Hydrodynamics –

Fluid Dynamic
Week 9
References
Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M., Swaffiled, J. A. and Jack, L. B.
2011, Fluid Mechanics, 6th Ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall England

Cengel, A. Y. and Cimbala, J. M. 2014, Fluid Mechanics

Fundamentals and Applications, 2014 Ed., McGraw Hill New York

Abdul Talib, S., Ahmad, H., Abd Hamid, T. and Ariffin, J. 2002,
Fluid Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Penerbit Anda Subang Jaya
Overview
• 3.2 Fluid dynamic
- Bernoulli/ Energy equation, application for free jet, confined flow,
flow measurement (pitot-tube, venturi mete, orifice, notches) concept
of static and dynamic pressure, stagnation point
Learning Outcomes
• Explain Bernoulli’s principle and energy equation. (CO1PO1)
• Evaluate engineering fluid problems by applying Bernoulli’s
equation and continuity equation. (CO1PO1, CO2PO2)
Conservation of energy and
Bernoulli’s Equation
An element of fluid (in the
figure) will posses:
1) Potential energy due
to its height z above the
datum
2) Kinetic energy due to
its velocity v
3) Pressure energy as
the fluid flow energy
Potential energy due to its Pressure energy as the amount
elevation, of work needed to move,
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊𝑧 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑝𝐴𝑑

Kinetic energy due to its 𝑊

velocity, But, 𝐴𝑑 = 𝑉 =
𝑚𝑣 2 𝛾
𝐾𝐸 =
2 Therefore,
𝑊 𝑊 𝑝𝑊
But, 𝑚 = 𝐹𝐸 = 𝑝 × =
𝑔 𝛾 𝜌𝑔
Therefore,
𝑊𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 =
2𝑔
Total energy, 𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝐹𝐸
𝑊𝑣 2 𝑝𝑊
𝐸 = 𝑊𝑧 + +
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝐸 𝑣2 𝑝
(Per unit weight) =𝑧+ +
𝑊 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑃 𝑣2 H = Total energy expressed as

𝐻= + +𝑧 head (unit: m)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃 = Pressure head (unit: m)
𝜌𝑔
𝑣 2 = Velocity head (unit: m)
2𝑔
z = Elevation head (unit: m)
 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy (and vice versa) during
flow, causing the pressure to change - multiplying the Bernoulli equation by the density gives,

P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic effects; it represents the actual
thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and
property tables.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when the fluid in motion is brought to
a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It is not pressure in a real sense since its value depends on the
reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., fluid weight on pressure. (Be careful
of the sign—unlike hydrostatic pressure gh which increases with fluid depth h, the hydrostatic
pressure term gz decreases with fluid depth.)

Total pressure: The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures. Therefore, the Bernoulli
equation states that the total pressure along a streamline is constant.
Bernoulli’s equation
• Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
• Energy can only be transformed from one form to another.
• In an ideal fluid, where there is no viscosity, the total energy
within a moving fluid must remain constant.
• The total energy at a point in a steady flow, must be equal to the
total energy at any other point in the path of flow provided no
energy is added to the fluid or taken from it.
Bernoulli’s equation between 2 points
𝐻1 = 𝐻2
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
• Assumptions:
• Velocity on the flow cross section is uniform, i.e. average velocity is
used.
• Effect of viscous forces are very small compared to the gravitational
forces, therefore, there are no losses of energy due to friction
• Energy of flow is not converted into any other form apart from kinetic,
potential and pressure energies.
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
• Actual velocity of fluid particles depends on their position from the solid
boundary, however, in deriving Bernoulli’s equation, the average velocity
was used.
• Therefore, a correction must be made by introducing the kinetic energy
correction factor.
Consider a small elemental fluid mass dm moving with velocity v.
True kinetic energy is given by,
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑑𝑚𝑣 2 Mass flowrate
2
1
But the KE across the section per unit time, 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑑𝑀𝑣 2
2
Integrating over the flow cross-section to calculate for total KE,
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = න 𝑑𝑀 𝑣 = න𝜌𝑑𝑄 𝑣 2
2
2 2
𝜌
= න𝑣𝑑𝐴 𝑣 2
2
𝜌
= න𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴 (Eqn 1)
2
 1 1
Considering average velocity, 𝐾𝐸 = 𝜌𝑄𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 3
2 (Eqn 2)
2 2
True KE is equal to the average KE multiplied by KE correction factor,
𝜌 3
1
(Equalizing Eqn 1 and Eqn 2 x α ) න𝑣 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛼 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 3
2 2
1 𝑣3
𝛼= න 3
𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒

