the difference in terminology used in South Africa and
the USA. This will help to clear up confusion when you read materials on bituminous products
from the USA.
Table 3-1: Bitumen terminology differences
South American
Description
African Term Term
Asphalt Looks like thick black liquid but is solid at room temperature, results
Bitumen
cement from distillation of oil
Bituminous Asphaltic Adjective used for all things relating to bitumen
Asphalt Aggregate and bitumen mixed together, normally used as top layer
Asphalt
concrete on a road

3.2 SOURCES OF BITUMEN

Bitumen is a by-product of the distillation process of crude oil. Crude oil is a black liquid that is
extracted from the crust of the earth. It is a liquid that was formed from organic matter. The
organic matter was deposited on the floors of lakes and oceans millions of years ago. Over the
course of time and with the aid of high temperatures and pressures, the organic matter was
transformed into oil.
Crude oil is classified as either light, medium of heavy crude. These classifications refer to the
fractions that are concentrated during the distillation process. The temperatures for the
different classes are as follows:

 Light crude naphtha is the fraction that is distilled out at temperatures of between 20–
70°C
 Medium naphtha is distilled out between 70–120°C
 Heavy naphtha is distilled out at temperatures of between 90–170°C.

As is apparent, the crude classifications light, medium and heavy do not refer to the weight of
the crude oil molecules. The lighter crude oils are usually found in the deeper structures of the
earth’s crust and the heavier crudes closer to the surface.

Crude oil consists of:

58
  Majority hydrocarbon components (these components consist of hydrogen (H) and
carbons (C))
 Small but important quantities of sulphur (S), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). Sulphur is
the third most abundant atomic constituent of crude oils.

Oil sources

South Africa does not have significant crude oil reserves and therefore all crude oil is imported.
Transportation costs play a major role in the total cost of crude oil. For this reason, crude oil is
mostly imported to South Africa from the Middle East and these crudes are used to produce
bitumen in South Africa. The crudes are mostly named after their sources: Arabian Light,
Arabian Medium, Arabian Heavy, Dubai, Kuwait and Iranian Heavy.

South African oil refineries

There are four strategically located crude oil refineries in South Africa; details of these
refineries are listed in table 3-2 below.

Table 3-2: South African oil refineries

Refinery Name Acronym Location Owner/Shareholder
Caltex Refinery CALREF Cape town Caltex
Engen Refinery ENREF Durban Engen
National Petroleum Refinery NATREF Sasolburg Sasol and Total
South African Petroleum Refinery SAPREF Durban Shell and BP

All the refineries, except for NATREF, are situated at the coast so that they have easy access to
crude oil, which is delivered directly from ocean tankers. NATREF, the only inland crude oil
refinery in South Africa, is supplied with crude oil via a pipeline from Durban.

3.3 BITUMEN AND TAR

NB: On page 143 of the prescribed book it states erroneously that tar is being phased out. Tar
is no longer being used for road construction and has been phased out long ago.

3.4 TYPES OF BITUMEN

The following types of bitumen are produced in South Africa:

• Penetration grade bitumen

• Cutback bitumens
• Emulsions
• Modified bitumens

59
3.4.1 Penetration grade bitumen

Refer to page 152 of the prescribed textbook for an introduction on the Penetration grade
bitumens. First, read section 3.9.1 on page 165 so that you fully understand the bitumen
penetration test.
The following four penetration grade bitumens, as per table 3-3 are commonly specified.
Table 3-3: Production of penetration grade bitumens

Grade Manufacturing process Soft/Hard

35/50 pen bitumen Blowing Hardest
50/70 pen bitumen Blending
70/100 pen bitumen Vacuum distillation
150/200 pen bitumen Vacuum distillation Softest

During the manufacture of 35/50 pen bitumen, air is blown through the bitumen in a blowing unit.
Oxidation of the bitumen occurs and causes the bitumen to harden. The bitumen is blown until a
penetration of 35 to 50 units is reached. To produce 50/70 pen bitumen, blending of a softer
bitumen, for instance 70/100 pen bitmen, with hard 35/50 pen bitumen takes place.

Uses of the penetration grade bitumens are as follows:

 35/50 pen and 50/70 pen bitumen are used in the production of asphalt and modified
binders. Both asphalt and modified binders are covered in later sections of this chapter
 70/100 pen bitumen is normally used for seals and emulsion (also covered later in this
chapter)
 150/200 pen bitumen is used for manufacturing modified binder and foamed bitumen;
it is not often used in industry due to the bitumen being very soft

3.4.2 Cutback bitumens

The cutback bitumens commercially available in South Africa are:

• MC10
• MC30
• MC3000
• RC250

3.4.3 Blown grade bitumens

These grades of bitumen are not recommended for use in road construction. These bitumens
have been hardened through blowing air through the bitumen, which is an oxidation process.
Oxidation of the bitumen continues in service on the road. By using blown grade bitumens, one
is using a product that has already started to break down (through oxidation), which is not
ideal.

60
3.4.4 Modified bitumens¹

Due to increasing traffic volumes, overloading of vehicles and decreasing road maintenance,
the need for bitumen with improved properties has arisen. Conventional bituminous materials
are not able to keep up with the increased loading forces that are applied to the bitumen.
Through modification, the following properties of bitumen can be improved:

 Adhesion: Bitumen binds aggregates for seals and aggregates in asphalt mixes to each
other. The adhesion of bitumen to aggregate is therefore very important. Under dry
weather conditions, adhesion of bitumen to aggregates is not problematic. However,
when water is present, it tends to weaken the adhesion of the bitumen to the
aggregate. This can lead to the bitumen loosening from the aggregate. This is referred
to as stripping.

 Durability: Bitumen used in surfacing applications must be resistant to oxidation

(reaction with oxygen), UV radiation and temperature fluctuation during the surfacing
design period.

 Elasticity: Bitumen is used as binder in surfacing applications. As vehicles drive over the
surface, the bitumen stretches. Afterwards, the bitumen needs to return to its original
shape. The bitumen therefore needs to be elastic.

 Resistance to deformation: Bitumen is a viscous liquid, which hardens in low

temperatures and softens in high temperatures. On a road bitumen may deform over
time. This is undesirable.

 Flexibility at low temperatures: Bitumen hardens in low temperatures and its

appearance can even become glass-like at low temperatures. Modification is required if
bitumen is used in regions where the temperatures are low to counteract the influence
of low temperatures.

 High viscosity at high temperatures: Bitumen becomes more fluid at high

temperatures. Some regions in South Africa have such high average temperatures, that
conventional bitumen on the road will become so fluid that it will simply run off.
Certain modifiers can improve the susceptibility of bitumen to high temperatures.

The following modifiers are used to improve the properties of bitumen²

Rubber crumbs

Bitumen rubber (BR) is penetration grade bitumen to which about 20% of rubber crumbs is
added. These rubber crumbs are made from old recycled tyres that are frozen and then ground
to particles with a size smaller than 1,18 mm in diameter. These small rubber crumbs are then
partially dissolved in bitumen at a temperature of 170 to 210°C.

