Dement Short Questions

Past Papers.
1.

Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming) looked at the relationship

between dream content and eye movements.

a) Describe the dream content of one participant. [2]

P 1: standing at bottom of cliff operating hoist and looking at climbers

P 2: climbing ladders, looking up and down
P 3: throwing basketballs at net
P 4: two people throwing tomatoes at each other
P 5: driving a car then speeding car from left

b) What did Dement and Kleitman conclude about the relationship between
dream content and eye movements? [2]

• 4 main patterns: mainly vertical, mainly horizontal, vertical and horizontal, little/no
movement
• dream content linked to eye movements in sleep

2. The study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming) used a self-report
method.

a)Outline how the self-report method was used in this study. [2]

Woke participants and asked them to recall various aspects (spoken into a recording
device near the bed), use of door
bell, guess if 5 or 15 minutes
NB marks are for how, not what was asked (although this could be elaboration) and
not what was found.

b) Describe one problem with self-report data in this study. [2]

Most likely: not accurate, subjective. Ps may respond to demand characteristics /

may give socially desirable responses;
may just make up a dream!
e.g.: The Ps could have just lied (1 mark)
The Ps could have lied about their dream (2 marks)
1 mark partial (disadvantage identified), 2 marks full (disadvantage related to study,
however briefly).

3. The study by Dement and Kleitman looked at several different relationships

between eye movements and dreaming. Describe two of the relationships that
were investigated. [4]
• whether eye movements were related to REM dreaming
• whether length of eye movement phase was related to length of dream
• whether specific eye movements (vertical/horizontal) were related to dream
content
• whether dreaming only occurs in REM sleep and not in nREM sleep.

4. From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming):

a) Describe two features of the sample. [2]

Most likely:
• 9 adults
• 7 males, 2 females
• volunteers 1 mark partial (e.g. ‘9 participants who were males and females’)

b) Explain one observation of this sample. (2)

Most likely:
* small sample - (may have been unusual) so may not be able to generalize (from it) =
2
* gender inequity - more men, may not be representative of women’s dreaming (as
men and women may experience different dream content).

5. From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming):

a) Describe how eye movements were recorded. [2]

2 or more electrodes attached near the eyes to record corneo-retinal (electrical)

potential (as the eyes moved) [wires attached to top of head allow free movement)
[wires to EEG in adjacent room) No marks for description of results/what data is.

b) Describe how the brain waves were recorded. [2]

2 or 3 electrodes attached to scalp [wires attached to top of head to allow free

movement] [wires to EEG in adjacent room] EEG run continuously (throughout sleep
period) paper speed of 3 or 6mm/sec.

6. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming) collected data
about dream duration and used an electroencephalograph (EEG)
a) Describe the data for dream-duration estimates after 5 minutes and 15
minutes of REM. [2]

5 minutes 15 minutes

right wrong right wrong

45 6 47 13
 1 mark partial (some data), 2 full marks (all data as above - no descriptions)

b) Explain one advantage of using an EEG in this part of the study. [2]

Able to measure REM sleep duration accurately, ensuring that comparisons to

dream duration estimates were valid.

7. The study by Dement and Kleitman looked at different aspects of sleep and
dreaming.

a) Describe one of the aims of the study. [2]

Any one from:

• to see if REM sleep is associated with dreaming;
• to see if dream length could be accurately estimated; (and narration);
• to see if eye movement matches dream content.

b) What were the results in relation to this aim? [2]

All results supported the aim.

AIM 1 AIM 2 AIM 3

REM Sleep - Dream Recall: 5 Minutes - Correct Estimation: Findings suggest eyes move as
152/191 45/51 if the participant was seeing
what they were dreaming
REM Sleep - No Recall: 39/191 5 Minutes - False Estimation: about.
6/51

nREM Sleep - Dream Recall: 15 Minutes: Correct Estimation: Based on 35 awakenings. Eye
11/160 47/60 movements of subjects related
to dream content.
nREM Sleep - No Recall: 149/160 15 Minutes False Estimation:
13/60

8. From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming), outline two
ways in which observations of the participants were made. [4]

Observations of eye movements: 2 or more electrodes attached near the eyes to

record corneoretinal (electrical) potential (as the eyes moved) [wires attached to top
of head to allow free movement] [wires to EEG in adjacent room]

Observations of brain waves: 2 or 3 electrodes attached to scalp [wires attached to

top of head to allow free movement] [wires to EEG in adjacent room] EEG run
continuously (throughout sleep period) paper speed of 3 or 6 mm/sec.
9. From the study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming: a) Outline
two controls in this study. [2]

Most likely:
all eat normally but no alcohol or caffeine (= 1 control); all have electrodes attached to
head; all woken by doorbell next to bed; all used recording device next to bed.

b) Give two reasons why it is important for studies such as Dement and
Kleitman to use controls. [2]

Most likely:
• to maintain consistency between participants so raise reliability • to ensure that
they are measuring the intended variable(s) not extraneous ones, so raising validity.

10. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming) an

electroencephalograph (EEG) was used to detect eye movements and brain
waves.

a) Describe the EEG patterns associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
[2]

(EEG for brainwaves) low voltage (amplitude), fast (high frequency) (EEG as EOG for
eye movements) REMS: 0.1–0.2; irregular; bursts 1–2 to 50–100+; vertical/horizontal eye
movements; vertical always at a minimum unless dreaming about up and down
things; little or much movement.

b) What advantage did being able to detect this association reliably give
Dement and Kleitman? [2]

They could identify dreaming when there was little eye movement so they did not
‘miss’ dreams/underestimate the occurrence of dreaming,

11. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming), participants
were awoken by a loud doorbell.

a) Describe what the participants were then expected to do. [2]

state dreaming or not; relate dream content; into recorder; say 5 or 15 minutes.
b) Explain why it was important that the doorbell was loud. [2]
“To ensure immediate awakening in all levels of sleep” So that they were no more
likely to recall dreams (if they occurred) in one stage than another (if they were more
likely to forget them if woken slowly).

12. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming), the
occurrence of rapid eye movement (REM) periods was measured.

a) Describe what Dement and Kleitman discovered about the occurrence of

REM periods during the night. [2]

Never during initial onset of sleep Fairly regular intervals throughout the night
Frequency constant for each individual Frequency varied between individuals (every
70–104 minutes, average 92 minutes) Eyes not constantly in motion during REM
periods Length varied (3–50 minutes, mean 20 minutes) REM periods longer later in
the night.

b) Dement and Kleitman collected data from nights during which the sleepers
had been woken. To what extent did they believe these findings were therefore
generalizable? [2]

It was generalisible, because the results were similar to studies of uninterrupted

sleep. Because it is a physiological process and same in everyone 1 mark partial
(simple statement ‘it was’) 2 marks full (statement with justification e.g. in relation to
earlier studies or own findings (which resembled earlier findings)

13. From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming):

a) Explain why Dement and Kleitman believed that there would be a

relationship between dreaming and rapid eye movements before conducting
their study. [2]

Such a relationship was reported by Aserinsky and Kleitman who observed periods
of rapid, conjugate eye movements during sleep and found a high incidence of
dream recall in participants awakened during these periods and a low incidence
when awakened at other times. The occurrence of these characteristic eye
movement and their relation to dreaming were confirmed in both normal
participants and schizophrenics.

b) What two types of evidence helped Dement and Kleitman to conclude that
there was a relationship between dreaming and rapid eye movements? [2]
dream content (qualitative) EEGs (quantitative) REMs (EOG) (quantitative).

14. Prior to their study of sleep and dreaming, Dement and Kleitman gave
instructions to their participants which acted as controls. State four of these
controls. [4]

Arrive just before normal bedtime (accept at the time); eat normally; no alcohol; no
caffeine (containing drinks – accept coffee).

15. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleeping and dreaming) they say that
dreaming can be measured objectively and that this has useful applications.

a) Use an example to describe what is meant by ‘an objective measure.’ [2]

A way to score a variable that is not affected by/is independent of personal viewpoint
e.g. EEG/EOG to identify when participant is dreaming.

b) Suggest two useful applications of the objective measurement of dreaming,

either ones which Dement and Kleitman suggested or any other useful
application. [2]

To study the effect of: environmental changes; psychological stress; drugs.

16. Dement and Kleitman measured dream duration and the number of words
used in dream narratives.

a) Describe the relationship they were expecting and what they found. [2]

Expecting a (positive) correlation and found one (r values 0.4 to 0.71).

b) Explain the results you have described. [2]

The longer you spend in REM sleep, the longer your dream will be so you will have
more to say about it.