Uniform flow: α = 1.0

Turbulent flow: 1.02 < α < 1.15
Laminar flow: α = 2.0

The kinetic energy correction factors are often ignored (i.e., α is set equal to
1) in an elementary analysis.
Energy loss and gain
In practice, a real fluid has no viscosity, so there will be friction within
the flow which causes energy losses. Energy losses can be incorporated
as,

𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿 + ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑝
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Head loss Pump (energy gain)

(energy loss)
Turbine
(energy loss)
Representation of energy changes in a fluid
system

• The changes of energy, and its transformation from one form to

another which occurs in a fluid system, can be represented
graphically.
• In a real fluid system, the total energy per unit weight will not
remain constant. Unless energy is supplied to the system at
some point by means of a pump, it will gradually decrease in
the direction of motion due to losses resulting from friction and
from the disturbance of flow at changes of pipe section or as a
result of changes of direction.
 Velocity negligible, Patm
– total energy = HA/HD Contraction loss - hC
Exit loss - hL

Change of energy from

one form to another can
be represented by:
1) Total Energy Line
(TEL) : total head

2) Hydraulic Grade Line

(HGL): elevation +
pressure head

Entry loss - hL Friction loss - hf

Pump adds energy - hp

• A graphical representation is useful to identify sections of pipeline which
are under negative pressure (below atmospheric pressure).
• The pressure in a flow section that lies above the HGL is negative, and the
pressure in a section that lies below the HGL is positive.
• Flow of water under negative pressure may lead to cavitation and flow
separation. Water will boil and turn to gas, leading to discontinuous flow in
the pipeline.
Example
A pipe conveying water tapers from a cross-sectional area of 0.5
m2 at A and 0.2 m2 at B. The pressure at A is 120 kPa and the
velocity is 2 m/s. Assuming no energy losses, determine the
pressure at B, which is 4 m above the level of A.
Example
A siphon has a uniform circular B
section of 70 mm diameter and
consists of a bent pipe with its crest 1.6 m
1.6 m above the water level as A
shown in figure. The siphon
discharges into the atmosphere at a
level 3.0 m below the water level. 3m
i) Calculate the velocity and the
discharge.
ii) Given the absolute pressure C
head at the end of the siphon is
equivalent to 10 m head of
water. Calculate the absolute
pressure at the crest. Neglect all
losses.
Point A is at the free water surface Point B is at the crest of the siphon:
of the tank: • The velocity is NOT zero
• The velocity is taken as zero • The pressure acting is NOT Patm
• The pressure acting is Patm = 0 B
(datum)
1.6 m
A

3m

Point C is at the end of the siphon:

• The velocity is NOT zero
• The pressure acting is Patm = 0
(datum)
 Example
An elevated water tank is being
drained to an underground
storage through a 300-mm
diameter pipe. The flowrate is
0.2 m3/s and the head loss is
3.0 m. If the underground pipe
is located at 1.5 m below
ground level, determine the
water surface elevation in the
tank
 𝐻1 = 𝐻2
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0
Subs. into
𝑣1 = 0 above eqn Elevation datum

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝜋 × 0.32
0.2 = × 𝑣2 1.5 m
4
𝑣2 = 2.83 𝑚Τ𝑠