Rubber-crumb modified bitumen is used for the following:

a) Reseals and overlays heavily cracked surfaces

61
b) Surfaces where high flexibility is needed on account of high deflections of the pavement
c) Surfaces where asphalt mixes with high binder content are needed
d) To extend the lifetime of a binder

The main disadvantages of bitumen rubber are:

a) Wet ability properties are not good; aggregate must be prepared before bitumen rubber is
used
b) Construction problems are experienced with bitumen rubber in cold weather
c) Special equipment must be used when spraying bitumen rubber

Polymer modifiers

Polymer is a derived word meaning "of many parts”³. Polymers can be thought of as long
chemical strands that are made up of many smaller chemicals (monomers) that are joined
together end-on-end. Polymers can therefore be made up of different numbers of the
monomers and therefore they can have different chain lengths. Only certain chain lengths may
be suitable for a certain polymer type when used in bitumen.

Two basic types of polymer are used in modifying bitumen for road applications:

a) Elastomers: These are polymer modifiers that have a “rubber” backbone that provides
flexibility to the bitumen when it is deformed. Elastomers improve the characteristics of
bitumen so that the bitumen will tend to revert to its original shape when deformed.
Examples are SBR and SBS polymer modifiers (both discussed later).

b) Plastomers: These are polymer modifiers that will deform in a plastic or viscous manner
at high temperatures and will become stiff and hard at low temperatures. An example is
EVA polymer modifier.

Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS)

Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) is a modifier that is used to produce ultra-high performance,

tough and flexible asphalt. SBS refers to a styrene-butadiene-styrene polymer modifier, which
is an elastomer that blends homogeneously (the same throughout the whole material)
throughout the binder. SBS-modified binder is made in special facilities from white SBS
polymer crumb or powder, which is dissolved into the bitumen at high temperatures. The SBS
modified binder for asphalt typically has low (3-5%) modifier content. This is not the same as
bitumen rubber (BR).

SBS binder modification improves asphalt as follows:

1) Improved resistance to permanent deformation

2) Improved crack resistance
3) Good adhesion and cohesion
4) Good fatigue resistance and improved tensile strength
5) Better performance at temperature extremes

62
6) Improved resilient modulus/stiffness

Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber (SBR)

This modifier is available as an anionic emulsion that eases blending with emulsified bitumen.
It is also used to modify hot bitumen. SBR modified binder (or rubber-modified binder, which is
not the same as bitumen rubber) is a homogeneous elastomer. It is made from synthetic latex
rubber and has a low modifier content (2-5%). SBR-modified binders have the following
advantages:

1) SBR-modified bitumen exhibits elastic properties ideal for treating lightly cracked
surfaces
2) SBR-modified bitumen is useful where pavements are structurally weak. SBR-modified
asphalts have been successfully used with sub-standard natural gravel base courses for
new roads in residential and township areas.
3) The main advantage of SBR-modified bitumen is that the spray temperature is lower
than rubber bitumen and it can be sprayed with normal spraying equipment.

Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)

Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate (EVA) polymers are plastomers and they improve the stiffness of the
binder. Stripping, possibly due to brittle failure of the PMB, has been a problem in some seal
applications. EVA is manufactured as little white plastic balls, which are melted into bitumen.
EVA is normally used for the manufacturing of plastic containers.
The advantages of EVA are as follows:

1) Improves the workability and resistance to permanent deformation of asphalt mixes

2) Provides high shear resistance against aggregate loss when used in bitumen for seal work
3) EVA increases the resistance of bitumen against fuel (bitumen dissolved in fuel)
4) Increases rut resistance and flexibility, therefore it is recommended for use in asphalt
used on intersections and against steep hills

Latex

Latex is the natural form of SBR and is produced from the rubber obtained from rubber trees.
The applications are the same as for SBR. When latex is used in road construction, care should
be taken to not cause damage to vehicles and property. When sprayed, latex produces long
strings, which can easily be carried by wind. If these strings land on vehicles or other objects,
they can be removed, but only with great difficulty.

3.5 TESTS ON BITUMEN

Refer to pages 165 – 172 (sections 3.9.1 – 3.9.3) in the prescribed textbook for a detailed
discussion on the following tests:

63
 penetration test
 viscosity test
 softening point test
 ductility test and tests on cutback bitumens
 bitumen emulsions

Let us now look at some additional tests on modified binders that are not covered in the
prescribed textbook.

3.5.1 Tests on bitumen rubber

Various methods for testing modified binders are contained in TG1, Technical Guideline: The
use of modified bituminous binders in Road Construction, second edition, 2007. Familiarise
yourself with the procedure of the following test methods:

 METHOD MB-10: BALL PENETRATION AND RESILIENCE OF BITUMEN RUBBER BLENDS

 METHOD MB-11: COMPRESSION RECOVERY OF BITUMEN RUBBER BINDERS

 METHOD MB-12: FLOW TEST FOR BITUMEN RUBBER BINDERS

 METHOD MB-13: DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF BITUMEN RUBBER BINDERS

The above test methods are contained in Annexure A.

3.6 APPLICATIONS OF BITUMEN

3.6.1 Applications of bitumen in road construction

Surfacing seals⁴

A surfacing seal consists of a layer of bituminous binder, which is sprayed on a road surface
(base course, soil layer or existing road surface layer), and then covered with aggregate. The
bitumen layer is sprayed with a spray tanker with a bar at the back of the truck. The bar has
nozzles at the bottom through which the bitumen is sprayed under pressure provided by a
pump. The aggregate is spread onto the freshly sprayed binder with stone/chip spreader. The
aggregates are finally rolled into the binder by means of rollers.

The functions of a surfacing seal are:

1) Protect the underlying layers by providing a waterproof cover on top of the underlying
layer
2) Prevent vehicle tyres from eroding the underlying layers
3) Provide a rough surface that will prevent aquaplaning of vehicles
4) Provide adequate skid resistance for vehicle tyres

64
Summary of seals

Various kinds of seals are used for road construction. The most suitable seal will be
selected based on the road’s traffic conditions and the road area’s climatic conditions.

Study figure 3-1 displaying a schematic illustration (as per TRH3) of the different kinds of
seals. Figure 3-2 shows a single seal being constructed on a G1/G2 (crushed stone) base.

You will encounter and study seals in more depth in your further studies, specifically in
Earthworks and Pavement Design.

Figure 3-1: Different types of seals (schematic)

65
Figure 3-1 continued: Different types of seals (schematic)

66
 Figure 3-2: Soil Stabilisation

The applications for bitumen also extend to the following:

(a) Bitumen-treated Base (BTB)

BTB is base course material treated with bitumen to ensure that the mixture has improved
cohesion. Bitumen can also be added to base course materials to produce the following
material:

 ETB (Emulsion-treated Base)

 BSM (Bitumen stabilised material), which is a newer version of ETB
 LAMBs (Large aggregate mixes for bases)

Study figure 3-3 showing the construction of a BTB layer.

Figure 3-3: BTB construction

(b) Bitumen emulsion for soil modification

Bitumen emulsions can be formulated to be either cationic (positively charged) or anionic

(negatively charged). Emulsions can be used to stabilise soils. In some cases, compaction on
site may be difficult due to the soil being either negatively or positively charged. The charged
particles may then repel each other, and this is what causes the compaction difficulty.

Emulsion can therefore be used to change the charge on the soil particles and make them
easier to compact:

 Use anionic emulsion on soils which are positively charged

 Use cationic emulsion on soils which are negatively charged

67
In South Africa, granite and quarzitic soils are used often and they are charged negatively. On
the other hand, limestone is charged positively.