17. From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming):

a) Describe the findings related to average sleep time. [2]

Range 4h20m–7h50m Average 6 hours (and 3 minutes).

 b) To what extent are these findings likely to be typical of the normal sleep
times for these participants? [2]

Typical because the range probably reflects those who normally sleep for longer and
or shorter times. Not typical because the lab conditions probably made them sleep
less Not drinking alcohol might have made them sleep more/less Not drinking
caffeine might have made them sleep more Being woken up meant that they had
less opportunity to sleep.

18. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming), participants
were asked to describe their dreams.

a) Outline two dreams from participants who had a mixture of horizontal and
vertical eye movements. [2]

“In the 21 awakenings after a mixture of movements subjects were always looking at
things close to them, objects or people. Typical reports were of talking to a group of
people, looking for something, fighting with someone, and so forth.”

b) Describe how these eye movements were explained. [2]

As the participants were looking at things nearby (i.e. not in the distance) and the
dream included things moving up and down and side-to-side. (no recall of distant
activity).

19. In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming) an

electroencephalograph (EEG) was used.

a) Describe what researchers are able to learn about sleep from an EEG. [2]

The stage of sleep a person is in, so that it can be seen when they are dreaming/how
long they are dreaming for, from their brain waves. Accept: to detect eye
movements (used as EOG in study but called EEG).

b) The EEG electrodes were gathered into a single cord at the top of the
participant’s head. Explain why this was done. [2]

It allowed the participant free movement, so that they would sleep more normally, to
increase ecological validity.
20. In the study by Dement and Kleitman, each participant was woken after
different lengths of REM sleep.
 a) Describe the experimental design used in this part of the study. [2]

Repeated measures; all participants were woken after both 5 and 15 minutes; 1 mark
partial either design named or brief description 2 marks full (design named and brief
description – does not need to be contextualized) NB All participants did both
conditions is not sufficient – it is in the question NB All participants did the same
thing is not an explanation of the design (it’s controls)

b) Describe one advantage of using this experimental design in this part of the
study. [2]

Participants may have differed in duration-guessing ability; which would produce

spurious differences between conditions in an independent groups design.

21. Describe two variables that were controlled in the study by Dement and
Kleitman (sleep and dreaming). [4]

Arrive just before normal bedtime; likely to have an equally good / normal night’s
sleep; as sleep better if not too tired / trying to go to sleep ‘early’; eat normally; likely
to have an equally good / normal night’s sleep; if not hungry; no alcohol; it affects
sleep/dreams; so better if all participants are alcohol free; no caffeine (containing
drinks); caffeine reduces need for sleep; so better if all participants are caffeine free.

(a) Describe what is meant by a ‘case study’. [2]

Only one individual (or one ‘instance’ e.g. family, company); studied in depth using a
variety of methods to collect data’ / ‘to study complex relationships’.

(b) Explain one advantage of investigating sleep and dreaming using a case
study. [2]

As sleep is a biological process, it is similar in all people; so it is possible to generalize

from one case (to an extent); can gain detailed information on complex interactions
such as dreams and past experience; allowing the two to be related.

23. The study by Dement and Kleitman involved the reporting of dreams.

(a) Why were some reports not counted? [2]

Most likely:
• Reports of dreams were only counted if the participant gave a coherent and fairly
detailed description of the dream.
• Reports of dreaming were not counted if the participant could not recall the
content or the description of the content was too vague..

(b) Why were the participants never informed on awakening whether or not
their eyes had been moving? [2]

If this had been done, the participants may have reported a false dream or no dream
because of demand characteristics..

24. From the study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming:

(a) Suggest two ways in which the study was true to real life.

Most likely, participant:

• reports to lab at normal bed time
• is in a bed
• goes to sleep
• goes through normal cycles of sleep
• consumes no alcohol

(b) Suggest two ways in which the study was not true to real life.

Most likely, participant:

• consumes no alcohol or caffeine
• is not in their own bed or bedroom
• has electrodes attached to their head
• is woken up by a bell and reports dream into tape recorder

25. What two generalizations can be made about the cycle of sleep from the
study by Dement and Kleitman?

Most likely:
• sleep consists of periods of REM and N-REM
• on average there will be 3-4 periods of REM each sleep period
• most people begin with N-REM sleep and progress through stages before the first
period of REM

26. Outline two features in the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and
dreaming) that lacked ecological validity. [4]

Any two from:

Wires attached to the head, woken frequently in the night, not allowed to consume
caffeine and alcohol, sleeping in an unfamiliar bed, in a lab setting, etc.