2.832
𝑧1 = + −1.5 + 3.0
2 × 9.81
𝑧1 = 1.91 m
Example: Water Discharge Example:
from a Large Tank Spraying Water
into the Air
 Try yourself
When 0.3 m3/s of water flows through a 175 mm constriction in a
350 mm horizontal pipeline, the pressure at a point in the pipe is
300 kPa, and the head loss between this point and the
constriction is 2 m. Calculate the pressure in the constriction.
 Try yourself
Two reservoirs A and C are connected by a series of pipeline of 150 mm
diameter and 200 mm diameter as shown in figure. Calculate the discharge
to C, given the total energy loss of the system is 1.59𝑣2 2 and the difference in
elevation between the free surface of tank A and C is 15 m.
 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝐶
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐴 2 𝑃𝐶 𝑣𝐶 2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐶 + ℎ𝐿
𝜋𝑑1 2 𝜋𝑑2 2 𝜌 × 𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌 × 𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣1 = 𝑣2
4 4 0 = −15 + 1.59𝑣2 2
𝑑1 2 0 = −15 + 1.59 × 0.563𝑣1 2
2 × 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 5.456 𝑚Τ𝑠 = 𝑣1
𝑑2
0.152 0. 22
2
× 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ×
0.2 0.152 𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑣1
0.563𝑣1 = 𝑣2 𝜋 × 0.152
𝑄1 = × 5.456
4
3
𝑚
𝑄1 = 0.0964 ൗ𝑠
TOPIC 3.2

Hydrodynamics –
Fluid Dynamic

Week 10
References
 Overview
• 3.2 Fluid dynamic
- Bernoulli/ Energy equation, application for free jet, confined flow,
flow measurement (pitot-tube, venturi mete, orifice, notches) concept
of static and dynamic pressure, stagnation point
Learning Outcomes

• Identify flow measurements for open and close channel.(CO1PO1)

• Solve engineering problems related to open or close channel flow measurements.
(CO1PO1, CO2PO2)
Important terms:
Theoretical vs actual
• Theoretical discharge (𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 ) and theoretical velocity
(𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 ) are calculated from a formula. E.g. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣,
𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2𝑔ℎ

• Actual discharge (𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 ) and actual velocity (𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 ) are

measured values. E.g. collecting 10 L of water in a pail
within 10s will give 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 0.001 𝑚3 Τ𝑠
 • Coefficient of discharge: Ratio of actual discharge to
theoretical discharge
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

Hydraulics • Coefficient of velocity: Ratio of actual jet (at vena

contracta) to theoretical velocity
Coefficients 𝐶𝑉 =
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

• Coefficient of contracta: Ratio of the jet area (at vena

contracta) to the area of orifice
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑗𝑒𝑡
𝐶𝐶 = =
𝐴𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
Flow measurement

• Flow measurements are required for many reasons e.g. monitoring fluid systems,
ensure adequacy of water distribution network.
• Some instrument gives direct reading while others measure other parameters which
then converted to flow parameters using formulae or empirical correlation curves.
• Factors in selecting flow measurement instruments:
• Range: Amount of fluid flow
• Accuracy required: Required level of accuracy
• Energy losses: Needs proper factor adjustment
• for correction
• Costs: Normally the deciding factor
Flow
measurement
• Pitot tube
• Venturi meter
• Pipe orifices
• Small orifice
• Large orifice
• Notches & weirs
Pitot tube
• Used to measure velocity.
• Consists of simple L-shaped tube
facing the oncoming flow. Z
• If the velocity of stream at A is 𝑣𝐴 , a
particle moving from A to B will be
brought to rest, so that 𝑣𝐵 is zero.
 Substituting,
𝑣𝐴 2
𝑍+ =ℎ+𝑍
2𝑔
𝑣𝐴 = 2𝑔ℎ

Applying energy equation between A and B gives, Velocity at A, 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦

𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝐵
𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐴 2 𝑃𝐵 𝑣𝐵 2
𝛾
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑍𝐴 =
𝛾
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑍𝐵 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2𝑔ℎ

Where,
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣 × 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝑍𝐴 = 𝑍𝐵 (same elevation)
𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣 × 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝐵 = 0 (stagnant)
𝑃𝐴
=𝑍
𝛾
𝑃𝐵
=ℎ+𝑍
𝛾
Example 1
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are
tapped into a horizontal water
pipe, as shown in Fig. 5–41, to
measure static and stagnation
(static dynamic) pressures. For
the indicated water column
heights, determine the velocity at
the center of the pipe.
Example 2