Prime coat

During construction of a road, the surfacing layer (asphalt or a seal) is mostly constructed on
top of a crushed stone base material. The bitumen from the surfacing layer has the potential to
be drawn out of the asphalt layer into the dry base layer. To prevent the bitumen from being
drawn out of the asphalt, the base layer needs to be primed by means of a prime coat. Priming
entails spraying the base layer with a bituminous product, either a bitumen emulsion or a
cutback bitumen. The primary purpose of the prime coat is to form a film over the underlying
layer to seal the layer and prevent the drawing of the bitumen from the surface. Strictly
speaking, the prime coat does not have to penetrate the underlying layer, however, most
engineers and technicians on site will look at the amount of penetration to see if the prime
coat is applied well. There is debate in the road construction industry on whether prime coats
are required to penetrate the base layer or only seal it. A safe approach is to rather assume
that penetration is required, since the prime coat must not slip from the base during
construction of the surfacing layer.

Details on the most commonly used prime products are as follows:

 MC-30: It is a cutback bitumen, which seals the base well and has good penetration due
to its low viscosity. It also dries out relatively quickly and can be used on all types of
base material.
 E-prime and similar products, which are bitumen emulsions can also be used. These
products have been specifically developed for priming.

Study figure 3-4 showing a freshly primed G1 (crushed stone) base. In this case, the
emulsion was applied at 0,8 litre per m².

68
 Figure 3-4: Primed base

Tack coat

Tack coats are bitumen emulsion, which are sprayed onto the primed base before construction
of the surfacing layer. The purpose of the tack coat is to ensure that the new surface being
constructed adheres very well to the base layer. It also prevents sliding of the new surfacing on
the base. When the emulsion is sprayed onto the road, it has a brownish colour. The process of
water evaporation from emulsion is called “breaking of the emulsion”. At the point at which an
emulsion has broken, the colour of the emulsion has changed from brown to black and only
the bitumen is left.

Study figure 3-5 showing a tack coat of 30% stable-grade emulsion applied at a rate of 0,5
litre per m².

Figure 3-5: Fresh tack coat

Fog spray

Fog sprays are bitumen emulsions used for dry road surfaces that need to be repaired either
because of brittleness or cracks that have developed on the surface. The emulsion is sprayed
onto the surface. This normally is done as part of a “holding action”, where the fog spray is
applied to the surface to keep the surface in a reasonable condition until the surface can be
repaired as part of long-term maintenance (normally until money is made available). It is also
done as part of periodic maintenance to ensure that the surfacing reaches its maximum
useable life. The emulsions used for this purpose usually have a bitumen content of 30% to
60%.

69
Study figure 3-6 showing a fog spray applied at a rate of 0,5 litre per m².

Figure 33-6: Fog spray application on seal

Dust palliatives

Bituminous products can be used on gravel roads to prevent dust formation and prevent
erosion of the gravel wearing course. These products are called dust palliatives and can
prolong the life of a gravel road substantially.

Repair of cracks

It is inevitable
table that cracks will appear on a road surface several years after construction. This is
more likely to happen on roads with asphalt surfaces, but cracks can also appear on roads with
seal surfacing. These cracks can be repaired by means of filling the cr
cracks
acks with rubber bitumen.

70
Study figure 3-7 showing crack sealing on a milled asphalt surface.

Figure 3-7: Crack sealing

Hot-mix asphalt (premix)

Bitumen is used in the production of asphalt, along with aggregate and a filler. Mixing of these
constituents takes place at high temperatures: 140 – 160 ºC for hot-mix asphalt and
120 – 140 ºC for warm-mix asphalt.

Asphalt is mostly produced in batch plants. In the plant, the correct quantities of aggregate are
weighed off after which they will be conveyed to a heated drum mixer. In the mixer, the
aggregate is heated and mixed with bitumen to produce asphalt.

Study figure 3-8 showing an example of an asphalt mixing plant. The main components of the
mixing plant are:

 Aggregate bins
 Heated mixing drum
 Bitumen tanks
 Asphalt storage bins
 Various conveyor belts

71
 Figure 3-8: Asphalt plant
The asphalt mixture is loaded into trucks from the asphalt storage bins and then transported to
site. On site, the truck loads the asphalt into a paver, which spreads the mixture uniformly on
the road/base surface.
A combination of pneumatic rollers and flat wheel rollers will compact the asphalt to the
correct density behind the asphalt paver.

Asphalt mixes are designed so that it is suitable for:

 The conditions in which it will be used

 The design requirements for which it will be used.

The properties of the asphalt mix can be adjusted by:

 Changing the grading of the aggregate

 Using different kinds of binder (penetration grade bitumen or modified bitumen)
 Varying the binder content

Different asphalt gradings are utilised. Continuously graded mixes are used most frequently.

Continuously graded asphalt mix

In this type of asphalt mix the grading of the aggregate ensures that the voids between the
larger aggregate particles are filled by the smaller aggregate particles. Close aggregate-to-
aggregate is achieved and therefore the aggregate “skeleton” provides the load-bearing
capacity of the asphalt.

Three types of continuously graded asphalt mixes are produced:

72
1) Coarse, continuously graded asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size present in the
mix is 20 mm.
2) Medium continuously graded asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size present is 10
mm.
3) Fine continuously graded asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size present in the mix
is 7,1 mm.

Study figure 3-9 depicting the aggregate grading for three mixes, as well as the specification
(upper and lower limits, which are referred to as the grading envelope) for a medium
continuously graded asphalt mix. The gradings were performed during the mix design process.

Figure 3-9: Aggregate gradings for medium continuously graded asphalt

73
As mentioned, continuously grades mixes are used most frequently.
Other gradings available are:

 Gap-graded
 Open-graded
 Semi-gap-graded
 Semi-open-graded
 Stone-mastic asphalt

NB: We do not discuss these gradings in this module in much detail, but you will encounter
them in your further studies, specifically in the Earthworks and Pavement Design.
Activity 3.1
Summarise the difference between the various mixes mentioned above.
Asphalt density

The density of asphalt is an important characteristic used during the asphalt mix design
process. Once the construction of the asphalt starts, the asphalt must be compacted to the
specified density to ensure that it will be able to withstand traffic loads during the design life.

Different types of densities of asphalt are used when designing an asphalt mix. The following
will explain the differences between some of the density variants used for asphalt:

(a) Relative density (RD)

The relative density of a material is measured by means of a reference material. Relative

density is a non-dimensional number, which gives density of any substance in relation to
another and is expressed as follows:

Relative density=

The reference material is normally water, with density measured at 25ºC. During the asphalt
mix design procedure, the volumetric properties of aggregate are used. The properties depend
on the mass of the aggregate and therefore the relative density of the aggregate must be
determined by using the following formula:

Volume=

An asphalt layer consists of the following:

a) aggregate
b) binder

74
c) filler
d) air
e) water
f) additives

During mixing, the aggregate, binder, filler and possibly some additives are mixed together, as
per the mix design, to make the asphalt. In an ideal situation, the mix design could have been
performed based on the relative density only. However, the aggregates contain cracks and
voids and if a designer specifies the amount of binder to be used while only the volume of the
aggregate is used in his calculations and no compensation is made for these cracks or voids,
not enough binder will be used in the asphalt mix, because some of the binder will be used for
filling these cracks and voids. Also, some of the voids will not be filled and some will only be
partially filled.

Study figure 3-10 illustrating the different scenarios. If the voids are not filled, there is a
possibility that the asphalt mix could fail in service. As can be seen, it is important that the
voids content be carefully considered during the mix design process.

Figure 3-10: Aggregate: Empty voids and filled voids

In the following sections, we discuss the different densities used when designing and working
with asphalt.

