CHAPTER -7

SET THEORY
idea of set is
The familiar to all. It is
one of the
theory isfundamental
in
coNepts
Mathcmatics.
The knowledge of set
many problems in business and o
solve of
essential
understand many advanced
to
Mathematics which are
conepls
ieision -making. extcnsively used in business for
modern business
The depends heavily on market information.
Environnental analysis has assumed
a greater
hcauseof the increasing competition and importance these days
inthe market. Market information i.e., thechanges that are that
opportunities takingexistplace
in
ihe market and the threats posed by the market, decides the level of
activitiesand the strategies to be adopted by an enterprise. One of the
enurces of information 1s market survey. Principles of set theory
are used to analyse the results of the market survey. Thus, knowledge
of set theory 1s very essential for a businessman.
When the objects to be analysed are large in number, it is always
convenient to study them in groups rather than individually. Eg.
oroup of products, group of customers, group of industries, etc. Each
of the above is an example of set of objects. There is no rule that a
set should contain, a particular thing. A set may contain any object
Drovided the definition of that set permits such inclusion. In other
words, any element may be included in a set if the definition of that
set permits. For example, A set of students in B.Com. second year of
aparticular collge. This set contains all the students of that college
who are studying in second year B.Com. In other words, the set does
not include the students other than those who are studying in second
year B.Com in that college. Hence, it is clear that a set contains Such
CiCmenis hich are permitted by its definition. Therefore, the definition
Oa set should be very clear. It is easier to distinguish between the
elements of a set and others, when the definition is clear.

Definition
e Is a collection of well defined objects. According to Cantor,
"a set iS a collection of definite, well distinguished objects of
Perception or thought":
 The objects belonging to a set are called the elements of the
capital letters of
normally denoted by the
English
so on. The elements of a set
Sets are
by small A,B.C.D,E

belonging to
and
letters of Enghsh alphabet. For example. a,b.c,x,y and
For example,
a set are shown
within
the
flower
are alpdehatene
The objecIs
shown below

A= (a.e.).0,u) read as a set of

vowels in English

a set of positive odd

bra
\anguage.
ckes
B = 1.3,5,7,9) read
as numbers
Methods of Defining a Set
set. The
There are (wo methods of defining a first method
known as Enumeration Method. It is also called Roster Meth
elements of a set are
Tabular Method. It is used when the very
otfehw.er In
this method, all the elements of a set are listed one after
using commas.
the
Examples
(i) A =(2,4,6,8,10}
The above set is a set of positive even numbers from 1
Totally there are five even numbers from 1to 10.
numbers are shown within the flower bracket, one after All the even
the
commas. other, using
(iü)O= (1,4,9}
The above set contains three
perfect squares between numbers elements viz., 1,4 and 9 which as
1and 10. The set is
containing perfect squares between l and read as the set
perfect squares which satisfy the 10. There are only thre
shown in the bracket. definition of the set. All of them are
The second method of
Property Method. defining a set is called the
It is also called
or Secular the Rule Method or Descriptive
are large in
Method. This method is used Pattern Method
when the
number. When the elements of a set elements of a set
il is not
possible to enlist all the
they are not
are large in nuibe,
listed but described inelements. Under such circumstances
Examples definite terms.
(i) M = (xlx is a
II isread as :'x'perfect square less than 1000}
is a
square less than one member of the set Msuch that it is a perfect
thousand.
 269
(xIx iS a positive
integer within 10,0000
as: 'x' is a
member of the set X divisable by 10)
than 10.000,
intcger less
divisible by 10. such that it is a
PESOFSETS
and Infinite Sets
Finite
may be either finite set of
AsCl
cOntains a
definite number of infinite set. Afinite set is onc
ahch

E\amples
clements.
=(xx is a vOwel in
(0 A the English language}
() B =
{Number of days in a
week)
Inthe above examples, the elements are
are finite sets. definite in number. Hence,
these

An infinite
set is one which contains unlimited
number of elements.
Examples
X= {xlx is a natural number)
) Y= (Ix is a multiple of 5}
In the above examples, the number of elements are unlimited. For
example, natural numberS are infinite in number. So is the case with
te second example. The numbers which are multiples of 5 are
unlimited. Hence, they are infinite sets.

Singleton and Null Sets

There is no rule that a set should contain certain number of
elements. A set containing a single element is known as singleton. A
set having no elements is called the empty set or null set. It is denoted
by the letter Ø (read as phi).

