Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

6. Digital Electronics
6.1.Introduction
Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate information in digital form. They are
found in a wide range of applications, including process control, communication systems, digital
instruments, and consumer products. The digital computer, more commonly called the “computer,” is
an example of a typical digital system.
A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary form. A binary number has
only two discrete values - zero or one. Each of these discrete values is represented by the OFF and
ON status of an electronic switch called a “transistor.” All computers, therefore, only understand
binary numbers. Any decimal number (base 10, with ten digits from 0 to 9) can be represented by a
binary number (base 2, with digits 0 and 1).

6.2.Basic and derived logic gates

Logic gates are electronic circuits that can be used to implement the most elementary logic
expressions, also known as Boolean expressions. The logic gate is the most basic building block of
combinational logic. There are three basic logic gates, namely the OR gate, the AND gate and the
NOT gate. Other logic gates that are derived from these basic gates are the NAND gate, the NOR
gate, the EXCLUSIVEOR gate and the EXCLUSIVE-NOR gate.
The binary variables, as we know, can have either of the two states, i.e. the logic ‘0’ state or the logic
‘1’ state. These logic states in digital systems such as computers, for instance, are represented by two
different voltage levels or two different current levels. If the more positive of the two voltage or
current levels represents a logic ‘1’ and the less positive of the two levels represents a logic ‘0’, then
the logic system is referred to as a positive logic system. If the more positive of the two voltage or
current levels represents a logic ‘0’ and the less positive of the two levels represents a logic ‘1’, then
the logic system is referred to as a negative logic system.
If the two voltage levels are 0 V and +5 V, then in the positive logic system the 0 V represents a logic
‘0’ and the +5 V represents a logic ‘1’. In the negative logic system, 0 V represents a logic ‘1’ and +5
V represents a logic ‘0’.
If the two voltage levels are 0 V and −5 V, then in the positive logic system the 0 V represents a logic
‘1’ and the −5 V represents a logic ‘0’. In the negative logic system, 0 V represents a logic ‘0’ and −5
V represents a logic ‘1’.
Fig. 6.1 shows the symbols and truth tables of the three basic logic gates.

Figure 6.1 Basic logic Elements (a) AND; (b) OR; and (c) NOT (inverter).
The basic gates’ functions are easily defined as follows:
 An AND gate produces a 1 output if and only if all of its inputs are 1.
 An OR gate produces a 1 output if and only if one or more of its inputs are 1.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
1
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

 A NOT gate, usually called an inverter, produces an output value that is the opposite of its
input value.
The operation of the derived logic gates are as follows:
 The output of an EXCLUSIVE-OR (EX-OR) gate is a logic ‘1’ when the inputs are unlike
and a logic ‘0’ when the inputs are like.
 NAND stands for NOT AND. An AND gate followed by a NOT circuit makes it a NAND
gate. The output of a NAND gate is logic ‘0’ when all its inputs are logic ‘1’. For all other
input combinations, the output is logic ‘1’.
 NOR stands for NOT OR. An OR gate followed by a NOT circuit makes it a NOR gate. The
output of a NOR gate is a logic ‘1’ when all its inputs are logic ‘0’; for all other input
combinations, the output is a logic ‘0’.
 EXCLUSIVE-NOR (commonly written as EX-NOR) means NOT of EX-OR, i.e. the logic
gate that we get by complementing the output of an EX-OR gate. The output of a two-input
EX-NOR gate is logic ‘1’ when the inputs are like and logic ‘0’ when they are unlike.