27. The study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming involved
gathering both qualitative and quantitative data.

(a) Give an example of the qualitative data that was gathered. [2]

Most likely: participants report: • dream narrative or content e.g. length of dream
description e.g. watching people throw tomatoes.

(b) Give an example of the quantitative data that was gathered. [2]

• EEG recording as to whether participant is in REM or NREM sleep (number of

occasions in which report having a dream)
• whether eye movements are mainly vertical, mainly horizontal, both or very little
movement • they are dreaming or not dreaming: yes or no gives nominal data
• estimated length of dream e.g. 5 minutes of 15 minutes 1 mark partial explanation.

28. In the study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and dreaming, physiological
processes were considered. Outline two problems when studying physiological
processes in this study. [4]

Any two from: it is difficult to find a valid measurement, inferring connection with
psychological processes, problems with equipment, interference due to
measurement, ethical problems with equipment used, etc.

29. From the study by Dement and Kleitman:

a) Describe how the study could support nature. [2]

-sleep/dreaming
-physiological/biological process
-universal
-REM and NREM part of natural sleep cycle
-REM was seen in all participants – REM sleep, ability to dream is nature
-Dream recall was higher during REM cycle

b) Describe how the study could support nurture. [2]

-Uncomfortable sleeping in laboratory environment could have affected sleeping

-environment affects sleep
-lifestyle choices and environment can affect sleep
-caffeine, alcohol, drugs, stress etc. can influence dreams
-dream content

Essay Q’s

1. Use one of the studies listed below to discuss the biological approach. [8]
Dement and Kleitman

- Useful – Dement provides objective measure - studying relationship between

REM and dreaming, can now apply results with other environmental
changes/stress/medication etc.
- Uses scientific equipment – EEG – valid and reliable.

2. Use one of the studies listed below to discuss the benefits of gathering
quantitative data. [8]
Dement and Kleitman

- Able to collect objective data e.g. using quantitative measures such as EEG
and timing, which are reliable
- Able to use statistical procedures, which is not possible on qualitative data,
leading to generalizations e.g. about typical patterns of such as being able to
accurately estimate dream duration.

3. Evaluate one of the studies listed below in terms of its ecological validity. [8]
Dement and Kleitman

- Participants reported at their usual bedtime – so consistent with everyday life,

slept in quiet and dark room -they used a bell to wake them up – this is also
normal as we wake up with alarm clocks -had free range of head movement
- However, -lab environment with EEG -Unusual to be woken up and asked to
describe dreams – low mundane realism -no ‘bedtime instructions’ in real life
– can consume alcohol or caffeine if desired.

4. Evaluate Dement and Kleitman in terms of its situational explanations of

behaviour. [8]

Situational: -REM or NREM- when we woke the participants up – varied - Laboratory

experiment – required to sleep in lab, could have induced demand characteristics -
woken up after 5 or 15 minutes and asked how much time it had been -
remembering dream was better within 8 minutes of REM.
5. Evaluate one of the studies listed below in terms of its strengths and
weaknesses. [8]
Dement and Kleitman

Strengths:
- Scientific device = reliable and valid measure of REM and dreaming - -
- Quantitative and qualitative data = insight into when REMs and dreams are
occurring, and if eye movements match dream content
- Ethical Strengths, most guidelines followed (Consent, Right to Withdraw [4
withdrew], Confidentiality [Initials were used], Participant protection.)

Weaknesses:
- Low ecological validity = not generalizable because omitted caffeine and
alcohol, small sample.
- Minor deception, participant ‘WD’ was misled about what stage of sleep he
was in when woken, therefore deception occurred.
- Participants' sleep patterns may be altered after study.

6. Discuss the extent to which Dement and Kleitman has useful applications. [8]

Useful:
- can attach EEG to people and find out if they have a sleep disorder based
around REM.
- can compare their wave patterns with typical and atypical patterns.
- objective measure of dreams
- valid and reliable
- scientific
- can be applied to other situations – stress, drugs, and environmental changes

Non-Useful:
- Lacks generalizability
- did not include alcohol or caffeine which are common
- small sample is limited
- Lacks ecological validity – controlled lab environment .