Examples
(a) Singleton
A= (a)
4}
(XIX IS a positive integer between 2 and
(XIx is a perfect square less than number 3}
 (b) NulI Set
X =| and 10)
a prime number between 9
Y ={xlx is
perfect squarc betwecn 5 and 8)
Z = (xlx is a

Sub Set
'A' is callcd the subset of the othcr set 'B' if :all the
Aset
of sct 'A' are found in sct 'B. In other words,
a set 'A' is
every clement of set 'A is also
ecallemteg
subset of 'B' if and only if an
of set 'B:. The subsct
relationship is denoted by the symbol cleme
above example, ACB, which is read as 'A' is a subset of 'B.

Examples
(i) A = {1,3,5,7,8,9)
(ii) B ={1.2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9, 10}
Therefore, A cB
In the above example, all the elements of set 'A' are
elements of set 'B. Hence, set 'A' is a subset of set 'B'. also th
(ii) X = {0,1,2,3,4,5}
Y = (0,4,5} Z= {0,1,2,4,5}
Sets 'Y and 'Z' are the subsets of the set X. IL is
symbolically as, represente
YCX and Z CX
As per the definition of the subset, every set is a
and a null set is a subset of all the sets.
subset of ite

Super Set
(If 'A' and "B' are two sets and set 'A' is
a subset of set 'B, th
set 'B' is called the super set of
set 'A', This is
symbol D. ie., B DA, read as set 'B' is represented by
the superset of set A.
Examples
M =(a,b,c,d,e,f}
N= (a.bc), 0 =(b,c,d)
In the above P= (d,e.f}
example, sets 'N, 'O' and 'P are the subsets of
 271
and 'M is he
as, supersel of the sets 'N. 'O and 'P.
M
represented
i s Symbolically
M• N, MD0 and M
PowerSet

Power set is aa set

set containing
some containing all the sub sets of a set. If 'A is a
of sCt 'A. I clements,
is then power sct of 'A is the sct of all
subscts denoted by P(A).
Example
A = (1.2.3}
Subsets off set A =(Ø}, {1), (2), (3}, (1.2}, (1.3}. (2.3).
|1.2.3}
PA) = (D}. ), (2}. (3}. (1,2). (1,3}. (2.3).
(1.2,3)) |
Proper and Improper Sets
1f set 'A' is the subset of set 'B'
and contains at least one element
lsss than the elements of set B, then, set 'A' is
called the proper sub
of se 'B'. If set A' contains all the
elements of set 'B', then set 'A'
is called the improper sub set of set 'B'.
Symbolically,
If ACB and A # B, then, set 'A' is called the proper sub set of.
set 'B'.
If ACB and A = B, then set 'A' is called the improper subset of
set 'B'.

Universal Set
A universal set is one which contains all the elements of other sets
under consideration. Thus, Universal set is the super set of all the sets
under consideration. It is denoted by the symbol U.

U=
 272

Examples x}
(Students of 2nd year B.Com of college
U=
(Boys of 2nd year B.Com of college x
A =
college x}
B= (Girls of 2nd year B.Com of
In the above cxample, set of all students of 2nd year B.Com of
'A' and 'B' are the subsets
college xis the universal set. Sets of the
universal set. )
Diagramatically a universal set is shown in a rectangular form
the clements are shown by putting dots.
and
Equal and Equivalent Sets
Sets are called equal sets when both of them are having the Same
clements in same number.

Examples
(a) A = (2,4,6} (b) X = {a,b,c,d,e)
B = (4,6,2} Y ={b,c,a,e,d}
Sets'A' and B' and Sets 'X and Y are equal sets
contain same elements in same number. The because they
is not considered in the
formation of sets.
arrangement of elements
Observe the following sets.
(a) A =(X,y,z} (b) X = {5,7,9)
B =(a,b,c} Y =(4,6,8}
Sets 'A' and 'B' and sets X
elements but the elements are and Y are having
same
not same. Set A has number of
elements whereas set 'B' has a,b,c, as its x,y,z as its
elements in sets "X and Y are 5,7,9 elements. In the same way
cases, where the number of and 4,6,8
sets are called respectively.
In such
elements are the same in both the sets,
quivalent sets. the
Examples
(a) M =
(1,2,3,4} (b) P =
N= (5,6,7,8) (a,b,c,d,e}
"M and 'N are =(f.gh,ij}
'P and 'Q
are
equivalent sets
equivalent sets
 isfont
Sets
sets do not have. any
henthe thing in
H sCts
is/ONl common, they are called
famples
(Teachers in a
(a)
A=
particular college)
(Students in a particular
B=
X= (Cars in a particular city} college}
(b)
Y = (Scooters in a particular city)
and B' and sets 'X and 'Y are
Sets'A'
disjoint sets.
WORKED PROBLEMS
1 Write the following sets using enumeration (tabular) method.
(a) Set of positive integers between 5 and 9.
(b) Set of prime numbers within 10.
(c) Set of the letters of the word 'Mathematics.
d) Set of vowels of the English alphabet.