6.3.Realization of discrete logic gates

Logic gates are basic elements used in digital system design. Different logic families used to
hardware-implement different logic functions in the form of digital integrated circuits. Combinational
logic or gates, which perform Boolean operations on multiple input variables and determine the
outputs as Boolean functions of the inputs are the basic building blocks of all digital systems. In this
section we are going to see the circuit realization of simple discrete logic gates.
6.3.1. Inverter (Not Gate)
BJT transistor, nMOS transistor and CMOS technologies can be used for circuit realization of the
NOT gate (inverter). Figure 6.2 shows how to use the transistor as an inverter. When VIN = 0, the
transistor is in cutoff (OFF), and the collector-emitter switch is open, this means that, no current
flows from +VCC to ground. VOUT is equal to +VCC Thus, VOUT is high. On the other hand, when VIN is
High, the emitter-collector switch is closed, current flows from +VCC to ground. The transistor
operates in saturation, and VOUT = VCE(sat) = 0.2 V 0. Thus, VOUT is basically connected to ground.
Therefore, for VIN = Low, VOUT= High, and for VIN = High, VOUT= Low. Hence, the npn transistor in
Figure 6.2 acts as an inverter.

Figure 6.2 An inverter

Fig. 6.3 shows an nMOS inverter. When VIN = Low, the resistance between the drain and the source
(RDS) is very high, and no current flows from VCC to the ground. VOUT is therefore High. On the
otherhand, when VIN = High, RDS is very low, a current flows from VCC to the source, and VOUT is
Low. Therefore, the circuit acts as an inverter.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
2
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

Figure 6.3 An nMOS inverter

Figure 6.4 shows a typical CMOS inverter. The CMOS inverter is very similar to the TTL totem-pole
output circuit. That is, when Q1 is ON (low resistance), Q2 is OFF (high resistance), and vice versa.
When VIN = Low, Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF. This makes VOUT = High. On the other hand, when VIN =
High, Q1 is OFF (high resistance) and Q2 is ON (low resistance). This provides a low VOUT. Thus, the
circuit works as an inverter.

Figure 6.4 A CMOS inverter

6.3.2. Two-Input NOR Gate
Fig. 6.5 shows the circuit diagram of a two-input CMOS NOR gate. When either one or both inputs are high,
the nMOS transistor(s) creates a conducting path between the output node and ground, and the pMOS
transistors are cut-off. When both input voltages are low, the nMOS transistors are cut-off and the pMOS
transistors create a conducting path between the output node and the supply voltage VDD.
The output voltage of a CMOS NOR2 gate will attain a logic-low voltage of VOL = 0 and a logic-high voltage
of VOH = VDD. For circuit design purposes, the switching threshold voltage Vth of a CMOS gate emerges as an
important design criterion.

Figure 6.5 A CMOS two-input NOR gate.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
3
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

6.3.3. Two-Input NAND Gate

Fig. 6.6 shows a two-input CMOS NAND (NAND2) gate. The two series connected nMOS
transistors creates a conducting path between output node and the ground only if both input voltages
are set to VOH. In this scenario, both the parallel pMOS transistors will be off. For all other input
combinations, either one or both of the pMOS transistors will be turned on, while the path of the
nMOS transistors will be cut-off, thus creating a current path between the output node and the power
supply voltage.

Figure 6.6 A CMOS two-input NAND gate.

6.3.4. Two-Input AND Gate
An AND gate is nothing but a NAND gate followed by an inverter. Fig. 6.7 shows the internal
schematic of a two-input AND in CMOS. A buffered AND gate is fabricated by using a NOR gate
schematic with inverters at both of its inputs and its output feeding two series-connected inverters.

Figure 6.7 Two-input AND in CMOS.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
4
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

6.3.5.Two-Input AND Gate

An OR gate is nothing but a NOR gate followed by an inverter. Fig. 6.8 shows the internal schematic
of a two-input OR in CMOS. A buffered OR gate is fabricated by using a NAND gate schematic with
inverters at both of its inputs and its output feeding two series-connected inverters.

Figure 6.8 Two-input OR in CMOS.