Figure shows a pitot tube

combined with a mercury
manometer connected to a
pipeline to measure the flow
parameters in the pipe. The
pipeline diameter is 50.8 cm.
Calculate the velocity and
flowrate of water at Point 1.
Considering manometer,
Left limb: Right limb:
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃2 + 9810 × 0.762 𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃1 + 9810 × 0.508 + 133416 × 0.254

𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑋
𝑃2 + 9810 × 0.762 = 𝑃1 + 9810 × 0.508 + 133416 × 0.254
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 31.396 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Point 2 = stagnation point, therefore, 𝑣2 = 0

𝐻1 = 𝐻2
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2
+ =
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣1 2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
=
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣1 2 31.396 × 103
=
2𝑔 9810
𝑣1 = 7.924 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑚 3
𝑄1 = 1.606 ൗ𝑠
Venturimeter
• Consists of a short converging conical tube
leading to a cylindrical portion, called the
throat, of smaller diameter than that of that
pipeline, which is followed by a diverging
section in which the diameter increases
again to that of the main pipeline.
• The pressure difference (to determine the
volume flowrate/velocity) can be determined
by U-tube manometer.
• Obtain pressure difference by applying
Bernoulli’s equation between entry section 1
and the throat section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to 1 & 2:
𝐻1 = 𝐻2
2 2 Pressure difference
𝑃1 𝑣1 𝑃2 𝑣2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
2 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = 2𝑔 + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔
For continuous flow,

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1
𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝐴2
 Pressure difference between 1 and 2, considering pressures are level
XX must be the same in both limbs,
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 − ℎ + 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = −𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑔ℎ

Substituting, ρman = Manometer density

g = Gravitational acceleration
𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑛
−1
𝜌 h = Manometer level
𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 𝑣1 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝐴1 2 − 𝑎2 2
𝑎2 2 ρ = Density
A1 = Pipe cross-sectional area
a2 = Throat cross-sectional area
Example 3

A venturi meter having a throat of 120

mm is fitted horizontally in a pipeline with
a diameter of 250 mm as shown in figure.
Oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows at a rate
of 0.15 m3/s. Tapping at the inlet and the
throat of the venturi meter is connected to
a U-tube manometer with mercury
(specific gravity 13.6) as the manometer
fluid. If the difference in mercury levels is
0.63 m, calculate the coefficient of
discharge for the venturi meter.
 13600
−1
𝑣1 = 2 × 9.81 × 0.63 × 850
0.04912 − 0.01132
0.01132
= 3.22 𝑚Τ𝑠

𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 × 𝐶𝑑

𝜋 × 0.252 0.15
𝐴1 = = 0.0491𝑚2 𝐶𝑑 =
4 0.0491 × 3.22
= 0.95
𝜋 × 0.122
𝑎2 = = 0.0113𝑚2
4
Example 4
A pipe inclined at 450 to the horizontal
converges over a length l of 2 m from a
diameter d1 of 200 mm to a diameter d2 of
100 mm at the upper end. Oil of relative
density 0.9 flows through the pipe at a
mean velocity v1 at the lower end of 2 m/s.
Find the pressure difference across the 2
m length ignoring any loss of energy, and
the difference in level that would be
shown on a mercury manometer
connected across this length. The relative
density of mercury is 13.6 and the leads to
the manometer are filled with the oil.
 Example 5
A venturi meter having a throat of 100 mm is fitted vertically in a pipeline
with a diameter of 250 mm. Oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows at a rate of
0.095 m3/s. Tapings at the inlet and the throat of the venture meter is
connected to a U-tube manometer with mercury as the manometer fluid. If
the difference in mercury levels is 63 cm, calculate the coefficient of
discharge of the venture meter. Vertical distance between the two tapings is
30 cm.
 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 850 × 9.81 = 8338.5 𝑁ൗ 3
𝑚