(b) Bulk relative density (BRD):

For bulk relative density, the assumption is made that there are no cracks or voids on the
surface of the aggregate which can be filled with binder. If this density is used in design
calculations, there will be less binder available to fill the voids in the design asphalt mix, and
the result will be that there are more voids in the asphalt mix than originally designed for. This
can cause the asphalt layer to fail.
Study figure 3-11 illustrating the assumption of no voids for calculation of the BRD.

75
 Figure 3-11: Assumption for BRD calculation

For BRD calculations, the total volume used for density is equal to the sum of the volume of
the aggregate, the volume of the voids filled with binder and the volume of the voids not filled
with binder. Therefore:

BRD= ( )

(c) Apparent relative density (ARD)

For apparent relative density, it is assumed that all the voids and cracks are filled with binder.
When using apparent relative density in design calculations for an asphalt mix, some of the
calculated binder will not be used to fill the holes and cracks fully. The actual voids in the
asphalt mix will thus be less than calculated, which will also have negative effects on the
performance of the mix. The calculation of ARD is therefore as follows:

ARD =

Study figure 3-12 illustrating the assumption of all voids filled for calculation of the ARD.

76
 Figure 3-12: Assumption for ARD calculation

(d) Effective relative density (ERD)

Aggregate always will have cracks and voids on the surface. These cracks and voids will never
be totally empty of binder or totally filled up with binder. The actual situation will be that the
cracks and voids will be partially filled with binder.

Study figure 3-13 illustrating effective relative density that reflects this situation.

Figure 3-13: ERD calculation

When effective relative density is used, the design calculations will reflect the true number of
voids in an asphalt mix. Therefore:

ERD =

Effective relative density is used to calculate the maximum theoretical relative density (TMRD)
of an asphalt mix. You will encounter TRMD in later year studies.

3.7 Unit 3 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1) State the temperature ranges at which light, medium and heavy fractions are distilled
from crude oil.

2) Name the four South African refineries, the towns where they are situated as well as the
companies that are shareholder(s) in each refinery.

3) What is the definition of viscosity of a material?

4) Name the four types of bitumen produced in South Africa.

77
5) Name the four penetration grade bitumens that are available in South Africa.

6) Indicate which penetration grade bitumen is the hardest and which one is the softest.

7) Explain how the classification system works when naming the four grades of penetration
grade bitumens (Do not explain the bitumen penetration test, explain what the numbers
stand for in the names of the penetration grade bitumens.) Give the unit of penetration
and the range of depth, in units, mm and cm that a needle is allowed to penetrate into
each grade of bitumen, according to specification.

8) When applying a prime coat to a base course cutback bitumens are usually used. Explain
what a cutback bitumen is.

9) Which cutback bitumens are commercially available in South Africa?

10) State what the number stands for when cutback bitumens are named (just the one
number; do not explain the number in terms of kinematic viscosity). Describe how this
number can be interpreted.

11) State which cutback bitumen has the lowest viscosity and which cutback bitumen has the
highest viscosity.

12) Explain what a bituminous emulsion is.

13) While building a road, problems are experienced with compaction of the aggregate that
is used for building the lower sub-base layer. Testing shows that the aggregate consists
of strong negatively charged particles.

a) Explain what the problem can be.

b) Name the two types of bituminous emulsion; how they are produced and what the
difference is between the two.
c) Discuss how this problem can be solved with your knowledge of bituminous
emulsions.

14) Describe what an anionic bituminous emulsion is.

15) Describe what a cationic bituminous emulsion is.

16) Discuss six properties of a penetration grade bitumen that can be improved by adding a
modifier.

17) Name four reasons why rubber-modified bitumen is used.

18) Name three main disadvantages of using rubber bitumen.

19) Name the four types of polymer modifiers used to modify rubber-modified bitumen (do
not use abbreviations).

78
20) Discuss the two basic types of polymers used to modify bitumen for road applications.

21) State six properties of an asphalt mix that can be improved by adding styrene-butadiene-
styrene (SBS) to the binder that is used to produce the asphalt mix.

22) How much styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) is typically added to bitumen (express SBS as
a percentage of the bitumen) when improving its properties?

23) State four advantages of using styrene-butadiene-rubber as a modifier in the bitumen

that is used to produce an asphalt mix.

24) Name four advantages of using ethylene vinyl acetate as a modifier in the bitumen that
is used to produce an asphalt mix.

25) What is the difference between latex on the one side, and SBS, SBR and EVA on the other
side?

26) Describe how the bitumen penetration test is performed on bitumen.

27) Describe how the softening point test (Ring and Ball test) is performed on bitumen.

28) Discuss the difference between kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity.

29) Discuss the name allocation to cutback bitumens in terms of kinematic viscosity. What
range is specified for each cutback bitumen available in South Africa in terms of
kinematic viscosity?

30) Describe how the ball penetration test together with the resilience test are performed
on bitumen-rubber blends.

31) Describe how the compression recovery test is performed on bitumen-rubber.

32) Describe how the flow test is performed on bitumen-rubber.

33) Name seven applications where bitumen is used.

34) What is a surfacing seal? Describe how a surfacing seal is constructed.

35) What are the functions of a surfacing seal?

36) Describe the following with the help of a diagram:

a) Single seal

b) Double seal

c) Cape seal

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 d) Inverted double seal

37) Describe, with help of a diagram, what a slurry seal is.

38) What are the functions of a slurry seal?

39) What is a bitumen-treated base (BTB)?

40) What is an emulsion-treated base (ETB)?

41) Sometimes it can happen that soil particles obtained a negative or positive charge. This
can interfere with the compaction efforts of soil.

a) Name two examples of aggregates used in South Africa that produce aggregate
particles that are negatively charged.

b) Name two examples of aggregates used in South Africa that produce aggregate
particles that are positively charged.

c) What happens when aggregate particles have a negative or positive charge?

d) How can an anionic or cationic bituminous emulsion solve the problem of decreased
compaction of the aggregates?

42) Describe why it is necessary to apply a prime coat on an underlying layer before an
asphalt or seal is constructed on top of this layer.

43) What is a tack coat?

44) What is a fog spray?

45) What is the function of a dust palliative?

46) Describe what a crack sealer is.

47) Describe the process through which a hot-mix asphalt is produced.

48) Discuss the properties of a continuously graded asphalt mix. Include a discussion of the
grading graph for a continuously graded asphalt mix.

49) Describe the three types of continuously graded asphalt mixes that can be produced.

50) Discuss the relative density of an asphalt mix. Use a picture to describe what an
aggregate particle looks like in terms of cracks and binder.

51) With the help of a diagram, describe the concept bulk relative density (BRD) of an
aggregate.

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52) Using a diagram, describe the concept apparent relative density of an aggregate.

53) Using a diagram, describe the concept effective relative density of an aggregate.

3.8 REFERENCES

(1) The Shell Bitumen Handbook 1991. Shell Bitumen U.K., Surrey, United Kingdom

(2) Colas South Africa, The road to success, 1996

(3) PMB facts, BP Bitumen:

http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/bitumen/bp_bitumen_australia/STAGING/lo
cal_assets/downloads_pdfs/pq/pmb_facts.pdf.

(4) TRH3:2007, Technical Recommendations for Highways, Design and Construction of

Surfacing Seals, South African National Roads Agency.