6.4.Digital integrated circuits and logic families
Digital integrated circuits are produced using several different circuit configurations and production
technologies. There are a variety of circuit configurations or more appropriately various approaches
used to produce different types of digital integrated circuit. Each such fundamental approach is called
a logic family. The idea is that different logic functions, when fabricated in the form of an IC with the
same approach, or in other words belonging to the same logic family, will have identical electrical
characteristics. These characteristics include supply voltage range, speed of response, power
dissipation, input and output logic levels, current sourcing and sinking capability, fan-out, noise
margin, etc. In other words, the set of digital ICs belonging to the same logic family are electrically
compatible with each other.
A digital system in general comprises digital ICs performing different logic functions, and choosing
these ICs from the same logic family guarantees that different ICs are compatible with respect to each
other and that the system as a whole performs the intended logic function. In the case where the
output of an IC belonging to a certain family feeds the inputs of another IC belonging to a different
family, we must use established interface techniques to ensure compatibility. Understanding the
features and capabilities of different logic families is very important for a logic designer who is out to
make an optimum choice for his new digital design from the available logic family alternatives. A not
so well thought out choice can easily under-kill or overkill the design with either inadequate or
excessive capabilities.
The entire range of digital ICs is fabricated using either bipolar devices or MOS devices or a
combination of the two. Different logic families falling in the first category are called bipolar
families, and these include diode logic (DL), resistor transistor logic (RTL), diode transistor logic
(DTL), transistor-transistor logic (TTL), emitter coupled logic (ECL), also known as current mode
logic (CML), and integrated injection logic (I2L). The logic families that use MOS devices as their
basis are known as MOS families, and the prominent members belonging to this category are the

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
5
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

PMOS family (using P-channel MOSFETs), the NMOS family (using N-channel MOSFETs) and the
CMOS family (using both N- and P-channel devices). The Bi-MOS logic family uses both bipolar
and MOS devices.
Of all the logic families listed above, the first three, that is, diode logic (DL), resistor transistor logic
(RTL) and diode transistor logic (DTL), are of historical importance only. Diode logic used diodes
and resistors and in fact was never implemented in integrated circuits. The RTL family used resistors
and bipolar transistors, while the DTL family used resistors, diodes and bipolar transistors. Both RTL
and DTL suffered from large propagation delay owing to the need for the transistor base charge to
leak out if the transistor were to switch from conducting to nonconducting state. Figure 6.9 shows the
simplified schematics of a two-input AND gate using DL [Fig. 6.9(a)], a two-input NOR gate using
RTL [Fig. 6.9(b)] and a two-input NAND gate using DTL [Fig. 6.9(c)]. The DL, RTL and DTL
families, however, were rendered obsolete very shortly after their introduction in the early 1960s
owing to the arrival on the scene of transistor transistor logic (TTL).
Logic families that are still in widespread use include TTL, CMOS, ECL, NMOS and Bi-CMOS.
The PMOS and I2L logic families, which were mainly intended for use in custom large-scale
integrated (LSI) circuit devices, have also been rendered more or less obsolete, with the NMOS logic
family replacing them for LSI and VLSI applications.

Figure 6.9 (a) Diode logic (b) resistor transistor logic and (c) diode transistor logic.

The TTL family has a number of subfamilies including standard TTL, low-power TTL, high-power
TTL, low-power Schottky TTL, Schottky TTL, advanced low-power Schottky TTL, advanced
Schottky TTL and fast TTL. The popular CMOS subfamilies include the 4000A, 4000B, 4000UB,
54/74C, 54/74HC, 54/74HCT, 54/74AC and 54/74ACT families. The first monolithic emitter
coupled logic family was introduced by ON Semiconductor, formerly a division of Motorola, with
the MECL-I series of devices in 1962, with the MECL-II series following it up in 1966. Both these
logic families have become obsolete.

6.5.Comparison of common logic families

Table 6.1 gives a comparison of various performance characteristics of important logic families for
quick reference. The data given in the case of CMOS families are for VDD =5 V. In the case of ECL
families, the data are for VEE = −5.2 V. The values of various parameters given in the table should be
used only for rough comparison. It is recommended that designers refer to the relevant data books for
detailed information on these parameters along with the conditions under which those values are
valid.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
6
Chapter-6 Class Notes of Applied Electronics II

Table 6.1 Comparison of various performance characteristics of important logic families.

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department CET, Adigrat University, By: Brhane F.
7