2 𝛾𝐻𝑔 = 13600 × 9.81 = 133416 𝑁ൗ 3

𝑚
30 cm ℎ2 + 0.63 = ℎ1 + 0.30
h2 ℎ2 + 0.33 = ℎ1
1
h1
63 cm
X X
Flow direction
Considering manometer,
Left limb: Right limb:
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃1 + 8338.5 × ℎ1 𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃2 + 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 133416 × 0.63
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃2 + 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 84052.08

𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑋
𝑃1 + 8338.5 × ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 84052.08
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 84052.08 − 8338.5 × ℎ1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 84052.08 − 8338.5 × ℎ2 + 0.33
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 81.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝜋 × 𝑑1 2 𝜋 × 𝑑2 2
× 𝑣1 = × 𝑣2
4 4
𝑑1 2
2 × 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝑑2
0.252
2
× 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
0.10
6.25 × 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
 𝐻1 = 𝐻2 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑄𝑡ℎ
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 = 𝐶𝑑
𝑄𝑡ℎ
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
= + 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 0.095
𝛾 2𝑔 = 𝐶𝑑
0.108
81.3 × 103 6.25 × 𝑣1 2 − 𝑣1 2 0.88 = 𝐶𝑑
= + 0.3
8338.5 2 × 9.81
𝑣1 = 2.207 𝑚Τ𝑠
3
(Qtheory) 𝑄1 = 0.108 𝑚 ൗ𝑠
 Pipe orifices
• A similar effect with venturi meter can
be achieved by inserting an orifice
plate which has an opening in it
smaller than the internal diameter of
the pipeline.

• The orifice plate produces constriction of the flow at A2.

• The flow immediately downstream of the plate will be same as the orifice.
• Cheaper than venturi meter but there are substantial energy loss.
• vtheory : same as venturimeter
• Qactual: ~ two-third of this value.
• Introduce Cd: typical value for sharp edged orifice – 0.65
 Small orifices

• Orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the side or

base of a tank or reservoir, through which fluid is
discharged in the form of a jet, usually into the
atmosphere.
• The volume flow rate depends on the head of the fluid
above the level of an orifice.
• Small orifice: has diameter or vertical dimension smaller compared to the head producing
flow. Hence assumed that the head does not vary much from point to point across the
orifice.
• Referring to the figure, at point A on the free surface, the pressure PA is atmospheric and if
the tank is large, vA is negligible.
• At point B in the jet, just outside of the orifice, PB again will be atmospheric but velocity vB
is equal to v (jet velocity).
Taking datum at the centre of orifice and applying
Bernoulli’s equation to A and B and assuming no
loss of energy,

𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝐵 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝑃𝐴 𝑣𝐴 2 𝑃𝐵 𝑣𝐵 2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where,

𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 =𝐻
𝑣𝐴 =0
𝑣𝐵 =𝑣
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵

∴ 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2𝑔𝐻

Hence,
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑡ℎ × 𝑣𝑡ℎ
= 2𝑔𝐻
Actual velocity (velocity of jet) will be less Comparing,
than vtheory because of energy loss
between A and B.
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑑 =
Actual velocity at B = 𝐶𝑉 × 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 × 𝐶𝑣 𝐴𝑗
= 𝐶𝑉 2𝑔𝐻 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
𝑣𝑗
𝐶𝑣 =
The jet area B is less than the area of the 𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
orifice A at C and the pressure at C is
greater than the atmospheric pressure.
The section through is called as vena
contracta.
𝐶𝑑 = Coefficient of discharge
Actual area at B = 𝐶𝑐 × 𝐴 𝐶𝑐 = Coefficient of contraction
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴 × 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔𝐻 𝐶𝑣 = Coefficient of velocity
= 𝐶𝑐 × 𝐶𝑣 𝐴 2𝑔𝐻
• The theory of small orifice can be
extended to calculate the times
required to empty a tank.