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UNIT 4 – STRUCTURAL MATERIAL: BRICK, TIMBER, STEEL AND ALUMINIUM

4.1 INTRODUCTION

There are various materials that are essential in construction and that includes:

 Bricks
 Steel
 Timber
 Aluminium
These materials are used in all kinds of construction for infrastructure that plays an important
part in our daily lives. In this study unit, our focus will be on bricks, steel and timber.

4.2 BRICKS

Bricks are one of the oldest industrialised building materials and they are used in the following
applications:
1) Small buildings with no steel or concrete frames (houses and townhouses)
2) Curtain walls (the walls between the steel or concrete frames of high-rise buildings)
3) Paving
4) Roadside structures (culvert head, wingwalls, etc)
5) Services structures: manholes for various kinds of services such as sewer, water and
telecommunications services
6) Perimeter walls

There are three basic brick shapes:

 Solid bricks (bricks that have no holes or intrusions)

 Perforated brick (bricks with holes in them). The volume of the holes must not exceed
25% of the total volume of the brick and the area of the surface of the holes must not
exceed 10% of the total surface area of the brick
 Frogged bricks are pressed bricks with depressions. The volume of the depressions
must not exceed 20% of the total volume of the brick

Holes in bricks have various advantages:

82
1) Bricks are usually used as fill between concrete or steel load-bearing structures. Bricks
are used more for stability in these structures. As such they are not subjected to large
loads, and do not have to be solid.
2) The holes in the bricks decrease the mass of the bricks which results in lower transport
costs as more bricks can be transported.
3) Because of the holes in the bricks savings are made on the material usage and associated
costs. The saving on material usage also has a positive effect on the environment.
4) As less material is used, drying and firing times are reduced.
5) The holes in the bricks result in better thermal insulation of the structure.

4.2.1 Manufacturing of bricks¹

Refer to page 189 of the prescribed book to learn about the four main stages of brick
manufacturing.
Below is an expansion of these stages.

 Winning: Heavy earth-moving equipment such as bulldozers, scrapers and mechanical

shovels are used to extract the clay and shales.
 Crushing and blending: After being transported from the pit by truck or endless
conveyor, the materials are stockpiled to enable blending of the various types of clay.
The clays are fed separately by hopper or conveyor to the primary crushers – rolls or
hammer mills are commonly used in South Africa. These reduce the particle size down
to 3-5 mm or less. The mixing of clays follows, to impart the desired properties, such as
colour and strength.
 Grinding: Conveyors carry the mixed clay away for secondary crushing, which is usually
done by means of a pan mill. The pan mill has two heavy steel wheels on an axle that is
connected to a central vertical spindle around which it rotates, crushing the clay
against the base of the pan. The base is perforated to allow the crushed material to fall
through. This process, when done with dry clay, shatters the brittle particles into
smaller pieces. When the pan mill is used with wet clay, the plastic material is squeezed
through the perforations and then falls between high-speed rollers, which complete
the grinding process.
 Screening – dry processing: Before being shaped, the clay is screened and oversize
pieces are returned to the pan mill for further crushing.
 Shaping: Bricks are hand formed, pressed or extruded into their final shape. The
method used to shape the bricks affects their final appearance and texture, and sets
certain limitations on the handling methods employed during manufacture:

o Extruded bricks (most common method in South Africa): Clay, with 18-23% water
content is forced by an auger into a horizontal cone-shaped tube that tapers down
to the die. Two compaction stages are commonly incorporated, with a vacuum
chamber between them to remove any air in the clay that would reduce the
strength of the end product. The extruded clay column is cut into brick-sized pieces
by an arrangement of wires. Extruded bricks, although often smooth, may be
mechanically patterned or textured. Most bricks of this type have anything from 3-

83
 12 perforations, and by increasing the surface area, the required drying, firing, and
cooling times are reduced. Any internal stresses are relieved by the perforations,
which also prevent distortion of the bricks during firing.

 Drying of bricks: In the brick-making process, the clay is refined and water is added in
order to mould the brick. Before the bricks can be fired, they must be properly dried;
the moisture content has to be reduced to less than 5% by mass for the clamp kiln.

In South Africa, there is adequate sun for the drying operation and most clamp kiln
brickmakers make full use of this free source of energy by placing the bricks on open hack
lines. This operation has the disadvantage that it may make the process time-consuming,
especially in the rainy season. To reduce the drying cycle, brickmakers have introduced
some mechanical means of drying. The two most common methods are tunnel and
chamber driers. The energy (heat) for the drying is produced in a supplementary coal
heater or recycled off the kiln and the heated air is fed into the driers. These methods
work as follows:

o Tunnel driers: The bricks are produced and then off-set on flat rail trolleys or kiln
cars. The cars are pushed through the tunnel. This operation can take up to 40-50
hours, from wet to dry.
o Chamber driers: Patented chamber driers are large rooms where bricks are packed
onto pallets. The chambers may have a capacity of 50 000 to 60 000 bricks. Hot air
is fed into the chamber. Drying time is between 48-60 hours, which is much quicker
than the 14-21 days needed for solar drying.

 Firing: Bricks are fired at temperatures of between 1 000°C and 1 200°C, depending on
the type of clay. Light coloured clays usually require higher firing temperatures than
dark coloured ones. Of the many known types of ceramic kilns, four types are used in
South Africa, namely; the Down Draught kiln, the Hoffman type Transverse Arch kiln
(TVA), the Tunnel kiln and the Clamp kiln. However, the Down Draught type of kilns
have since been discontinued because of their uneconomical firing procedures in terms
of labour, coal, etc.

Down-draught kilns: Consist of a rectangular space with a barrel-vaulted roof and a

slotted or perforated floor open to flues below. Green bricks (40 000 to 100 000 at a
time) are stacked in the kiln. Fires are lit in fireboxes along the sides and the hot gases
fire up to the curved roof, down through the bricks and from there to the chimney
stack. Fires are fuelled by coal, gas or oil. When the desired temperature has been
reached, the temperature is maintained for a specific period and the fires are then
allowed to die. The kiln cools down, the fired bricks are removed, and another batch of
green bricks is placed in the kiln for firing.

TVA kilns: Firing in the TVA kiln is continuous. Each day green bricks are placed in
cleared chambers in front of the fire, and the fired bricks are removed from behind it,
with two or three adjacent wickets being kept open for this purpose. When a chamber

84
 is full, the wicket is bricked up and fuel (coal, oil or gas) is fed in among the bricks
through holes in the crown or roof of the kiln. The fire is made to move forward by
“taking on” a row of fire holes at the front and dropping a row at the back, every 2 to 4
hours in an average sized kiln. In this way the fire moves right around the kiln every 10
to 14 days. The hot gases from the firing zone are drawn forward by exhaust fans to
preheat and dry out the green bricks, while the fired bricks are cooled down by the
flow of air passing from the open wickets behind the firing zone.

Tunnel kilns: The tunnel kiln is also a continuous kiln, but the fire is stationary while the
bricks move past it on kiln cars. As in the TVA kiln, the unfired bricks are preheated by
the spent combustion gases. After the fire, heat released by the cooling bricks may be
drawn off for use in the associated driers. With this interchange of heat, the tunnel kiln
uses less fuel than the intermittent type of down-draught kiln. Tunnel kilns have several
other advantages. For example, cars can be loaded and unloaded in the open factory,
and always at the same loading points, so that handling problems are simplified; and
the tile kiln car acts as a conveyor belt so the bricks are fired as they pass through the
firing zone.