Solution :
(a) (6,7,8}
(b) (2,3,5,7}
(c) (m,a.t,h,e,i,c,s} Because, the same letters are not counted twice.
(d) (a,e,i,0,u}
2 Write the following sets using rule method.
(a) A = {l,m,n,0,p,q}
(b) B = {2,4,6,8}
(c) C = {1,4,9,16,25}
(d) D ={5,10,15,20,25,.....}
Solution : between k and r)
(a) A = {xlx is a letter of the English alphabet
integer less than 10)
(b) B = xx is an even positive
6}
(c) C ={xlx is a positive integer less than
4) D= (xlx is a number divisible by ive)
 274

the following sets are finite or infinite

3. State whether
(a) A= fa.b.c.d,e }
{1.2,3,4.5.6,.....
(b) B =
(c) C =(x/x is apositive
integer divisible by 3)
less than |O
(d) D = (xIx is a even positive number
Solution:
(a) Finite (b) Infinite (c) Infinite
(d) Finite
4. Classify the following sets into finite, infinite, singleton and
sets. nul|
(a) A= (xlx is the names of months in a year}
(b) B = (xlx is a prime number between 4 and 6}
(c) C = (xlx is rational number}
(d) D = (xlx is a prime number between 3 and 5}
Solution:
(a) Finite set (b) Singleton (c) Infinite (d) Null
5. Write all the subsets of the set A= {a,b,c}
Solution:
The sub set of the set A = {a,b,c} are {Ø), (a),
{b}, {c); (a.b).
(b.c). {c,a). {a,b,c}
6. State
whether the following sets are equal.
(a) A = {5,7,8,1,9) B = {1,8,9,7,5)
(b) C= {I,m,n,o} D= (l,m,n,0,p}
(c) E = {xlx² =4)
F= (2)
(d) G= {xlx is a positive
number within 10} H= (1,2,3,4,5]
Solution:
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Yes (d) No
7. State whether the
(a) A = (a,b,c,d}
following sets are equivalent
B = (1,2,3,4}
(b) C = (xlx is a
positive even number)
 D= xlx Is à
E=(2.4.6,8) F ={1,2,4,6.8}negative even number
(a.e,i,o,u) H = (a.b,0,u)

tion
:
(b) Yes
(c) No
les
(d) No.
whether the following sets are equal or
Stale
{xlx is a negative integer) equivalent.
B = (xlx is a
B)C=(5,6.7.8,9} D = (8,9,7,5,6)positive integer}
E =(a,b.c.d] F= (x,y,c,d}
G=(2,4,6,8,10) H = {xlx is a
positive even
(a) Equivalent sets integer less than 12)
olwtion
:
(c) Equivalent sets
(b) Equal sets (d) Equal sets
SET OPERATIONS
sets are built from the given sets by defining the rules of
New
qerationon
sets. These operations are (i) union, (i) intersection, (iüi)
and (iv) complement ofa set
iorence of two sets
TnionofSets
'A' and 'B' is another set containing all the elements
Union of sets A
set 'A' or in set B'' or both. It is written as AUB, read as
etherin
B.
Ion B or A cup
Symbolically, it is represented as,
AUB = xlx¬A or x¬B} ¬= belongs to

Eamples
B= {1,2,3,4,6,8}
A={1,3,5,7)
AUB = (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}

htersection of Sets the elements

is a set containing
Intersection of two sets 'A' and 'B' written as ANB,
read as A
hich are found in both the sets. It is
Symbolically, it is represented as
B Or A cap B.
x¬B}
ANB = (xlx¬A and
 276

Example
A= (5,10,15,20,25) B= (5,15,25,35,45}
ANB = {5,15,25}
It should be remembered that the intersection of disjoint sets
always be a null set as there will not be any commnon element
sets.

Difference of two Sets

The difference of two sets 'A' and 'B' (1.e., A-B) is the sos
elements which are in set 'A' but not in set 'B. It is denoted as A
read as Aminus B.

Examples
(a) A = {a,b,c,d,e,f.g} (b) X = {1,2,3,4,5,6)
B = (a,c,e,g,h,k} Y =(2,4,6,8,10)
A-B = {b,d,f} X-Y ={1,3,5}
Y-X = (8,10}
Complement of a Set
Let 'A' and 'B' are two sets and 'B' is
the sub set of A: The,
Complement of set 'B' are the elements which are found in 'A' but not
in 'B'. The complement of set
'B' is denoted by B' of B°.
Example
A =(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
B= (1,3,5,7,9}
Complement of B = B' =
(2,4,6,8,10}