2𝐴 𝐻1 0.5 − 𝐻2 0.5
𝑇=
𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔
 Example 5
A sharp-edged orifice 4 cm in diameter,
at the base of the storage tank
discharges water under the head of 6 m
as shown in figure. If Cv = 0.97 and Cc =
0.62, determine:
a. The diameter of the jet at the vena
contracta
b. Velocity of the jet at the vena
contracta
c. Discharge in m3/s.
 𝜋 × 0.042 𝜋𝑑𝑗 2
𝑎𝑂 = 𝑎𝑗 =
4 4
𝑎𝑂 = 1.257 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 × 1.257 × 10−3
𝑑𝑗 =
𝑎𝑗 𝜋
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑎𝑂 𝑑𝑗 = 0.0315𝑚

Therefore,
𝑣𝑗 = 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉 2𝑔ℎ
𝑎𝑗 = 𝐶𝐶 × 𝑎𝑂 𝑣𝑗 = 0.97 × 2 × 9.81 × 6
𝑎𝑗 = 1.257 × 10−3 × 0.62 𝑣𝑗 = 10.52 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑎𝑗 = 7.8 × 10−4 𝑚2

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉 × 𝐶𝐶 × 𝑎 × 2𝑔ℎ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.97 × 0.62 × 1.257 × 10−3 × 2 × 9.81 × 6
𝑚 3
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.0082 ൗ𝑠
 Example 6
Water discharges from an orifice
under a head of h = 1.2 m as shown
in Fig. Determine the coefficient of
velocity Cv, if the jet falls vertically to
a distance of y = 0.5 m and
horizontally to a distance of x = 1.5
m from the vena contracta.
Rewriting 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 and 𝑦 = 1ൗ2 𝑔𝑡 2
𝑥 2𝑦
𝑣= , 𝑡=
𝑡 𝑔

Substituting to velocity jet,

𝑔𝑥 2 9.81 × 1. 52
𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = = = 4.70 𝑚Τ𝑠
2𝑦 2 × 0.5

𝑣𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2 × 9.81 × 1.2 = 4.852 𝑚Τ𝑠

4.7
𝐶𝑉 = = 0.968
4.852
 EXAMPLE 7
A vertical circular tank of diameter 1.25 m is fitted with a sharp
edged orifice at its base. The orifice has a diameter of 50 mm.
when the flow of water into the tank was stopped, the time taken
to lower the head from 2 m to 0.75 m was 240 seconds. Estimate
the flow rate through the orifice under a steady head of 2.0 m.
𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋 × 0.6252 = 1.227 𝑚2
𝑎𝑜 = 𝜋 × 0.0252 = 1.963 × 10−3 𝑚2

2𝐴 𝐻1 0.5 − 𝐻2 0.5
𝑇=
𝐶𝑑 𝑎 2𝑔
2 × 1.227 × 20.5 − 0.750.5
240 =
𝐶𝑑 × 1.963 × 10−3 × 2 × 9.81

𝐶𝑑 = 0.645
𝑣𝑡ℎ = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝑡ℎ = 2 × 9.81 × 2 = 6.264 𝑚Τ𝑠

𝑄𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑜 𝑣𝑡ℎ
𝑚 3
𝑄𝑡ℎ = 1.963 × 10−3 × 6.264 = 0.0123 ൗ𝑠

𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑄𝑡ℎ
−3 𝑚 3
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 0.645 × 0.0123 = 7.931 × 10 ൗ𝑠
 Large orifices
• If the vertical height of an orifice is
larger, that the head producing flow is
substantially less at the top of the
opening than at the bottom, formulas
used for small orifices are no longer
applicable. Consider water leaving through
• Method used: integrate from top to the strip,
bottom of the opening to get Qtheory, 𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ
hence, Qactual if Cd is known. 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑣𝑑𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵𝑑ℎ

Integrating,

𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2ൗ3 𝐵 2𝑔 𝐻21.5 − 𝐻11.5

Example 8
Water flows from a storage
tank through a rectangular
orifice 2 m high and 1.2 m
wide as shown in Fig.
Calculate the discharge
when the free surface in the 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 × 2ൗ3 𝐵 2𝑔 𝐻21.5 − 𝐻11.5
tank is 0.5 m above the
opening. Assume Cd = 0.64. = 0.64 × 2ൗ3 × 1.2 × 2 × 9.81 2. 51.5 1.5
2 − 1. 51
3
= 8.16 𝑚 ൗ𝑠
 Sharp crested weir (notches)