Clamp kilns: In clamp kilns, some fuel is placed into the body of each brick. The bricks
are packed into a pyramid-shaped formation. The clamp has a layer of coal, equivalent
to two courses of bricks packed at the bottom (these two layers are referred to as the
scintle). This layer is set alight. It ignites the fuel in the base layer of bricks and
progressively, the fuel in each brick ignites in the clamp kiln. Clamp kiln firing can take
up to three weeks and although the bricks may have finished burning in that time, it
could take longer before they are cool enough to be sorted. Temperatures can be as
high as 1 400°C in the centre of the clamp.

Vertical shaft brick kilns (VSBK): Dry bricks are packed in layers into the top of a
vertical refractory lined cylinder of 1,5 m to 2,0 m in diameter. The vertical cylinder of
bricks is supported on a movable steel grid at the bottom exit end of the cylinder. As
layers of fired bricks are periodically drawn away, further layers of dry bricks then enter
the “hot zone” about halfway down the vertical shaft. Bricks are progressively lowered
down the cylinder in a continuous process. All the heat in the firing zone is derived
from fuel added to the brick body – generally finely crushed coal.

 Delivery: Mechanical handling of bricks is a familiar sight in South Africa. In pack

systems, signode (a type of plastic strapping) strapped packs of ±500 bricks are
arranged in a suitable stack and bound together by bands or plastic wraps. The packs
are lifted by forklift or crane truck. Handling on site may be by hoist or brick barrows.

 Cooling: Cooling of the bricks must be done very carefully as a very rapid temperature
decrease can crack the bricks on account of rapid shrinkage of the brick. The time that
bricks can be cooled safely ranges from 48 to 72 hours.

4.2.2 Classification of clay bricks

85
The different classifications of clay bricks is displayed in table 4-1 below.

Table 4-1: Common roof truss shapes (from Technical Guide, Clay Brick association, 2016)

4.2.3 Calcium silicate bricks

Calcium silicate bricks are discussed on page 195 of the prescribed book.

The advantages of using calcium silicate bricks are:

86
1) No soluble salts are present; thus, no mortar attack or efflorescence (a white crystalline
deposit of salt) is present.
2) The size and shape of calcium silicate bricks are more regular than clay bricks, which
results in enhanced consistency of laying the bricks.
3) Calcium silicate bricks have light reflective qualities which, together with the enhanced
consistency of laying, make these bricks more suitable for use as decorative and
architectural features in-house.
4) Weather does not influence the performance of calcium silicate bricks as compared to
clay bricks. Calcium silicate bricks can be used both in hot as well as in cold climates.
5) Calcium silicate bricks can be manufactured in any colour the client prefers.

4.2.4 Properties of bricks¹ ²

The materials that are used in the manufacturing of bricks determine the properties of the
bricks. In most situations different types of clay are blended together to achieve the desired
properties that are required for the finished end product.

The following brick properties are important:

 Brick compressive strength

A wide range of bricks are available in South Africa. Bricks vary in compressive strength due to
the differing qualities of raw material used and the method of firing. The compressive
strengths can range from 7 MPa for NFP, to greater than 50 MPa for Face Brick Extra and
Engineering products. Standard testing is carried out on a sample of 12 bricks. Most, if not all,
local manufacturers are able to produce clay bricks to specified compressive strengths.

Modern methods of manufacture are used to produce bricks of consistent quality but given
that bricks are made from naturally occurring materials, the compressive strength of individual
bricks in a given batch inevitably varies. The compressive strength of clay bricks is not always
indicative of their durability. Clay products for special applications can be provided to specific
tolerances and strengths.

Testing of bricks

Bricks are placed in water for 24 hours after which it is placed in a concrete press and tested
(same test as for testing concrete cubes, as discussed in unit 2).

The following formula is used:

( )
Compressive strength = ( )
MPa

 Water absorption

Water absorption is a measure of the amount of pores present in the brick. It is expressed as a
percentage of the dry brick weight. Water absorption is, as with compressive strength,

87
dependent on the properties of the clay used as material, the manufacturing method and the
temperature and duration of firing.

Water absorption can range from 1 per cent to 35 per cent depending on the type of brick. It is
generally used to determine the amount of water that can penetrate through a wall when it is
raining heavily. A wall of highly porous bricks can have what is known as an “overcoat” effect.
In this instance some rain runs down the face of the wall but more is absorbed, and eventually
water penetrates by the action of driven wind or heavy rain. However, a wall of bricks of low
porosity will have a “raincoat” effect. More water runs down the wall face, but water on the
joints will increase.

 Soluble salt content

The clay used as material to produce bricks can contain a lot of naturally occurring soluble salts
of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and sulphates. Bricks which have a high sulphates
content can damage cement mortar if the brickwork is subjected to prolonged wet conditions.
Sulphate attack can only occur if three conditions combine:
1) Water: Although this will be present during construction of the brickwork, it will not be
the cause.
2) Tri-calcium aluminate (C3A): Found in amounts of between 8 to 13 per cent on Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC).
3) Soluble sulphates: May be present; occurring naturally in the bricks.

Because of their chemical composition, clay bricks can have a variety of colours. Iron oxides
have the greatest effect on the colour of the fired brick. Clay containing iron will exhibit a
shade of red when fired. When fired in a reducing atmosphere (flashing or reduction firing),
the same clay will assume a dark (or black) colour.

 Efflorescence:

Efflorescence is the crystallisation of soluble salts on or near the surface of brickwork that
results from the evaporation of water carrying salts through or from the brickwork.
Efflorescence can be no more than an unsightly deposit on newly laid brickwork that soon
disappears, or it can be serious, causing unsightly permanent discoloration or even the failure
of plaster, paintwork or face finishes.

This is often caused by poor waterproofing or detailing but will rarely persist as it is washed
away by wind and rain. Efflorescence is usually harmless.

Newly built brickwork should be protected from wet weather for at least one week after
construction. When treating efflorescence, it is vital that no acid or brick cleaners are used as
this can only worsen the problem. The wall can be brushed clean using a bristle brush (never a
wire brush) although light washing with clean water may help. Efflorescence is best left to
weather away naturally.

 Warpage and tolerance

88
Warpage is measured across the length or across diagonal corners. The following tolerances
are specified:

1) For FBX bricks: Individual 5 mm; the warpage shall not exceed 3 mm in more than three
units.
2) For FBS and E bricks: Individual not more than 5 mm.
3) For FBA and NFP bricks: No requirement.

4.2.5 Defects in bricks³ ⁴

The following are some of the defects that can occur in bricks:

 Black core: When bricks made from red clay are heated too rapidly, the outer shell will
harden very quickly while the inside of the brick remains black.
 Under burn: When a brick is not heated high or long enough the brick doesn’t harden
totally which causes the brick to be softer than a correctly fired brick; these bricks are
called grizzles.
 Over burn: When a brick is heated at too high temperatures or too long it will harden
more, darken more and be smaller than a correctly fired brick.
 Bloating or swelling: Caused by an excess of carbon matter (coal) present in the clay
used to manufacture the brick; also due to bad burning.
 Clinkering: When damp, burnt bricks fuse together through excessive heat, clinkers are
formed. They are usually crusher for coarse aggregate or architectural features.
 Chuffs: Badly cracked and mis-shaped bricks, on account of water (rain) falling on them
when still hot.
 Crozzles: Distorted bricks caused by lack of care in drying, poor clay or poor blends of
clay, errors in kiln placement or over burning.
 Scum: Result of soluble salts in the clay or a deposit in the kiln by insufficient drying
with hot air in the pre-firing stage.
 Efflorescence: Whitish salt deposits that form on the surface of the brick because of
the presence of soluble salts in the brick; it dissolves in water which brings the salt to
the surface of the brick. The water evaporates and leaves the whitish salt deposits
behind.
 Iron spots: Dark spots on the surface caused by the presence of iron sulphide in the
clay.

4.3 TIMBER

This is also structural material that has been used for many years in the construction industry
for different buildings.

Refer to pages 210–226 of the prescribed textbook for a detailed discussion of the
characteristics of this material.

This section is an expansion of the discussion covered in the prescribed textbook. Let us look at
how wood is used in civil engineering.

89
Use of wood in civil engineering applications

The following are the most important application of wood in civil engineering:

Roof trusses

Trusses are triangular wooden structures that are used in the construction of roofs.

Study figure 4-1 displaying the roof trusses of a house that is being built.

Figure 4-1: Roof truss example

Study figure 4.2 below displaying some of the basic terminology associated with trusses.

Figure 4-2: Truss terminology

The main advantages of using trusses are:

1) Trusses are very strong.

90
2) Trusses are built mostly from short lengths of lumber, which makes them relatively
cheap.
3) Trusses can be built in any shape the roof needs to be.
4) Trusses can span large distances, while transferring any load to the exterior wall.
5) Trusses can be built by hand and are moved and erected quickly and easily.

Study table 4-2 below for a summary of some of the most common standard shapes of trusses.

Table 4-2: Common roof truss shapes

Truss Name Truss Shape
W-truss

M-truss

Scissor truss

Gable truss

4.4 STEEL/METAL

Refer to page 224 of the prescribed book for a discussion on steel/metal in construction.

In the section below, we discuss the engineering properties of steel in more detail.

4.4.1 Deformation of metals

Stress and strain in materials

91
When a force is applied to a material, the material will deform due to the force being
applied exceeding the internal resistance of the material to which the force is being
applied. As such we can state that the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an
applied force without failing.

During testing of a material, the stress-strain curve depicts the relationship between stress,
which is a function of the force applied on the metal and the strain, which is a function of
the resulting deformation of the metal. A Stress-strain curve may be linear or non-linear.

Study figure 4-3 below for the display of the difference between the two.

Figure 4-3: Stress-strain relationships

Stress is expressed as the force applied per unit area:

Stress (σ) = (N/mm2 or MPa)

Strain is expressed as the change in length of a metal divided by its original length:

Strain (ε) = (no unit)

Elastic and plastic properties

A material can exhibit elastic and/or plastic behaviour.

When a material has elastic properties, it means that the material will deform when a force
is applied and that the material will return to its original shape when the force is no longer
being applied to the material.

Study figure 4-4 below for the illustration of this concept.

92
 Figure 4-4: Stress-strain relationships: Linear elastic and non-linear elastic

When a material has plastic properties, it means that the material will deform when a
force is applied but that the material will not return to its original shape when the force is
not applied anymore. A permanent deformation of the material will have happened.

Study figure 4-5 below for the illustration of this concept.

Figure 4-5: Stress-strain relationships: Linear plastic and non-linear plastic

Some materials will behave elastic in a certain range but start behaving plastic when the
stress on the material gets too high, i.e. the force applied on the material becomes too big.

Study figure 4-6 below for the illustration of this concept.

93
 Figure 4-6: Stress-strain relationships: Linear elastic and non-linear plastic

Stress-strain diagram

When a metal, for instance steel, is tested, a pre-prepared bar of the metal is placed in a
tensile testing machine and pulled apart. The applied load and the resulting deformation,
i.e. change in length, is measured. The applied load is plotted against the deformation and
the result is a stress-strain diagram for that metal.

Study the illustrative stress-strain diagram displayed in figure 4-7 below. It explains some
of the stress-strain concepts.

94
 Figure 4-7: Illustrative stress-strain diagram for steel

 The load is applied to the metal sample at point A. There is a linear relationship
between stress and strain until point B is reached. Point B is called the proportional
limit and within this limit the stress is directly proportional to the strain (this is
shown by the straight line up until point B). The ratio of stress to strain in this linear
region of the stress-strain diagram is called Young’s modulus or the modulus of
elasticity.

 When point B is reached, the metal starts yielding. At this point a small additional
load is enough to result in a large deformation.

 Point C is called the upper yield point while point D is called the lower yield point.
As the upper yield point has little practical importance, the lower yield point (D) is
usually referred to as the yield point.

 From D to E, the sample continues to deform without an increase in stress. The

region DE is referred to as the perfectly plastic region. At E the stress begins to
increase again. The region EF is called the straight hardening region.

 The point F is called the ultimate stress and at this point the metal will have
reached its maximum tensile stress. At point F the load begins to drop and the
sample begins to neck down. The region FG is called the necking region.

 The necking down continues until, at point G, fracture or rupture occurs (i.e. the
sample breaks). Point G is called the fracture or rupture stress.

Necking of steel is illustrated in figure 4-7, study it.

95
 Figure 4-7: Illustration of necking in a steel rod⁴

Steel is usually graded by the yield strength and not the ultimate strength as is the norm
with concrete. In the civil engineering industry steel is mainly used in two ways, namely as
a means of reinforcing concrete or as part of a steel structure.

4.4.2 Steel reinforcement of concrete³

The addition of steel into the design of a concrete structure has the following advantages:

1) Steel is used to reinforce concrete to increase the tensile strength of the concrete. If
this was not done many buildings where concrete was used as part of the structure,
would collapse. Imagine what would happen with the concrete floors in a high rise
building if no steel reinforcement was designed into the concrete.
2) Steel reinforcement can also be used to increase the compressive strength in
structures such as columns.
3) Steel reinforcement is used to control cracking of hardened concrete.

For steel to be effective as reinforcement in concrete, it needs to bond well to the

concrete. This is necessary to ensure that stresses that build up in the concrete structure
on account of loading are effectively transferred to the steel reinforcement.

Therefore, the following is necessary to improve stress transference to the reinforcing

steel:

1) The concrete must be fully compacted to ensure that no excessive bleeding takes
place as this will reduce the bonding of the concrete to the steel, especially in the
case of horizontal bars.

96
2) Loose rust, paint or oil must be removed from the reinforcing steel as this will also
reduce the bonding of the concrete to the steel.

Rust is problematic for steel reinforcement in concrete. When chlorides reach the
reinforcement, rust will occur. To prevent rust forming on the steel the following can be
done:

1) When reinforcement is in concrete structures that are erected in coastal regions

where chlorides tend to ingress, galvanised steel or stainless steel must be used as
they are protected from the attack of chlorides.
2) Increase the cover to the reinforcement, thereby increasing the distance that
chlorides must travel to the reinforcement.
3) Change the design of the concrete mix to include additives that will protect the
reinforcement from the attack of chlorides.
4) Treat the steel used as reinforcement so that it is less susceptible to the attack of
chlorides.
5) Design the concrete in such a way that, included with better compaction, it is less
permeable to the ingress of chlorides.
6) Treat the surface of the concrete with paint, sealer, etc to prevent the ingress of
water and chlorides into the concrete.

Types of reinforcing steel used in concrete

Types of reinforcing steel available to reinforce concrete:

 Plain, mild steel bars (designated by the letter R)

 Deformed high-yield bars (designated by the letter Y)
 Steel fabric (mats).