• A notch is an opening in the side

of a measuring tank or reservoir
extending above the free surface.
• A weir is a notch in a large scale.
• Same method applied for large
orifice.
Area of strip = 𝑏𝛿ℎ
Velocity through strip = 2𝑔ℎ
Discharge through strip,𝛿𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑏𝛿ℎ × 2𝑔ℎ
𝐻
1ൗ
𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 2𝑔 න 𝑏ℎ 2 𝑑ℎ

0
For rectangular notch, Vee notch, 𝑏 = 2 𝐻 − ℎ tan 𝜃ൗ2
𝐻
b = constant = B 1
𝐻 𝑄= 2𝑔 tan 𝜃ൗ2 න 𝐻 − ℎ ℎ ൗ2 𝑑ℎ
1ൗ 0
𝑄 = 𝐵 2𝑔 න ℎ 2 𝑑ℎ
2 3ൗ 2 5ൗ
0 𝑄 = 2 2𝑔 tan 𝜃ൗ2 𝐻ℎ 2 − ℎ 2
3 5
2 3
𝑄 = 𝐵 2𝑔𝐻 ൗ2 8
3 𝑄= 𝜃 5ൗ
2𝑔 tan ൗ2 𝐻 2
15
 Example 8
The discharge over a rectangular notch is 0.15 m3/s when water level is
25 cm above the sill. Taking Cd = 0.6, calculate the width of the notch.

2 3
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐵 2𝑔𝐻 ൗ2
3
2 3ൗ
0.15 = 0.6 × 𝐵 2 × 9.81 × 0.25 2
3
𝐵 = 0.677𝑚
 Example 9
A 900 triangular notch is used to measure flow rate in the
laboratory flume. Calculate the flow rate of the flume if the water
level above the notch is 150 mm. Assume Cd = 0.63.

8 𝜃 5ൗ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan ൗ2 𝐻 2
15
8 90° 5ൗ
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.63 × × 2 × 9.81 × tan ൗ2 × 0.15 2
15
3
𝑚
= 0.013 ൗ𝑠
 Try yourself
Figure shows an irrigation system to a paddy field and to a palm
oil plantation. Water flows from drainage 1 and then divides into 2
branches (drainage 2 and 3), which leads to the two plantation
areas. The required flowrates for the palm oil plantation and
paddy field are 3.384 m3/s and 2.281 m3/s respectively. The
rectangular notches have similar head, H values, but with
different widths. Propose the Cd values for drainage 2 and 3.
𝑄1𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄2𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 + 𝑄3𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙

𝑚 3
𝑄1𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 3.384 + 2.281 = 5.665 ൗ𝑠
𝑄1𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 5.665 𝑚 3
𝑄1𝑡ℎ = = = 7.655 ൗ𝑠
𝐶𝑑1 0.74
𝑄1𝑡ℎ = 𝑄2𝑡ℎ + 𝑄3𝑡ℎ
2 3ൗ 2 3ൗ
7.655 = × 𝐵2 × 2𝑔 × 𝐻2 2 + × 𝐵3 × 2𝑔 × 𝐻3 2
3 3
But 𝐻2 = 𝐻3 = 𝐻
2 3ൗ 2 3ൗ
7.655 = × 0.5 × 2𝑔 × 𝐻 + × 0.3 × 2𝑔 × 𝐻 2
2
3 3
𝐻 = 2.19 𝑚
 2 3ൗ 𝑚 3
𝑄2𝑡ℎ = × 0.5 × 2𝑔 × 2.19 2 = 4.85 ൗ𝑠
3
𝑄2𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 3.384
𝐶𝑑2 = = = 0.707
𝑄2𝑡ℎ 4.85

2 3ൗ 𝑚 3
𝑄3𝑡ℎ = × 0.3 × 2𝑔 × 2.19 = 2.871 ൗ𝑠
2
3
𝑄3𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 2.281
𝐶𝑑3 = = = 0.794
𝑄3𝑡ℎ 2.871
End of Topic 3.2-Fluid dynamic
- Bernoulli/ Energy equation