Mild steel bars usually have a smooth surface and can be easily bent into shapes like
stirrups or links. High-yield bars have a ribbed surface and are usually used as
reinforcement in the concrete where compressive or tensile loads are high.

Mild steel bars and high-yield bars are displayed in figure 4-8 below.

97
 Figure 4-8: (a) Mild steel bars and (b) High-yield bars

The important properties of reinforcing steel are summarised in table 4-3 below.

Mild steel High-yield steel

Minimum tensile strength = 250 MPa Minimum tensile strength = 450 MPa
Must not be cut by means of oxyacetylene
Cutting, bending, riveting and welding torches as the heat can reduce the tensile
are easy strength
Equally strong in tension, compression Is stronger in compression than in tension or
and shear shear

Table 4-3: Properties of reinforcing steel

4.5 UNIT 4 – SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1) In seven steps, describe how bricks are manufactured.

2) Describe three types of bricks, by defining their shapes.

3) Name five advantages of holes in bricks.

4) Name eight types of bricks (abbreviation and full name).

5) Name six properties of bricks.

6) What is meant by the term water absorption of bricks?

7) What is efflorescence?

8) How is efflorescence treated? What should you not do?

98
9) Specify the tolerance of warpage allowed for FBX, FBS, E, FBA and NFP bricks.

10) Name five advantages of calcium silicate bricks.

11) How are concrete bricks manufactured?

12) What is the difference in size between concrete bricks and concrete blocks?

13) What is meant when talking of the strength of a metal?

14) Describe, with the help of diagrams, what the difference is between a linear and a
non-linear stress-strain diagram.

15) Define stress. State what stress is and give a formula to calculate stress, including the
unit of stress.

16) Define strain. State what strain is and give a formula to calculate strain, including the
unit of strain.

17) Describe, with the help of diagrams, what the difference is between the linear and
non-linear elastic properties of a metal.

18) Describe, with the help of diagrams, what the difference is between the linear and
non-linear plastic properties of a metal.

19) Name the advantages that the addition of steel into the design of a concrete
structure has.

20) Name two methods that can improve the stress transfer to steel in a concrete
structure.

21) Describe six methods to prevent rust forming on the steel in a concrete structure.

22) Name two types of reinforcing steel in concrete. Describe how the classification of
these two types of steel works.

23) Describe, with the help of a diagram, the different names used for parts of a truss.

24) Describe, with the help of diagrams, four common shapes of trusses.

4.6 REFERENCES

1) Technical Guide, Clay Brick Association, 2016

2) Technical notes on brick construction, The Brick Industry Association, 2009

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3) Fulton’s Concrete Technology, Cement & Concrete Institute, chapter 14.
4) https://civildigital.com/ductile-fracture-metals-necking-cup-cone-failure/

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UNIT 5 – ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In this study unit, we discuss environmental issues related to engineering and

development.

Refer to page 247, chapter 5 of the prescribed textbook for a detailed discussion on this
topic.

This chapter introduces the field of environmental engineering and emphasises the need
for engineers to consider seriously the impact of development on the conservation of
resources and the environment. Relevant natural and man-made processes and causes of
environmental and resource degradation such as soil erosion, water pollution, toxic waste
and air pollution are also discussed, with emphasis on ways to prevent them in the case of
man-made processes or to manage them in the case of natural degradation processes. The
interaction between the field of civil engineering and the environment is also highlighted,
with emphasis on ways of performing construction activities without causing harm to the
environment.

5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS

As participants in civil engineering and development, we need to be aware of the impact of

our processes on the environment and contribute to responsible practices that will ensure
environmental sustainability.

One of the organisations that drives such initiatives is the United Nations Global Compact
(UNGC). It is the largest corporate citizenship initiative in the world with almost 6 000
participants in over 120 countries. Companies and organisations join voluntarily and there
is no monitoring or enforcement. The emphasis is on responsibility and accountability of
organisational leadership. This initiative consists of ten principles to improve corporate
citizenship amongst public, private and civil-society entities.

There are ten UNGC principles, which cover the following four areas:

 human rights
 labour standards
 the environment
 anti-corruption

To learn more about this organisation, visit the following website:

(http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/index.html), for a brief description, refer
to Annexure 5A at the end of this study unit.

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The area that is more aligned to this module is that of environment. Below are principles
that businesses, in this case civil engineering, can refer to in their practices.

ENVIRONMENT

Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental

challenges
Principle 8: Undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility
Principle 9: Encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly
technologies

Activity 5

1) What, in your opinion, can be done differently in the construction industry to limit
negative environmental impact?
2) Are you aware of any new environmentally friendly technologies that can be
explored in this field and if so, how can they be integrated in the construction
process?

Share your answers with your peers on the myUnisa discussion forums. Check for your
peers’ contributions and participate in the discussions. I will check and steer the
discussions.

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Appendix 5A: AN OVERVIEW OF THE TEN PRINCIPLES OF THE UNGC

The United Nations Global Compact (UNGC) was launched in 2000 and consists of ten
principles to improve corporate citizenship amongst public, private and civil-society
entities
(http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/index.html). The UNGC is the largest
corporate citizenship initiative in the world with almost 6 000 participants in over 120
countries. Companies and organisations join voluntarily and there is no monitoring or
enforcement. The emphasis is on responsibility and accountability of organisational
leadership.

The Global Compact is a leadership platform, endorsed by Chief Executive Officers; offering
a unique strategic platform for participants to advance their commitments to sustainability
and corporate citizenship. Structured as a public-private initiative, the Global Compact is
policy framework for the development, implementation, and disclosure of sustainability
principles and practices and offers participants a wide spectrum of specialised work-
streams, management tools and resources, and topical programmes and projects – all
designed to help advance sustainable business models and markets in order to contribute
to the initiative's overarching mission of helping to build a more sustainable and inclusive
global economy (http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/index.html).

When an organisation joins the UNGC, they commit themselves to the following:
1. To make the Global Compact principles an integrated part of management strategy
and operations
2. To publish progress reports on implementing UNGC principles
3. To publicly advocate the Global Compact and its principles
(http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/news_events/8.1/after_the_signature.pdf)

This commitment involves integrating the UNGC principles into all aspects of the
institution. There are ten UNGC principles which cover four areas, namely human rights,
labour standards, the environment and anti-corruption.

The principles are briefly stated as follows:

HUMAN RIGHTS
 Principle 1: Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally
proclaimed human rights; and
 Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses.

LABOUR STANDARDS
 Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective
recognition of the right to collective bargaining;

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  Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour;
 Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labour; and
 Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and
occupation.

ENVIRONMENT
 Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental
challenges;
 Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility;
and
 Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly
technologies.

ANTI-CORRUPTION
 Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including
extortion and bribery.

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UNIT 6 – INTERNAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In this study unit, we discuss building materials used as finishes.

Refer to page 269 chapter 6 of the prescribed textbook for a detailed discussion on this
topic.

This chapter introduces the basic engineering materials used as finishes in buildings, which
include floor finishes such as:

 ceramic tiles
 natural stone tiles
 granite
 marble
 limestone
 travertine
 slates

It is important to note that such materials are usually specified and checked by the
architect who forms part of the design team. The engineer only needs background
knowledge on these materials and must be aware of the cost impact of these materials on
the project.

Activity 6.1
Complete activity 1 on page 279 of the prescribed textbook and share your answers with
your peers online on the myUnisa module page discussion tool.

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